Professional Documents
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INTRODUCTION
Today concrete is undoubtedly the most widely used construction material. On one hand it is very well
known material while at other hand not well understood by Engineers except by those who are directly
or indirectly involved in various concrete works. The advisory is targeted to all answers for basic
questions usually emerged in minds of Civil Engineers when concrete works are to be executed or
monitored its objective is to help in making “better” and “good” concrete to the strength required for
the assigned work for the required specifications
Concrete is obtained by mixing Cement, Fine Aggregate, Coarse Aggregate & Water. Concrete is
probably the most complex of all construction material.
1. Workability
2. Strength
A. Cement
B. Water Cement Ratio
C. Grading of concrete
D. Maximum size of aggregate
E. Mixing
F. Compaction (Formwork & Stripping time)
G. Curing
H. Use of Admixture
1. WORKABILITY
Fresh concrete or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which can be moulded into any
shape. The relative quantities of cement, aggregates and water mixed together, control the
properties of concrete in the wet state as well as in the hardened state.
Water/cement ratio imparts a vital role in manufacturing, handling and strength of concrete. The
water/cement ratio required from the point of view of workability of concrete.
Workability is one of the most important characteristics of concrete, specially under the
following circumstances:
(a) If the concrete is to be placed around closely placed reinforcement, deep beams, thin sections
etc.
(b) Where special means of placement are required such as tremie, chute or pumping methods.
(c ) If the concrete is harsh because of poor aggregate characteristics or grading.
(d ) For making high strength concrete when w/c ratio is very low.
Measurement of Workability
Compacting Factor
The compacting factor test is designed primarily for use in the laboratory but it can also
be used in the field. It is more precise and sensitive than the slump test and is particularly useful
for concrete mixes of very low workability as are normally used when concrete is to be
compacted by vibration.
Compacting factor
Degree of
Slump (mm) Small Large
workability Use for which concrete is suitable
apparatus apparatus
Strength of concrete is its resistance to rupture. It may be measured in a number of ways, such as, strength in
compression, in tension, in shear or in flexure. All these indicate strength with reference to a particular method
of testing.
For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the strength that may be developed by workable, properly
placed mixture of cement, aggregate and water (under the same mixing, curing and testing conditions) is
influenced by:
The strength of paste increases with cement content and decreases with airand water content.
S = A
Bx
Where, x =water/cement ratio by volume and for 28 days results the constants A and B are 14,000 lbs/sq. in.
and 7 respectively.
Note: The bond stress may be increased by 25 percent for bars in compression.
1. The larger maximum size aggregate gives lower surface area for developments of gel bonds
which is responsible for the lower strength of the concrete.
2. Bigger aggregate size causes a more heterogeneity in the concrete which will prevent the
uniform distribution of load when stressed.
3. Bigger aggregate size causes a more heterogeneity in the concrete which will prevent the
uniform distribution of load when stressed.
Relation Between Compressive and Tensile Strength
1. In reinforced concrete construction the strength of the concrete in compression is only taken into
consideration. The tensile strength of concrete is generally not taken into consideration.
2. The flexural strength of concrete was found to be 8 to 11 per cent of the compressive stength of the concrete
for higher ranges of concrete strength (greater than 25 MPa) and 9 to 12.8 per cent for lower ranges of
concrete strength (less than 25 MPa)
The Indian Standard IS = 456 of 2000 gives the following relationship between
thecompressive strength and flexural strength
A. CEMENT
Finely ground powders and all have the important property that when mixed with water a
chemical reaction (Hydration) takes place. Hydration produces a very hard and strong binding
medium for the aggregate particles. The cement to be used in a particular concrete or mortar will
be selected on the basis of the particular properties required.
ASTM Classification
Before we discuss the above cements, for general information, it is necessary to see how
Portland cement are classified under the ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials)
standards. As per ASTM, cement is designated as Type I, Type II, Type III, Type IV, Type V and
other minor types like Type IS, Type IP and Type IA IIA and IIIA.
Type I
For use in general concrete construction where the special properties specified for Types
II, III, IV and V are not required (Ordinary Portland Cement).
Type II
For use in general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulphate action, or where moderate
heat of hydration is required.
Type III
For use when high early strength is required (Rapid Hardening Cement).
Type IV
For use when low heat of hydration is required (Low Heat Cement).
Type V
For use when high sulphate resistance is required (Sulphate Resisting Cement). ASTM standard
also have cement of the type IS. This consist of an intimate and uniform blend of Portland
Cement of type I and fine granulated slag. The slag content is between 25 and 70 per cent of the
weight of Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cement.
Type IP
This consist of an intimate and uniform blend of Portland Cement (or Portland Blast Furnace
Slag Cement) and fine pozzolana in which the pozzolana content is between 15 and 40 per cent
of the weight of the total cement.
Testing of Cement
Field Testing
It is sufficient to subject the cement to field tests when it is used for minor works. The following
are the field tests:
(a) Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should not be any visible lumps. The
colour of the cement should normally be greenish grey.
(b) Thrust your hand into the cement bag. It must give you a cool feeling. There should not be
any lump inside.
(c) Take a pinch of cement and feel-between the fingers. It should give a smooth and not a gritty
feeling.
(d) Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the particles should float for
some time before they sink.
(e) Take about 100 grams of cement and a small quantity of water and make a stiff paste. From
the stiff paste, pat a cake with sharp edges. Put it on a glass plate and slowly take it under water
in a bucket. See that the shape of the cake is not disturbed while taking it down to the bottom of
the bucket. After 24 hours the cake should retain its original shape and at the same time it should
also set and attain some strength.
If a sample of cement satisfies the above field tests it may be concluded that the cement is not
bad. The above tests do not really indicate that the cement is really good for important works.
For using cement in important and major works it is incumbent on the part of the user to test the
cement in the laboratory to confirm the requirements of the Indian Standard specifications with
respect to its physical and chemical properties. No doubt, such confirmations will have been
done at the factory laboratory before the production comes out from the factory. But the cement
may go bad during transportation and storage prior to its use in works.
TYPE OF
SITUATUIONS PURPOSES
CEMENT
Low Heat Cement This type cement is This type of cement is 1. 1. Mass Construction
produced by lowereing used in mass (Dams, Marine
the amount of tri- constructions (like dams) constructions)
calcium aluminate and in high wear 2. Hydraulic Engineering
(C3A) & di-calcium resistance required area Concrete
silicate (C2S) 3. Retaining wall
construction
1. Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids,
alkalis, salts, sugar organic material or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or
steel.
2. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing concrete. As a guide the following
concentrations represent the maximum permissible values:
e) Water found satisfactory for mixing is also suitable for curing concrete. However, water
used for curing should not produce any objectionable stain or unsightly deposit on the
concrete surface. The presence of tannic acid or iron compounds is objectionable.
f) Algae in mixing water may cause a marked reduction in strength of concrete either by
combining with cement to reduce the bond or by causing large amount of air entrainment in
concrete. Algae which are present on the surface of the aggregate have the same effect as in
that of mixing water. (Reference. M. S. Shetty)
C. GRADING OF CONCRETE
Concrete Characteristic Compressive
Group Mix Proportion
Grade Strength (N/mm2)
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 N/mm2
1 : 1 : 2 (Considered only
M25 for 25 N/mm2
piles foundation)
M30 Design Mix 30 N/mm2
Note:
1. Concrete grades are denoted by M10, M20, M30 according to their compressive strength.
2. The “M” denotes Mix design of concrete followed by the compressive strength number in
N/mm2“Mix” is the respective ingredient proportions which are Cement: Sand: Aggregate Or
Cement: Fine Aggregate: Coarse Aggregate.
Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. They give body to the concrete, reduce
shrinkage and effect economy. Earlier, aggregates were considered as chemically inert materials but
now it has been recognised that some of the aggregates are chemically active and also that certain
aggregates exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregate and paste. The mere fact that the
aggregates occupy70–80 per cent of the volume of concrete, their impact on various characteristics and
properties of concrete is undoubtedly considerable.
SIZE OF AGGREGATE:
1. The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should be as large as possible within the limits
specified but in no case greater than one-fourth of the minimum thickness of the member,
provided that the concrete can be placed without difficulty so as to surround all reinforcement
thoroughly and fill the comers of the form.
2. For most work, 20 mm aggregate is suitable. Where there is no restriction to the flow of
concrete into sections, 40 mm or larger size may be permitted.
4. For heavily reinforced concrete members as in the case of ribs of main beams, the nominal
maximum size of the aggregate should usually be restrictedto 5mm less thantheminimum clear
distance between themain bars or 5mm less than theminimum cover to the reinforcement
whichever is. smaller.
SHAPE OF AGGREGATE:
TEXTURE:
1. Surface texture is the property, the measure of which depends upon the relative degree to which
particle surfaces are polished or dull, smooth or rough. Surface texture depends upon hardness,
grain size, pore structure, structure of the rock, and the degree to which forces acting on the
particle surface have smoothed or roughened it. Hard, dense, fine-grained materials will
generally have smooth fracture surfaces.
2. The modulus of elasticity is primarily influenced bythe elastic properties of the aggregate and
to a lesserextent by the conditions of curing and age of theconcrete, the mix proportions and the
type of cement. The modulus of elasticity is normally related to the compressive strength of
concrete.
E. MIXING
Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete. The mixing
should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in colour and consistency.
(i ) Hand Mixing:Hand mixing is practised for small scale unimportant concrete works. As the
mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is desirable to add 10 per cent more cement to cater
for the inferior concrete produced by this method.
(ii)Machine Mixing: Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for
reinforced concrete work and for medium or large scale mass concrete work. Machine mixing
is not onlyefficient, but also economical, when the quantity of concrete to be produced is large.
Many types of mixers are available for mixing concrete. They can be classified as Batch-Mixers and
Continuous Mixers.
1. Batch Mixers: It produces concrete batch by batch with time interval, whereas
2. Continuous Mixers: It produces concrete continuously without stoppage till such time the
plant is working.
Mixing Time: Concrete mixers are generally designed to run at a speed of 15 to 20 revolutions per
minute. For proper mixing, it is seen that about 25 to 30 revolutions are required in a well designed
mixer. In the site, the normal tendency is to speed up the outturn of concrete by reducing the mixing
time. This results in poor quality of concrete. On the otherhand, if the concrete is mixed for a
comparatively longer time, it is uneconomical from the point of view of rate of production of concrete
and fuel consumption. Therefore, it is of importance to mix the concrete for such a duration which will
accrue optimum benefit.
Transporting Concrete
Concrete can be transported by a variety of methods and equipments. The precautionto be taken while
transporting concrete is that the homogeneity obtained at the time of mixingshould be maintained
while being transported to the final place of deposition. The methodsadopted for transportation of
concrete are:
Underwater Concreting
Concrete is often required to be placed underwater or in a trench filled with thebentonite slurry. In such
cases, use of bottom dump bucket or tremie pipe is made use of. Inthe bottom dump bucket concrete
is taken through the water in a water-tight box or bucketand on reaching the final place of deposition
the bottom is made to open by some mechanismand the whole concrete is dumped slowly. This method
will not give a satisfactory result ascertain amount of washing away of cement is bound to occur.
Compaction of concrete
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from theconcrete. In the
process of mixing, transporting and placing of concrete air is likely to getentrapped in the concrete.
The lower the workability, higher is the amount of air entrapped.In other words, stiff concrete mix has
high percentage of entrapped air and, therefore , wouldneed higher compacting efforts than high
workable mixes.
F. FORMWORK
The formwork shall be designed and constructed so as to remain sufficiently rigid during
pacing and compaction of concrete and shall be such as to prevent loss of slurry from the
concrete.
1. Tolerances
The tolerances on the shapes, lines and dimensions shown in the drawing shall be within
the limit given below,
These tolerances apply to concrete dimensions only, and not to positioning of vertical
reinforcing steel or dowels.
3. Stripping Time
Forms shall not be released until the concrete has achieved strength of at least twice the stress
to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of formwork. The strength
referred to shall be that of concrete using the same cement and aggregates and admixture, if
any, with the same proportions and cured under conditions of temperature and moisture similar
to those existing on the work.
While the above criteria of strength shall be the guiding factor for removal of formwork, in
normal circumstances where ambient temperature does not fall below 15o C and where ordinary
Portland cement issued and adequate curing is done, following striking period may deem to
satisfy the guideline given in point 2.
4. The number of props left under, their size sand disposition shall be such as to be able to safely
carry the full dead load of the slab, beam or arch as the case may be together with any live load
likely to occur during curing or further construction.
5. Where the shape of the element is such that the formwork has re-entrant angles, the formwork
shall be removed as soon as possible after the concrete has set, to avoid shrinkage cracking
occurring due to the restraint imposed.
G. COMPACTION OF CONCRETE
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from the concrete. In
the process of mixing, transporting and placing of concrete air is likely to get entrapped in the
concrete. The lower the workability, higher is the amount of air entrapped. In other words, stiff
concrete mix has high percentage of entrapped air and, therefore , would need higher compacting
efforts than high workable mixes.
If this air is not removed fully, the concrete loses strength considerably.
It must be borne in mind that 100 per cent compaction is important not only from the point of view of
strength, but also from the point of durability. In recent time, durability becomes more
important than strength.
1. Care shall be taken that the vibrating head does not come into contact with hard objectslike
hardened concrete, steel and wood, as otherwise the impact may damage the bearings.
2. Vibrators conforming to the requirements of IS 2505-1963 (i.e., Specification for concrete
vibrators, immersion type) shall be used.
3. For best results, the concrete to be vibrated shall be of the stiffest possible consistency,
generally within a range of 0.75 to 0.85 compacting factor.
1. To be fully effective, the active part of the vibrator shall be completely immersed in the
concrete. Its compacting action can be usually assisted by maintaining a head of concrete
above the active part of the vibrator, the primary object of which is to press down upon and
confine the concrete in the zone of influence of the vibrator.
2. The vibrator head shall be dipped through the filling which is to be consolidated to a further
depth of 10 to 20 cm in the lower layer which has already been consolidated so that there is a
good combination of various layers and the grout in the lower layer is distributed in the new
filling.
1. The points of insertion of the vibrator in the concrete shall be so spaced that the range of action
overlap to some extent and the freshly filled concrete is sufficiently compacted everywhere.
2. With concrete of workability of 0.78 to 0.85 compacting factor, the vibrator shall generally be
operated at points 35 to 90 cm apart.
1. The vibrating head shall be regularly and uniformly inserted in the concrete so that itpenetrates
of its own accord and shall be withdrawn quite slowly whilst still running so as toallow
redistribution of concrete in its wake and allow the concrete to flow back into the hole
behind the vibrator.
2. The rate of withdrawal is determined by the rate at which the compaction in the active zone is
completed.
3. Usually a speed of 3 cm/s gives sufficient consolidation without undue strain on the operator.
Duration of Vibration
1. New filling shall be vibrated while the concrete is plastic, preferably within one hour.
Theduration of vibration in each position of insertion is dependent upon the height of the layer,
the size and characteristics of the vibrator and the workability of the concrete mix.
2. It is better to insert the vibrating head at a number of places than to leave it for a long time in
one place, as in the latter case, there is a tendency for formation of mortar pocket at the point of
insertion of the vibrator.
1. The reinforcement should be designed to leave sufficient space for the vibratinghead.
2. Where possible, the reinforcement may be grouped so that the width of groups of bars does
not exceed 25 cm and a space of 7.5 cm exists between the groups of bars to allow the
vibrator to pass freely; the space between the bars in any group may be reduced to two-
thirds of the nominal size of coarse aggregate.
1. For obtaining a smooth close textured external surface, the concrete should have a
sufficient content of matrix.
2. The vibrator head shall not be brought very near the formwork as this may cause formation
of water whirls (stagnations), especially if the concrete containing too little of fine
aggregate.
3. The most suitable distance of the vibrator from the formwork is 10 to 20 cm.
H. CURING
Curing Of Concrete
1. Curing is the process of preventing the loss of moisture from the concrete whilst maintaining
a satisfactory temperature regime. The prevention of moisture loss from the concrete is
particularly important if the water cement ratio IS low, if the cement has a high rate of
strength development, if the concrete contains granulated blast furnace slag or pulverised fuel
ash. Thee curing regime should also prevent the. Development of high temperature gradients
within the concrete.
2. The rate of strength development at early ages of concrete made with super-sulphated cement
is significantly reduced at lower temperatures. Super-sulphated cement concrete is seriously
affected by inadequate curing and the surface has to be kept moist for at least 7 days for
normal condition and 10 days for dry and hot weather condition.
Curing Methods
Precautions
a) The curing tank shall be cleaned and the water renewed periodically so as to prevent
accumulation of detritus which may impairthe heating or circulating system,
b) The use of boiling water imposes the need for safety measures toprevent scalding or eye-burns.
resulting from sudden escape ofsteam, upon opening the cover. Also care shall be exercised
whenimmersing the specimens to avoid splashing of hot water.
c) Strict attention shall be given to the protection and storage of thespecimens during the initial
period of curing.
d) Suitable safety devices and indicators shall be provided with theset up. A separate panel or
switch-board shall be providedincorporating the thermograph and related heating equipment
controls.
I. USE OF ADMIXTURE
Admixture is defined as a material, other than cement, water and aggregates, that is used as an
ingredient of concrete and is added to the batch immediately before or during mixing. Additive is a
material which is added at the time of grinding cement clinker at the cement factory.
Types of Admixtures:
1. Plasticizers
2. Superplasticizers
3. Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers
4. Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizers
5. Air-entraining Admixtures
6. Pozzolanic or Mineral Admixtures
7. Damp-proofing and Waterproofing Admixtures
8. Gas forming Admixtures
9. Air-detraining Admixtures
10. Alkali-aggregate Expansion Inhibiting Admixtures
11. Workability Admixtures
12. Grouting Admixtures
13. Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures
14. Bonding Admixtures
15. Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures
16. Colouring Admixtures
a) Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars conforming to IS 432 (Part I).
b) High strength deformed steel bars conforming to IS 1786.
c) Hard-drawn steel wire fabric conforming to IS 1566.
d) Structural steel conforming to Grade A of IS 2062.
1. The modulus of elasticity of steel shall be taken as 200 kN/mm 2. The characteristic yield
strength of different steel shall be assumed as the minimum yield stress/0.2 percent proof
stress specified in the relevant Indian Standard.
2. Reinforcing steel of same type and grade shall be used as main reinforcement in a
structural member. However. Simultaneous use of two different types or grades of
steel for main and secondary reinforcement respectively is permissible.
Nominal Cover to
Reinforcement:
1. BEAMS
A. Tension reinforcement:
1. Minimum reinforcement: The minimum areaoftension reinforcementshall be not less than
thatgiven by the following:
Where,
As = minimum area of tension reinforcement,
b = breadth of beamor the breadthof the webof 'f-beam.
d = effective depth, and
fy= characteristic strengthof reinforcement inN/mm2
B. Compression reinforcement:
2. SLAB
A. Minimum reinforcement:
B. Maximum diameter of reinforcement: Shall not exceed one eight of the total slab thickness.
Deflection Control:
The vertical deflection limits may. Generally be assumed to be satisfied provided that the span to
depth ratios is not greater than the values obtained as below:
Cantilever - 7
Simply Supported - 20
Continuous - 26
1. For spans above 10 m, the values in (a) may be multiplied by 10/span in metres, except for
cantilever in which case deflection calculations should be made.
2. Depending on the area and the stress of steel for tension reinforcement, the values in (a) or (b)
shall be modified by multiplying with the modification factor obtained as per Fig. given below
4. For slabs spanning in two directions, the shorter of the two spans should be used for calculating
the span to effective depth ratios.
5. For two-wav slabs of shorter spans (up to 3 m) with mild steel reinforcement, the span to
overall depth ratios given below may generally be assumed 10 satisfy vertical deflection limits
for loading class up to 3 kN/m2
Note: For HYSD of grade Fe415, the values given above should be multiplied by 0.8.
3. COLUMN
1. Longitudinal reinforcement:
Across section of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.8 % nor more than 6 % of
the gross cross- sectional is of the column.
The minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a column shall be 4 in rectangular
columns and 6 in circular columns.
The bars shall not be less than 12 mm in diameter.
A reinforced concrete column having helical reinforcement shall have at least 6 bars of
longitudinal reinforcement within the helical reinforcement.
In case of pedestal in which the longitudinal reinforcement is not taken in account in
strength calculations, nominal longitudinal reinforcement not less. Than 0.15 percent of
the cross-sectional area' shall be provided.
Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of the column shall not
exceed 300mm.
2. Transverse reinforcement:
Pitch-The pitch of transverse reinforcement shall be not more than the least of the
following distances:
Diameter-The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall be not less than 1/4 of the
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar and in no case less than 16mm.
Helical reinforcement:
Pitch-
1. The pitch of helical turns shall be not more than 75mm, nor more than 1/6 of the core
diameter of the column.
2. The pitch of helical turns shall be not less than:
a. 25mm,
b. 3 times the diameter of the steel bar forming the helix.
Diameter-The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall be not less than 1/4 of the
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar and in no case less than 16mm.
4. FOOTING
Square footing:
1. Uniformly distributed across the full width of the footing in each direction.
Rectangular footing:
1. Distributed across the full width of the footing in the long direction.
2. A central band equal to the width of the footing is marked along the length of the
footing and portion of the reinforcement determined in accordance with the
equation given below shall be uniformly distributed across the central band.
Where, = ratio of the long side to the short side of the footing. The
remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in
the outer portions of the footing.
Nominal reinforcement:
1. The nominal reinforcement for concrete sections of thickness greater than 1 m shall be
360 mm2 per metre length in each direction on each face.
2. Minimum reinforcement and spacing shall be as per the requirements of solid slab.
5. WALLS
Reinforcement:
1. The minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement to gross concrete area shall be:
a. 0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than 16 mm in diameter and with a characteristic
strength of 415 N/mm2 or greater.
b. 0.001 5 for other types of bars.
c. 0.001 2 for welded wire fabric not larger than 16 mm in diameter.
2. Vertical reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than three times the wall thickness
nor 450mm.
3. The minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement to gross concrete area shalt be:
a. 0.002 for deformed bars not larger than 16mm in diameter and with a characteristic strength
of 415 N/mm2 or greater.
b. 0.0025 for other types of bars.
c. 0.002 for welded wire fabric not larger than 16rnm in diameter.
4. Horizontal reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than three times the wall
thickness nor 450 mm.
Thickness of Wall:
1. For walls having thickness more than 200 mm, the vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall
be provided in two grids, one near each face of the wall.
2. Minimum thickness of wall should not be less than 100mm(Ref. SP: 34- 1987, clause 11.2.1)
1. Development length:
Bends - The anchorage value of a standard bend shall be taken as 4 times the diameter of the
bar for each 45’ bend subject to a maximum of I6 times the diameter of the bar.
Hooks - The anchorage value of a standard U-type hook shall be equal to 16 times the diameter
of the bar.
The anchorage values of standard hooks and bends for different bar diameters are given below
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