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Introduction to process control

Temp.
indicator
Hot water

Water
Heater

Steam

Cool water

Figure (1) Open loop system

Figure (2) Manual Control system

Figure (3) Automatic Control system (Closed Loop)

Process Control /Lec. 1 1 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Control System Objectives
o Economic Incentive
o Safety
o Equipment Protection
o Reduce variability
o Increase efficiency
o Ensure the stability of a process
o Elimination of routine
Definitions:
U U

System: It is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain


objective.

Plant: It is the machine of which a particular quantity or condition is to be controlled.

Process: Is defined as the changing or refining of raw materials that pass through or
remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry state to create end products.

Control: In process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process.
Precise control of level, pH, oxygen, foam, nutrient, temperature, pressure and flow is
important in many process applications.
Sensor: A measuring instrument, the most common measurements are of flow (F),
temperature (T), pressure (P), level (L), pH and composition (A, for analyzer). The
sensor will detect the value of the measured variable as a function of time.
Set point: The value at which the controlled parameter is to be maintained.

Controller: A device which receives a measurement of the process variable,


compares with a set point representing the desired control point, and adjusts its output
to minimize the error between the measurement and the set point.

Error Signal: The signal resulting from the difference between the set point
reference signal and the process variable feedback signal in a controller.

Feedback Control: A type of control whereby the controller receives a feedback


signal representing the condition of the controlled process variable, compares it to the
set point, and adjusts the controller output accordingly.

Steady-State: The condition when all process properties are constant with time,
transient responses having died out.

Process Control /Lec. 1 2 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Transmitter: A device that converts a process measurement (pressure, flow, level,
temperature, etc.) into an electrical or pneumatic signal suitable for use by an
indicating or control system.

Controlled variable: Process output which is to be maintained at a desired value by


adjustment of a process input.

Manipulated variable: Process input which is adjusted to maintain the controlled


output at set point.

Disturbance: A process input (other than the manipulated parameter) which affects
the controlled parameter.

Process Time Constant( τ ): Amount of time counted from the moment the variable
starts to respond that it takes the process variable to reach 63.2% of its total change.

Block diagram: It is relationship between the input and the output of the system. It is
easier to visualize the control system in terms of a block diagram.

X(s) Transfer function Y(s)


Input G(s) Output

Block diagram

Transfer Function: it is the ratio of the Laplace transform of output (response


function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving force) under assumption that
all initial conditions are zero unless that given another value.

e.g. the transfer function of the above block diagram is G (s) = Y(s)/X(s)

Closed-loop control system: It is a feedback control system which the output signals
has a direct effect upon the control action.

Heater
(Heating)
Temperature

Final control element

Transmitter
(Thermocouple)

Process Control /Lec. 1 3 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Advantage: more accurate than the open-loop control system.
Disadvantages: (1) Complex and expensive
(2) The stability is the major problem in closed-loop control system

Open-loop control system: It is a control system in which the output has no effect
upon the control action. (The output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison
with the input).

(Timer) Motor

Advantages:
(1) Simple construction and ease of maintenance.
(2) Less expensive than closed-loop control system.
(3) There is no stability problem.

Disadvantages:
(1) Disturbance and change in calibration cause errors; and output may be
different from what is desired.
(2) To maintain the required quality in the output, recalibration is necessary
from time to time

Note: any control system which operates on a time basis is open-loop control system,
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e.g. washing machine, traffic light …etc.

Process Control /Lec. 1 4 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Laplace Transforms

2.1 Introduction
Laplace transform techniques provide powerful tools in numerous fields of
technology such as Control Theory where knowledge of the system transfer function
is essential and where the Laplace transform comes into its own.

Definition
The Laplace transform of an expression f (t ) is denoted by L{ f (t )} and is defined as

the semi-infinite integral: L{ f (t )} = ∫ f (t )e
− st
dt .
t =0

The parameter s is assumed to be positive and large enough to ensure that the integral
converge. In more advanced applications s may be complex and in such cases the real
part of s must be positive and large enough to ensure convergence.

In determining the transform of an expression, you will appreciate that the limits of
the integral are substituted for t, so that the result will be an expression in s.

Therefore: L{ f (t )} = ∫ f (t )e
− st
dt = F ( s )
t =0

2.2 Simple Transforms


Example: Find the Laplace transform of f (t ) = 1
∞ ∞
 e − st  e − s∞ e − s 0
Solution: L{1} = ∫1e dt = −   = −(
− st 0 1 1
− ) = −( − ) =
0  s 0 s s s s s

Example: Find the Laplace transform of f (t ) = a , where a is a constant.


∞ ∞
 − e − st  − e − s∞ e − s 0
Solution: L{a} = ∫ ae dt =a  − st 0 1 a
 = a ( + ) = a( + ) =
0  s 0 s s s s s

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = t



Solution: L {t} = ∫0 te dt
− st

Use integration by parts with


∞ ∞

∫ u ⋅ dv =u ⋅ v
0
0
− ∫ v ⋅ du
0

u = t ⇒ du = dt
− st − e − st
dv = e dt ⇒ v =
s

Process Control /Lec. 2 5 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
 1 
L[t ] = ∫ te −st dt = − t ⋅ e −st − ∫  − e −st dt = t ⋅ e −st + ∫ e −st dt
1 1 1
0 
0
s 0 s s 0 s0

1 1  e − st 1 1
= (0 − 0) + − e − st  = 2 = 2 (1 − 0) = 2
s s 0 s s s

⇒ L{t} =
1
s2

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = t 2


Solution: L t = ∫0 t e dt
2 2 − st
{} ∞

use integration by parts with


∞ ∞

∫ u ⋅ dv =u ⋅ v
0
0
− ∫ v ⋅ du
0

u = t 2 ⇒ du = 2tdt
e − st
dv = e − st dt ⇒ v =
−s

t 2 e − st  ∞ 2te − st  ∞ 2te − st
L t { }= ∫
2

t e dt =
2 − st

−s
− − ∫ dt  = ∫ dt
0
0  0 s  0 s
∞ ∞

∫ u ⋅ dv =u ⋅ v
0
0
− ∫ v ⋅ du
0

u = 2t ⇒ du = 2dt
e − st − e − st
dv = dt ⇒ v = s
s s
∞ ∞
2te − st − 2te − st  ∞ 2e − st  − st
− 2e − st
{}
L t =∫ 2

dt =
s2
− − ∫ 2
dt  = 2
∞e
∫0 s 2 dt =
s3
=−
2
(0 − 1) = 23
 0 s 
3
0 s 0 0
s s

⇒ L t2 {} 2
= 3
s

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = e at , where a is a constant.


Solution:
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
 e −t ( s − a ) 
{ }= ∫ e
Le at at
e dt = ∫ e
− st at − st
dt = ∫ e −t ( s − a )
dt =   =−
1
[
e −t ( s − a ) ]

=−
1
{0 − 1}
 − ( s − a)  0 ( s − a) ( s − a)
0
0 0 0

⇒ Le =
at
{ } 1
( s − a)
Similarity
{ }
L e − at =
1
( s + a)

Process Control /Lec. 2 6 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = sin(at )
Solution:
∞ ∞ ∞
eiat − e − iat − st
L{sin( at )} = ∫ sin( at )e
1 ( ia + s ) t
− st
=∫ e dt = ∫ e (ia − s )t − e − dt
0 0
2i 2i 0
 1 (ia − s )t ∞ − 1 − (ia + s )t  1  0 − 1 0 − 1  1  1

 1 
= e − e =  + =  −
 ia − s
 0 ia + s 
0  2i  ia − s ia + s  2i  s − ia s + ia 

1  ( s + ia ) − ( s − ia )  1  2ia  a
=   =  2 2
= 2
2i  ( s − ia )( s + ia )  2i  s + a  s + a 2

L{sin( at )} =
a
s + a2
2

Also
L{cos(at )} =
s
s + a2
2

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of f (t ) = sinh(at )


e at − e − at
Solution: sinh(at ) =
2
e − e  1
− at
1  ( s + a) − ( s − a) 
{
1 1 1 
}
at
L{sinh( at )} = L  − at
= L e −e = 
at
− =  
 2  2 2 s −a s + a 2  ( s − a )( s + a ) 
1 2a  a
=  2 2 
= 2
2  ( s − as + as + a )  s − a 2

L{sinh( at )} =
a
s − a2
2

Also
L{cosh(at )} =
s
s − a2
2

In practice we do not usually need to integrate to find Laplace transforms, instead we


use a table, which allow us to read off most of the transforms we need.
Function Transform Valid for …
f (t ) F (s )
1
1 s>0
s
a
a s>0
s
1
t s>0
s2
n! n = positive
tn
s n+1 integer
a
sin at
s + a2
2

Process Control /Lec. 2 7 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
s
cos at
s + a2
2

a
sinh at
s − a2
2

s
cosh at
s − a2
2

1
e − at
s+a
1
te − at
( s + a) 2
n!
t n e − at
( s + a ) n +1
w
e − at sin wt
( s + a) 2 + w 2
s+a
e − at cos wt
( s + a) 2 + w 2

2.3 Rules of Laplace transform


The Laplace transform is a linear transform by which is meant that:
1. The transform of a sum (or difference) of expressions is the sum (or difference) of
the individual transforms. That is
L{ f (t ) ± g (t )} = L{ f (t )} ± L{g (t )} .

2. The transform of an expression that is multiplied by a constant is the constant


multiplied by the transform of the expression. That is
L{kf (t )} = kL{ f (t )} .

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 2e −t + t .


1 2 s 2 + (s + 1) 2s 2 + s + 1
Solution: L{2e −t + t} = 2 L{e −t }+ L{t} =
2
+ 2 = 2 = 3 2
s +1 s s (s + 1) (
s +s )
Example: Determine the Laplace transform of 3t 3 + sin t .
Solution: L{3t 3 + sin t} = 3L{t 3 }+ L{sin t} = 3 ×
3! 1 18 1
3+1
+ 2 2 = 4+ 2
s s +1 s s +1
18( s + 1) + 1( s ) 18( s + 1) + s
2 4 2 4
18s + 18 + s
2 4
= = =
(
s s +1
4 2
) s s +1
4 2
( ) s4 s2 +1 ( )
2.4 Theorems of Laplace transform
There are three important and useful theorems that enable us to deal with rather more
complicated expressions.

Theorem 1: The first shift theorem


The first shift theorem states that if L{ f (t )} = F ( s) then L{e − at f (t )} = F ( s + a)
U

Process Control /Lec. 2 8 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
∞ ∞
{ } ∫e
L e −at f (t ) = − at
f (t )e − st dt = ∫ f (t )e
−( s + a ) t
dt = F ( s + a)
t =0 t =0

We know that L{e − at f (t )} = F ( s + a) and we know that L{ f (t )} = F ( s) therefore the


transform L{e − at f (t )} is thus the same as L{ f (t )} with s everywhere in the result
replaced by ( s + a) .

Example: find L{e −3t sin 2t}.


Solution: We know that L{e − at } = and L{sin 2t} = 2
1 2
We have a = 3 , therefore
s+a s +4
{
L e − 3t sin 2t =
2
} = 2
2
= 2
2
( s + 3) + 4 s + 3s + 3s + 9 + 4 s + 6 s + 13
2

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of e 3t (t 2 + 4) .


Solution: We know that L{t 2 + 4} = { }
2 4 1
+ also that L e 3t
= Therefore
s3 s s −3
2 + 4(s − 3) 2 + 4(s − 3)(s − 3)
{ }
2
2 4
L e (t + 4) =
3t 2
+ = =
(s − 3) (s − 3)
3
(s − 3)3
(s − 3)3
.
=
( =
)
2 + 4 s 2 − 6s + 9 2 + 4s 2 − 24s + 36 4 s 2 − 24 s + 38
=
(s − 3)3 (s − 3)3 (s − 3)3

Theorem 2: Multiplying by t and tn


U UP

If L{ f (t )} = F ( s) then L{tf (t )} = − F ′( s)
∞ ∞ ∞
 de − st 
L{tf (t )} = ∫ tf (t )e − st dt =
d
t =0

t =0
f (t ) −
 ds
dt = −
 ds ∫
t =0
f (t )e − st dt = − F ′( s ).

In general if L{ f (t )} = F ( s) , then L{t n f (t )} = (−1) n


dn
{F ( s)}
ds n

Example: find L{t sin 2t}.


d  2 
Solution: From L{tf (t )} = − F ′( s) therefore L{t sin 2t} = −  .
ds  s 2 + 4 
d  2 
NB: To find   use quotient rule for differentiation:
ds  s 2 + 4 
 2  a da db
z = 2 , z = , a = 2 , b = s + 4 ,
2
=0, = 2s
s +4 b ds ds
da db
dz
b −a
= ds 2 ds =
(
s 2 + 4 (0 ) − (2 )(2 s )
=
)
− 4s
ds b s +4
2 2
( s +4
2 2
) ( )
d  2 
L{t sin 2t} = −
4s
 2 = 2
ds  s + 4  s + 4 2 ( )
Example: Determine the Laplace transform of t 2 sin t ,

Process Control /Lec. 2 9 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Solution: We know that L{sin t} =
1
, therefore we can work out from
s +1
2

{ }
L t n f (t ) = (−1) n
dn
{F ( s)} that
ds n
{ } d2
ds
d2 d2  1 
L t 2 f (t ) = (−1) 2 2 {F ( s )} = 2 {F ( s )} = 2  2 
ds ds  s + 1 
Find the first derivative:
1 a da db
z= , z = , a = 1, b = s 2 + 1, = 0, = 2s
s +1 2
b ds ds
da db
dz
b −a
= ds 2 ds =
(
s 2 + 1 (0 ) − (1)(2 s )
=
− 2s)
ds b s +1
2 2
(
s2 +1
2
) ( )
Differentiate again.
− 2s
z=
a
= 2
2
( ) (
, a = −2s, b = s 2 + 1 = s 2 + 1 s 2 + 1 = s 4 + 2s 2 + 2, )( )
b s +1 2
( )
da db
= −2 , = 4 s 3 + 4 s,
ds ds

(( )) (
da db
dz
=
b
ds
−a 2
( 3
)
ds = s + 1 (− 2) − (− 2s ) 4s + 4s = − 2 s + 1 + 8s + 8s
2 2 2 4 2
( ) )
ds b2 s2 +1
2 2
(( ))
2
s2 +1 s2 +1
2
( )( )
=
( ) (
− 2 s 4 + 2 s 2 + 2 + 8s 4 + 8s 2 ) = (− 2s 4
) (
− 4 s 2 − 4 + 8s 4 + 8s 2 ) = (6s + 4s − 4)
4 2

(s 2
)(
2
+1 s2 +1 )2
(s 2
)( 2
+1 s2 +1 )
2
(s + 1) (s + 1)
2 2 2 2

Therefore
{ d2  1 
L t sin t = 2  2
2
}=
6s 4 + 4s 2 − 4
.
( )
ds  s + 1  s 2 + 1 2 s 2 + 1 2 ( )( )
Theorem 3: Convolution Theorem:
U U

If L{ f (t) } = F(s) and L{ g(t) } = G(s) then the convolution of f (t) and g(t)
is denoted by (f * g)(t), is defined by
t
( f ∗ g )(=
t) ∫ f (τ ) g ( t − τ ) dτ
0

And the Laplace transform of the convolution of two functions is the product of the
separate Laplace transforms:
L { ( f ∗ g )( t ) } =
F (s) G (s)
An equivalent identity is
L −1 { F=
(s) G (s) } L −1 { F ( s ) } ∗ L −1 { G ( s ) }

Example: Find t 2 ∗ 2t
Solution:
t
 τ3 τ4 
( )
t t
2t 4 t 4 t 4
t ∗ 2t = ∫ τ 2(t − τ )dτ = ∫
2 2
2tτ − 2τ dτ =  2t − 2  =
2 3
− =
0 0  3 4 0 3 2 6

Process Control /Lec. 2 10 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: Find et ∗ t
Solution:

∫ (τe )dτ = e (− τe − e )
t t
t −τ
e ∗ t = ∫ e (τ )dτ = e
t t −τ t −τ τ − t

0
0 0

[( ) ]
= et − te − t − e − t − (0 − 1) = −et e − t (t + 1) + et = −t − 1 + et = et − t − 1

Example: find Laplace transform of et cos(t ) by convolution theorem


=f (t ) e=
t
g (t ) co s(t )
=
L{ f * g} L=
{ f (t )}L{g (t )} L{et }L{cos(t )}
 1  s  s
=  2 2 
 s − 1   s + 1  ( s − 1)( s + 1)
2

2.5 Special Laplace Transform Functions


U

1- Step function
0 t<0 A
f (t ) = 
A t≥0
.
A
f ( s) = 0 Time
s
If A=1 the change is called unit step change
0 t<0
f (t ) = 
1 t≥0
1
f ( s) =
s

Step function with Time Delay


U

0 t<a
f (t ) = 
A t≥a
A
A
f ( s ) = e − as
s
0 a Time
2. Pulse function
0 t<0

f (t ) =  A 0≤ t ≤ a
A
0 t≥a

A A − as
f (s) = − e 0 a Time
s s
A
= (1 − e − as )
s

Process Control /Lec. 2 11 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
a ∞ a

L{ f (t )} = ∫ Ae − st + ∫ 0e − st = −
At − st A A
e = − (e − sa − e − s 0 ) = (1 − e − sa )
0 a
s 0 s s
if A=1unit Pulse (Impulse)

3. Impulse function
0 t<0 A Area=1

f (t ) =  A 0 ≤ t ≤ δt
0 t ≥ δt
 Unit Impulse Time
f ( s ) = area = A × δt

This function is represented by δ(t). The unit impulse function is a special case of the
pulse function with zero width (tw →0) and unit pulse area (so a = 1/tw). Taking the
limit:
L{δ (t )} = lim
1 1
[1 − e − st w ] = lim [−e − st w ] = 1
t w →0 t s t w →0 s
w

4. Ramp function
0 t<0
f (t ) =  Slope=A
 At t≥0
f(t)
A
f (s) = 2
s Time
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
A − 1 − st
L{At} = ∫ Ate − st = −
At − st A At
e + ∫ e − st dt = − e − st + e
0
s 0 s s 0 s s 0

−A A A
= (∞e − ∞ − 0e − 0 ) − 2 (e − ∞ − e − 0 ) = 2
s s s

Ramp function with time delay


0 t<a
f (t ) =  Slope=A
 At t ≥ a
A f(t)
f ( s ) = 2 e − as
s
a Time

5. Sine function A _______T_______

-A
Process Control /Lec. 2 12 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
0 t<a
f (t ) = 
 A sin wt t≥a

f ( s) = 2
s +ω2
ω = 2πf
1
T=
f

Example: Find the Laplace transform for

Solution:
1. At t=0 the function looks like the very basic unit step function. But unit function
knows only about 0 and 1, here we have f(t)=2. That means we have to use 2u(t).
2. Then in time t=2 its value changes from 2 to −1 (i.e. 3 down at t=2) which means
we have to add −3u(t−2).
3. Finally the value at t=3 jumps 1 higher, which brings member u(t−3).

f(t)=2u(t)−3u(t−2)+u(t−3)

So far we collected unit step functions to express function from the graph.
L{ f (t )} = L{2u(t) - 3u(t - 2) + u(t - 3)} = L{2u(t)} - 3L{u(t - 2)} + L{u(t - 3)} =
2 3 - 2s 1 -3s
- e + e
s s s

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of the function


0 t <1
1 1 ≤ t ≤ 3

f (t ) = 3 3 ≤ t ≤ 5
2 5 ≤ t ≤ 6

0 t≥6

Solution:
f (t ) = 0u (t − 0) + 1u (t − 1) + 2u (t − 3) − 1u (t − 5) − 2u (t − 6)
1 2 1 2 1
F ( s ) = e − s + e − 3 s − e − 5 s − e − 6 s = (e − s + 2e − 3 s − e − 5 s − 2e − 6 s )
s s s s s

Process Control /Lec. 2 13 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example:
U

0.5

0 0.5 1.5 2 3 3.5

5
Solution:
f (t ) = −0.5 + 1u (t − 0.5) − 0.5u (t − 1.5) + 0.5u (t − 2) − 1u (t − 3) + 0.5u (t − 3.5)
0.5 1 − 0.5 s 0.5 −1.5 s 0.5 − 2 s 1 − 3 s 0.5 − 3.5 s
f ( s) = − + e − e + e − e + e
s s s s s s

Example: Find F(s) for


0 t<0
t 0 < t <1

f (t ) = 
2 − t 1< t < 2
0 t>2

Solution:
f (t ) = tU (t ) − t (t − 1)U (t − 1) − (t − 1)U (t − 1) + (t − 2)U (t − 2)
= tU (t ) − 2(t − 1)U (t − 1) + (t − 2)U (t − 2)
L[ f (t )] = L[tU (t ) − 2(t − 1)U (t − 1) + (t − 2)U (t − 2)]
= L[tU (t )] − L[2(t − 1)U (t − 1)] + L[(t − 2)U (t − 2)]
1 2 −s 1 −2s
= − e + 2e
s2 s2 s

Example: Determine the Laplace transform of the function

Solution:

f (t ) = 5tu (t ) − 5(t − 1)u (t − 1) − 5(t − 3)u (t − 3) + 5(t − 4)u (t − 4)


5 5 5 5 5
F ( s) = 2 − 2 e − s − 2 e − 3 s + 2 e − 4 s = 2 (1 − e − s − e − 3 s + e − 4 s )
s s s s s

Process Control /Lec. 2 14 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: Find the Laplace transform of f(t) shown in Fig.
U U

2t 0 ≤ t <1
2 1≤ t < 4

− 2t 4≤t <5 2
 Slope=2
f (t ) = 0 5≤t <6
− 2t 6≤t <7
 0 1 4 5 6 7 8
2t 7≤t <8
0 t >8 -2

Solution:
f (t ) = 2tu (t ) − 2(t − 1)u (t − 1) − 2(t − 4)u (t − 4) + 2(t − 5)u (t − 5) − 2(t − 6)u (t − 6)
+ 2 × 2(t − 7)u (t − 7) − 2(t − 8)u (t − 8)
2 2 2 2 2 4 2
f ( s ) = 2 − 2 e −s − 2 e −4 s + 2 e −5 s − 2 e −6 s + 2 e −7 s − 2 e −8 s
s s s s s s s

Example:
U

1
0 1 3 4 5
T

Solution:
f (t ) = tu (t ) − (t − 1)u (t − 1) + 2(t − 3)u (t − 3) − 2(t − 4)u (t − 4) + (t − 5)u (t − 5)
1 1 − s 2 −3s 2 − 4 s 1 −5 s
f (s) = − e + 2e − 2e + 2e
s2 s2 s s s

2.6 Rational Functions Technique: Partial fraction


U

P( s)
Often it is necessary to break down a complicated rational function of the form
Q( s)
(where P(s) and Q(s) are polynomials in s, and the degree of the top polynomial is
less than the degree of the bottom polynomial), into the sum of simpler fractions
called Partial Fractions.

The type of partial fraction that you use depends on the factors of the bottom
polynomial.

We will look at 3 cases:


Case 1: All the factors of the bottom Q(s) are linear and non-repeating.
Case 2: Q(s) has some repeated linear factors.
Case 3: Q(s) has some irreducible quadratic factors.
Process Control /Lec. 2 15 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Examples of case 1:
s 3 + 2s
or
( s + 2)( s − 1) s ( s + 5)( s + 3)
Examples of case 2:
2s + 1 2 s −1 s2 − 1
or or or
( s − 8) 2 s ( s − 3) 2 (s + 1)2 ( s + 2) (s + 3)2 ( s − 1)3
Examples of case 3:
2s + 1 3 4 s 2 + 3s − 1
(
s s2 + 4 ) or
( )
( s − 3) + 1 ( s + 2)
2
or
(
( s − 1) s 2 + 3 ) ((s + 1)
2 2
+9 )
2

Case 1: All the factors of the bottom Q(s) are linear and non-repeating.
U

Case 1: All the bottom factors are linear (i.e. of the form x ± some number) and then
is no repeated factor (i.e. there is no factor which is squared or cubed, etc.) and there
are no irreducible quadratic terms (don’t worry about this!). In this case therefore, we
top polynomial
are talking about rational functions of the form:
( x − a )( x − b)...( x − g )
In this case we can rewrite the rational function as follows:
top polynomial A B G
= + + .... +
( x − a)( x − b)...( x − g ) x − a x − b x−g

Example
1 −1 1
Show that = 4 + 4
( s + 7)( s + 3) s + 7 s + 3
Solution
This is a case 1 partial fraction so we start with
1 A B
= +
( s + 7)( s + 3) s + 7 s + 3
Step1: Remove Fractions
U

Multiply both sides of the equation by the denominator on the left hand side
1 × ( s + 7)( s + 3) A( s + 7)( s + 3) B( s + 7)( s + 3)
= +
( s + 7)( s + 3) s+7 s+3
⇒ 1 = A( s + 3) + B( s + 7)

Step2: Choose s values to find A and B


U

The equation above is true for all values of s. We can choose s values to make things
simple:
Choose s = -3 so that (s+3) = 0 and we have
1
1 = A(0) + B(4) ⇒ 1 = 4 B ⇒ B =
4
Choose s = -7 so that (s+7) = 0 and we have
1
1 = A(−4) + B (0) ⇒ 1 = −4 A ⇒ A = −
4
Step3: Substitute A and B into the original expression
U

Process Control /Lec. 2 16 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
1 −1 1
= 4 + 4
( s + 7)( s + 3) s + 7 s + 3

3s − 1
Example: Write in partial fraction form
( s + 1)( s + 2)
Solution:
3s − 1 A B
write = +
( s + 1)( s + 2) s + 1 s + 2
Multiply both sides by (s+1)(s+2):
3s − 1 A B
( s + 1)( s + 2)= ( s + 1)( s + 2)+ ( s + 1)( s + 2)
( s + 1)( s + 2) s +1 s+2
⇒ 3s − 1 = A( s + 2)+ B( s + 1)
If choose s = -2
⇒ 3(− 2 ) − 1 = A(−2 + 2) + B (−2 + 1) ⇒ −7 = A.0+ B(−1) ⇒ −7 =− B
⇒B=7
If choose s = -1 ⇒ 3(− 1) − 1 = A(−1 + 2)+ B(−1 + 1) ⇒ −4 = A(1)+ B(0) ⇒ −4 = A
⇒ A = −4
3s − 1 −4 7
Therefore = +
( s + 1)( s + 2) s + 1 s + 2

Example
Find the fixed constants A, B, C so that the partial fraction decomposition can be
4s + 3 A B C
completed: = + +
s ( s − 1)( s + 3) s s − 1 s + 3
Solution:
4s + 3 A B C
= + +
s ( s − 1)( s + 3) s s − 1 s + 3
Multiplying both sides of this equation by the left hand side denominator we deduce
that,
4s + 3 A B C
s ( s − 1)( s + 3) =s ( s − 1)( s + 3) + s ( s − 1)( s + 3) + s ( s − 1)( s + 3)
s ( s − 1)( s + 3) s s −1 s+3
⇒ 4s + 3= A( s − 1)( s + 3) + Bs( s + 3)+ Cs ( s − 1)
Now in turn, put , s= 0 , s=1, s = -3. You will find at each stage that 2 of the A, B, C
terms will vanish:
If choose s = 0
4(0) + 3= A(0 − 1)(0 + 3) + B(0) + C (0) ⇒ 3=− 3 A ⇒ A = 1
If choose s = 1
7
4(1) + 3= A(0) + B(1)(1 + 3) + C (0) ⇒ 7 = 4 B ⇒ B =
4
If choose s = -3
−9
4(− 3) + 3= A(0)+ B(0) + C (−3)(−3 − 1) ⇒ −9 = 12C ⇒ B =
12
Therefore :

Process Control /Lec. 2 17 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
4s + 3
=
[− 1]+ [74 ] + [−43 ] = − 1 + 7 − 3
s ( s − 1)( s + 3) s s − 1 s + 3 s 4(s − 1) 4(s + 3)

Case 2: Denominator Q(s) has some repeated linear factors.


Sometimes a linear factor is repeated twice or three times or four times, etc. This
means that we will have an expression like ( s − somenumber ) or ( s − somenumber )
2 3

or ... below the line. When this occurs, you have to be careful as we have to use a
partial fraction for each of the powers. If you want, you can use the following table:
Factor in given Corresponding partial fraction
rational function
top polynomial A
s ± some number s ± some number
top polynomial A B
+
( s ± somenumber ) 2 s ± some number ( s ± some number ) 2
R R

top polynomial A B C
+ +
( s ± some number ) 3 s ± some number ( s ± some number ) 2
( s ± some number )3

Examples of case 2:
4 s 2 + 3s − 2 A B C
= + + , A, B, C = constants
( s − 1) ( s + 3) ( s − 1) s − 1 s + 3
2 2

3s 4 − 7 s 3 + 2 s 2 − 5 A B C D E F
= 3+ 2+ + + + A, B, C , D, E , F = constants
s ( s + 1) ( s + 5) s s s ( s + 1) ( s + 1) ( s + 5)
3 2 2

Example:
8s − 1
Write in terms of partial fractions
( s − 1) 2
Solution:
8s − 1 A B
In this case = +
( s − 1) 2
s − 1 ( s − 1) 2
Step1 we multiply both sides by ( s − 1) 2 to remove fractions
8s − 1 A B
( s − 1) 2 = ( s − 1) 2 + ( s − 1) 2 ⇒ 8s − 1 = A( s − 1) + B
( s − 1) 2
s −1 ( s − 1) 2
Step2: we can choose s = 1 as before so that (s-1) = 0 and we get
8 −1 = B ⇒ B = 7
We cannot choose another s value to directly find A however. There is more than one
approach to finding A but the easiest method is called “equating coefficients”. In this
case, we note that there must be the same “amount of s” on both sides of the equation.
On the left hand side we have 8s and on the right we have As, so that A must be 8.
Step3; write the answer down
8s − 1 8 7
= +
(s − 1) s − 1 ( s − 1)2
2

Process Control /Lec. 2 18 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example
2s + 1
Write in partial fraction form.
(s − 1)( s + 2)2
Solution:
As the linear factor (s+2) repeats (i.e. we have (s+2) and (s+2)2 in the denominator) P P

the required partial fraction is of the form,


2s + 1 A B C
= + +
(s − 1)( s + 2) s − 1 s + 2 (s + 2)2
2

where A, B and C are fixed constants which are to be found.


Step1: multiply both sides by the denominator (s – 1)(s+2)2 P

(s − 1)( s + 2)2 2s + 1 2 = (s − 1)( s + 2)2 A + (s − 1)( s + 2)2 B + (s − 1)( s + 2)2 C 2


(s − 1)( s + 2) s −1 s+2 (s + 2)
⇒ 2 s + 1 = ( s + 2) 2 A + (s − 1)( s + 2) B + (s − 1)C
The latter equation holds for all values of the variable s.
Step2: Choose good s values
Choose s = -2 ⇒ 2(− 2) + 1 = (0) 2 A + (0) B + (− 2 − 1)C ⇒ −3 = −3C ⇒ C = 1
1
Choose s = 1 ⇒ 2(1) + 1 = (1 + 2) 2 A + (0) B + (0)C ⇒ 3 = 9 A ⇒ A =
3
We again have the problem of not being able to choose a good s value to find B. We
again “equate coefficients”. The best strategy is to equate the highest power of s on
both sides, which is s2 . On the left hand side of (1) we have 0 lots of s2. On the right
P P P P

hand side of (1) the ( s + 2) 2 A term will contribute As2 if you multiply it out and the
P P

2
( s − 1)( s + 2) B term will contribute Bs . So we have
P P

1
0 = A+ B ⇒ B = −A = −
3
This method can involve more calculation though. Either way
2s + 1 1 1 1 B 1
= . − . +
(s − 1)(s + 2) 3 s − 1 3 s + 2 (s + 2)2
2

Case 3 Denominator Q(s) has some irreducible quadratic factors.


Irreducible means that the quadratic term in the denominator cannot be factorized
into two brackets.
Examples of case 3:
3s 2 − 2 s − 5 A Bs + C
= + 2 , A, B, C = constants
s ( s 2 + 4) s s +4
s3 − s + 2 A B Cs + D
= + + , A, B, C , D = constants
s ( s − 1)( s + 2) s s − 1 s 2 + 2
2

Example:
5s 2 − 7 s + 8
Write in partial fractions.
(s − 1)( s 2 − 2s + 5)

Process Control /Lec. 2 19 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Solution
The denominator contains an irreducible quadratic term (i.e, it cannot be easily
factored into two linear terms. If it did factor into linear factors then we would be
back to cases 1 or 2.) As it does not in this example we must write:
5s 2 − 7 s + 8 A Bs + C
= + 2
(s − 1)( s − 2s + 5) (s − 1) ( s − 2s + 5)
2

Note: Linear term on bottom means constant A on top. Quadratic term on bottom
means linear term Bs + C on top.
As before to find these constants multiply both sides by the denominator
( s – 1) (s2-2s+5).
P P

5s 2 − 7 s + 8 Bs + C
(s − 1)( s − 2s + 5)
2
=(s − 1)( s 2 − 2s + 5)
A
+ (s − 1)( s 2 − 2s + 5) 2
(s − 1)( s − 2s + 5)
2
(s − 1) ( s − 2s + 5)
Which gives: 5s 2 − 7 s + 8=( s 2 − 2s + 5) A+ (s − 1)(Bs + C )
The latter equation holds for all values of the variable s. So we can choose any
values for s and set up three simultaneous equations for A, B and C.
By putting s = 1 we can get one value easily:
Choose s = 1
3
⇒ 5(1) − 7(1) + 8=(12 − 2(1) + 5) A+ 0(B (1) + C ) ⇒ 6=4 A+ 0 ⇒ A=
2

2
We cannot make any more brackets = 0 by a good choice of s. As for case 2 however,
we can equate coefficients. Start with the highest power s2 first P P

Equate s2 ⇒ 5 = A + B ⇒ B = 5 − A ⇒ B = 5 − 32 = 72
P P

Equate s ⇒ − 7 = −2 A − B + C ⇒ − 7 = −2( 32 ) − 72 + C ⇒ − 7 = − 132 + C


⇒ C = − 12

2.7 Inverse Laplace Transforms


The Laplace transform is an expression in the variable s which denoted by F (s) . It is
said that f (t ) and F ( s) = L{ f (t )} form a transform pair. This means that if F (s) is the
Laplace transform of f (t ) then f (t ) is the inverse Laplace transform of F (s) . We
write as: f (t ) = L−1{F ( s)} or L−1{F ( s)} = f (t )
−1
The operator L is known as the operatorfor inverse Laplace transform. There is no
simple integral definition of the inverse transform so you have to find it by working
backwords.
Here we have the reverse process, i.e. given a Laplace transform, we have to find the
function of t to which it belongs. We use the following table:

Table of inverse transforms


F (s ) f (t )
a
a
s
1
e − at
s+a

Process Control /Lec. 2 20 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
n!
tn
s n +1
1 t n −1
sn (n − 1)!
a
sin at
s2 + a2
s
cos at
s + a2
2

a
sinh at
s2 − a2
s
cosh at
s − a2
2

2.7.1 Two Properties of Laplace Transform Inverse


Both Laplace transform and its inverse are linear transforms, by which is meant that:
i. The transform of a sum (or difference) of expressions is the sum (or difference
of the individual transforms. That is:
L−1 {F ( s ) ± G (t )} = L−1 {F ( s )} ± L−1 {G ( s )}
ii. The transform of an expression that is multiplied by a constant is the constant
multiplied by the transform of the expression. That is:
L−1 {kF ( s )} = kL−1 {F ( s )} where k is constant

Example: find L−1 


1 
?
s − 2
−1  1 
Solution: L−1 
1 
=L  =e .
2t

 s − 2   s + ( −2 ) 

Example: find L−1 


8 
?
 s + 64 
2

Solution: We can write the inverse transform as we know that L−1 


a 
 = sin at .
s + a2 
2

Here we have a = 8 therefore: L−1 


8  −1  8 
=L  2  = sin 8t.
 s + 64 
2
 s + 82 

Example: find L−1 


12 
?
s − 9 2

Solution: L−1  2  = 4 L−1  2  = 4 sinh 3t


12 3
s − 9 s − 9

2
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform for F ( s) = − .
3s − 4
Solution:

Process Control /Lec. 2 21 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
  1 

−1 2  −1  2    2 −1  1  2 4t
L −  = L −   =− L   =− e 3
 3s − 4  
 3  s − 4 3  3 s − 4 
 3
3

3s + 1 
Example: Determine L−1  .
s − s − 6
2

Solution: This certainly did not appear in our list of standard transforms but if we
3s + 1
write as the sum of two simpler functions, i.e.
s −s−6
2

3s + 1 1 2
= + it makes all the difference.
s −s −6 s +2 s −3
2

This is simply the method of writing the more complex algebraic fraction in terms of
its partial fractions which we have previously seen.
We can now proceed to find
 3s + 1  −1  1 2  −2t
L−1  2 =L  +  = e + 2e
3t

s − s − 6  s + 2 s − 3

5s + 1 
Example: Determine L−1  .
 s − s − 12 
2

5s + 1 5s + 1
Solution: Factorise the denominator: = .
s − s − 12 ( s − 4)( s + 3)
2

Remember from partial fractions we have the form:


5s + 1 A B
= + × ( s − 4)( s + 3)
( s − 4)( s + 3) ( s − 4) ( s + 3)
5s + 1 = A( s + 3) + B ( s − 4)
− 14
Choose s = -3 ; 5(− 3) + 1 = 0 A + (−3 − 4) B ⇒ B = =2
−7
5(4 ) + 1 = (4 + 3) A + 0 B ⇒ A =
Choose s = 4 ; 21
=3
7
5s + 1 3 2
This gives us = +
( s − 4)( s + 3) ( s − 4) ( s + 3)
So we now have to find
 5s + 1  −1  3 2  −1  1  −1  1 
L−1  =L  +  = 3L   + 2L  
 ( s − 4)( s + 3)   ( s − 4) ( s + 3)   ( s − 4)   ( s + 3) 
= 3e 4t + 2e −3t

9s − 8 
Example: Determine L−1  .
 s − 2s 
2

9s − 8  −1  9 s − 8 
Solution: Simplify: L−1  2 =L  
 s − 2s   s ( s − 2) 
Remember from partial fractions we have the form:
9s − 8 A B
= + × s ( s − 2)
s ( s − 2) s ( s − 2)
9s − 8 = A( s − 2) + Bs

Process Control /Lec. 2 22 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Let s=0 then A = 0 − 8 = 4
0−2
Let s=2 then B = × 2 − 8 = 5
9
2
9s − 8 4 5
This gives us = +
s ( s − 2) s ( s − 2)
So we now have to find
 9s − 8  −1  4 5  −1  4  −1  1 
L−1  =L  +  = L   + 5L   = 4 + 5e
2t

 s ( s − 2 )   s ( s − 2 )   
s  ( s − 2 ) 

 13s + 11 
Example: Determine L−1  .
 ( s − 1)( s + 3) 
Solution: Remember from partial fractions we have the form:
13s + 11 A B
= + Multiple both sides by ( s − 1)( s + 3)
( s − 1)( s + 3) ( s − 1) ( s + 3)
13s + 11 = ( s + 3) A + ( s − 1) B
Let s=1 then 13 + 11 24
A= = =6
1+ 3 4
Let s=-3 then B = − 3 × 13 + 11 = − 28 = 7
− 3 −1 −4
So we now have to find
 13s + 11  −1  6 7  −1  1  −1  1 
L−1  =L  +  = 6L   + 7L   = 6e + 7e
t −3 t

 ( s − 1)( s + 3)   ( s − 1) ( s + 3)   ( s − 1)   ( s + 3) 

s+4
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of F ( s ) =
( s + 2)( s + 1) 2
s+4 A B C
Solution: Expand F(s) as F ( s ) = = + +
( s + 2)( s + 1) 2
s + 2 ( s + 1) ( s + 1)
2

( s + 4) = ( s + 1) 2 A + ( s + 2) B + ( s + 1)( s + 2)C
Let s=-1 then B = − 1 + 4 = 3 = 3
−1+ 2 1
Let s=-2 then A = − 2 + 42 = 2 = 2
(−2 + 1) 1
1− 7
equate s ⇒ 1 = 2 A + B + 3C ⇒ 1 = 2 × 2 + 3 + 3C ⇒ C = = −2
3
Check by cross-multiplying:
s+4 2 3 2
= + −
( s + 2)( s + 1) 2
( s + 2) ( s + 1) 2
( s + 1)
s+4 2 3 −2
= + +
( s + 1)( s + 3) 2
s + 2 ( s + 1) ( s + 1)
2

s + 4= 2( s + 2 s + 1) + 3( s + 2) − 2( s 2 + 3s + 2)
2

s 2 : 0= 2 − 2
s1 : 1 = 4 + 3 − 6
s0 : 4 = 2 + 6 − 4

Process Control /Lec. 2 23 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
 s+4   2 3 2 
L−1  2
= L−1  + − 
 ( s + 2)( s + 1)   ( s + 2) ( s + 1) ( s + 1) 
2

 1  −1  1   1 
= 2 L−1   + 3L  2
− 2 L−1  − 2t −t
 = 2e + 3te − 2e
−t

 ( s + 2)   ( s + 1)   ( s + 1) 

s+9
Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform of F ( s) =
s + 6 s + 13
2

Solution:
 s+9   s+9   s+9 
f (t ) = L−1 [F ( s )] = L−1  2  = L−1  2  = L−1  2
 s + 6s + 13   s + 6s + 3 − 3 + 13   ( s + 3) + 2 
2 2 2

 ( s + 3) + 6   s+3  −1  6   s+3  −1  2 
= L−1  2
= L−1  2
+L  2
= L−1  2
+ L 3 ⋅ 2
 ( s + 3) + 2   ( s + 3) + 2   ( s + 3) + 2   ( s + 3) + 2   ( s + 3) + 2 
2 2 2 2 2

 s+3    −3t
= e cos(2t ) + 3e −3t sin( 2t ) = e −3t [cos(2t ) + 3 sin( 2t )]
2
= L−1  2
+ 3L−1  2
 ( s + 3) + 2   ( s + 3) + 2 
2 2

1
Example: Find the Laplace inverse of using
s ( s − 1)
a) partial fraction b)convolution
Solution:
a) Partial fraction
 1   A B
L−1   = L−1  +  Multiple both sides by s ( s − 1)
 s ( s − 1)   s −1 s 
1 = As + B( s − 1)
Let s=1 then A=1
Let s=0 then B=-1
 1   1 1  1  −1  1 
L−1   = L−1  −  = L−1   − L  s  = e − 1
t

 s ( s − 1)   s − 1 s   s − 1
b) Convolution:
 1  −1  1 1 
t t
L−1  ∫ ∫
t −u
 = L ⋅
 s s − 1 = 1 * e t
= 1e du = e t −u du
 s ( s − 1)  0 0

[ ] [ ] [ ]
t
= e ∫ e −u du = e t − e −u
t
t
= e t − e −t + e 0 = e t 1 − e −t = e t − 1
0
0

1
Example: Find the Laplace inverse of using convolution theorem
s ( s + 1) 2
2

Solution:
 1  −1  1 1 
t
L−1  2 ∫
−t
2
= L  ⋅ 2
= t * te = u (t − u )e −(t −u ) du
 s ( s + 1)   s ( s + 1) 
2
0

 t
 t  
[ ] − ∫ 2ue du  
t t t
= e −t ∫ u (t − u )e u du = e −t t ∫ ue u du − ∫ u 2 e u du  = e −t t ∫ ue u du −  u 2 e u
t u

0  0 0   0 
0
0  

Process Control /Lec. 2 24 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor

 t u    
[ ] − ∫ e du  − t e 
t t t
= e t ∫ ue du − t e + 2 ∫ ue du  = e (t + 2) ∫ ueu du − t 2 et  = e −t (t + 2)  ueu
−t 2 −t u −t t u 2 t

 0       
0
0 0 0

= e −t (t + 2)  ue
 
[ ] [ ]
0
[ [ ] ] [
− e  − t 2 e t  = e −t (t + 2) te t − e t + 1 − t 2 e t = e −t t 2 e t − te t + t + 2te t − 2e t + 2 − t 2 e t
u t
0
 
u t
]
−t
[ t t
]
= e te + t − 2e + 2 = t + te − 2 + 2e −t = te −t + 2e −t + t − 2
−t

2.8 Laplace Transform of a Derivative

Before we apply Laplace transform to solve a differential equation, we need to know


the Laplace transform of a derivative. Given some expression f (t ) with Laplace
transform L{ f (t )} = F ( s) , the Laplace transform of the derivative f ' (t ) is:

L{ f ' (t )} = ∫e
− st
f ' (t )dt
t =0

This can be integrated by parts as follows:



L{ f ' (t )} = ∫e
− st
f ' (t )dt where u = e − st dv = f ' (t )
t =0

du = − se − st v = ∫ f ' (t ) = f (t )

L{ f ' (t )} = e [ − st
]
f (t ) t =0 + s ∫ e − st f (t )dt = (0 − f (0) ) + sF ( s )

t =0
− st
Assuming e f (t ) → 0 as t → ∞
That is: L{ f ' (t )} = sF ( s) − f (0)

Thus, the Laplace transform of the derivative of f (t ) is given in terms of the Laplace
transform of f (t ) when t = 0 . The next properties is very important for the above
formula.
In general, to solve differential equation af ' (t ) + bf (t ) = g (t ) given that f (0) = k where
a, b, and k are known constants and g (t ) is a known expression in t using Laplace
transform are as follows:
i. Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the differential equation.
ii. Find the expression of F ( s) = L{ f (t )} in the form of an algebraic fraction
iii. Separate F(s) into its partial fractions.
iv. Find the inverse Laplace transform L{ f ' (t )} to find the solution f(t) to the
differential equation.

Example: Solve f ' (t ) − f (t ) = 2 where f (0) = 0


Solution: Taking Laplace transforms of both sides of the equation gives:
2
sF ( s ) − f (0) − F ( s ) =
s
F ( s )(s − 1) =
2
s

Process Control /Lec. 2 25 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
2
F (s) = solve using partial fraction
s ( s − 1)
2 A B
= + solve for A and B where A = −2 and B = 2
s ( s − 1) s s − 1
2 2
F ( s) = − +
s s −1
The inverse transformation gives the solution as
(
f (t ) = −2 + 2et = −2 1 − et )
Example:Solve f ' (t ) − f (t ) = e2t where f (0) = 1
Solution:
1
sF ( s ) − f (0) − F ( s ) =
s−2
1
F ( s )( s − 1) − 1 =
s−2
1 1 ( s − 2) + 1 ( s − 1) 1
F (s) = + = = =
(s − 2)(s − 1) s − 1 ( s − 2)(s − 1) ( s − 2)(s − 1) s − 2
The inverse transform then gives the solution as
f (t ) = e 2t

Example:Solve 3 f ' (t ) − 2 f (t ) = 4e −t + 2 where f (0) = 0


Solution:
3[sF ( s ) − f (0)] − 2 F ( s ) =
4 2
+
s +1 s
6s + 2
3sF ( s ) − 3 f (0) − 2 F ( s ) =
s ( s + 1)
6s + 2
F ( s )(3s − 2) =
s ( s + 1)
6s + 2 4 27
F (s) = solve using partial fractions for A = -1, B = - , and C =
s ( s + 1)(3s − 2) 5 5
 
1 4  1  27  1  1 4  1  81 1  
F (s) = − −  +  =− −  +  
s 5  s + 1  15  3s − 2  s 5  s + 1  15  s − 2 
 
 3
The inverse transform then gives the solution as :
2
4 81 t
f (t ) = −1 − e −t + e 3
5 15

3.8.1 Laplace Transforms of Higher Derivatives


The Laplace transforms of derivatives higher than the first are readily derived. To
find higher derivative, understand the following formula

Process Control /Lec. 2 26 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
First order L{ f ' (t )} = sF ( s) − F (0)
Second order L{ f ' ' (t )} = s 2 F ( s) − sf (0) − f ' (0)
Third order L{ f ' ' ' (t )} = s 3 F ( s ) − s 2 f (0) − sf ' (0) − f ' ' (0)
Forth order { }
L f iv (t ) = s 4 F ( s ) − s 3 f (0) − s 2 f ' (0) − sf ' ' (0) − f ' ' ' (0)

Example:
Find the solution of f ' ' (t ) + 3 f ' (t ) + 2 f (t ) = 4t where f (0) = f ' (0) = 0.
Solution:
i. Take the Laplace transform of both sides of the equation
L{ f ' ' (t )} + 3L{ f ' (t )} + 2 L{ f (t )} = 4 L{t}

[s F (s) − sF (0) − f ' (0)] + 3[sF (s) − F (0)] + 2F (s) = s4


2
2

ii. Find the expression F ( s) = L{ f (t )} in the form of algebraic function


Substituting the values for f (0) and f ' ' (0) and then rearranging the above
equation gives
4
( s 2 + 3s + 2) F ( s) =
s2
4
F ( s) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 2)
2

iii. Separate F (s) into its partial fractions


4 A B C D
= + 2+ +
s ( s + 1)( s + 2) s s
2
s +1 s + 2
4 = As( s + 1)( s + 2) + B( s + 1)( s + 2) + Cs 2 ( s + 2) + Ds 2 ( s + 1)
Let
s=0 ⇒B=2
s = -1 ⇒ C = 4
s = -2 ⇒ D = -1
equalize s 3 ⇒ 0 = A + C + D ⇒ A = 0 − C − D = 0 − 4 + 1 = −3
3 2 4 1
Thus, F ( s ) = − + 2 + −
s s s +1 s + 2
iv. The inverse Laplace transform of the above equation is the solution that is
f (t ) = −3 + 2t + 4e − t − e −2t
Example: Use Laplace transforms to solve the following D.E. with initial conditions.
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
+4 + 3 y (t ) = 1 , y(0) = 1 , y′(0) = 1
dt dt
Taking the Laplace
1
s 2Y ( s ) − sy (0) − y '(0) + 4 [ sY ( s ) − y (0) ] + 3Y ( s ) =
s
1
Y ( s )  s 2 + 4 s + 3=
 sy (0) + y '(0) + 4 y (0) +
s
1
= s +5+
s

Process Control /Lec. 2 27 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
We want to solve for Y(s), so
1 1
s +5+ s +5+
s s s 2 + 5s + 1
=
Y (s) = =
s + 4s + 3
2
( s + 3)( s + 1) s ( s + 3)( s + 1)
Notice that we factored the denominator into individual terms. Once again, we use
partial fraction expansion to break this down into terms we can look up in the table:
s 2 + 5s + 1 A B C
Y (s) = =+ +
s ( s + 1)( s + 3) s s + 1 s + 3
Multiple both sides by s(s + 1)(s + 3)
s 2 + 5s + 1 = (s + 1)(s + 3)A + s (s + 3)B + s (s + 1)C
1 1
Let s=0 ⇒ A = =
1× 3 3
(−1) 2 − 5 + 1 − 3 3
Let s=-1 ⇒ B = = =
− 1(−1 + 3) − 2 2
(−3) 2 − 15 + 1 − 5
Let s=-3 ⇒ C = =
− 3(−3 + 1) 6
So now we have
1/ 3 3/ 2 −5 / 6
Y (s) = + +
s s +1 s + 3
and going back to the time domain gives
1 3 −t 5 −3t
y (t ) = + e − e
3 2 6

d 2 y (t ) d yt
()
Example: Solve 2
+4 + 4 y (t ) = e −3t u (t ) y (0) = 1, y '(0) = 0
dt dt
1
Taking the Laplace s 2Y ( s) − sy (0 )+ 4 [ sY ( s) − y (0 ])+ 4Y ( s ) =
s+3
1
Which gives Y ( s)  s 2 + 4s + 4  = s + 4 +
s+3
1
s+4+
Y (s) = s+3
( s + 2)
2

(s + 4) 1
Y(s) = +
(s + 2) 2
(s + 2) 2 (s + 3)
This gives me two different terms, but they’re simpler.
Y=( s ) Y1 ( s ) + Y2 ( s )
s+4 1
=Y1 ( s ) = , Y2 ( s )
( s + 2) ( s + 2 ) ( s + 3)
2 2

First term:

Process Control /Lec. 2 28 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
s+4 s+2 2
=
Y1 ( s ) = +
( s + 2) ( s + 2) ( s + 2)
2 2 2

1 2
= +
( s + 2 ) ( s + 2 )2
y1 (t ) = e −2t + 2te −2t
Now look at the second term:
1 C D E
Y2 ( s ) = = + +
( s + 2 ) ( s + 3) s + 3 ( s + 2 ) ( s + 2 )
2 2

1 1
=
C = = 1
( s + 2)
2
12
s = −3

1
=D = 1
( s + 3) s = −2
d  1   −1  −1
E=   =  2
= = −1
ds  ( s + 3)   ( s + 3)  s = −2 1
s = −2

Check:
1 1 −1
Y2 ( s ) = + + =
s + 3 ( s + 2) ( s + 2)
2

1( s 2 + 4 s + 4) + ( s + 3) − ( s 2 + 5s + 6) 1
=
( s + 3)( s + 2 ) ( s + 3)( s + 2 )
2 2

so
y 2 (t ) = e −3t + te −2t − e −2t
And putting the two solutions together:
y (t ) = y1 (t ) + y 2 (t ) = [2te −2t + e −2t ] + [e −3t + te −2t − e −2t ] = e −3t + 3te −2t

2.9 Solving Systems of Linear Differential Equations


Example:
Solve y1 ' = − y1 + y2 , y '= − y − y
2 1 2
, y ( 0) = 1
1
and y ( 0) = 0 .
2
Solution:
Taken laplace of both equations
sy1 ( s ) − y1 (0) = − y1 ( s ) + y2 ( s ) and sy2 ( s ) − y2 (0) = − y1 ( s ) − y2 ( s )
⇔ ( s + 1) y1 ( s) − y2 ( s) = 1 and ( s + 1) y2 ( s) + y1 ( s) = 0
Solving for y1 ( s) and y2 ( s) algebraically we get
y1 ( s )
( s + 1) y1 ( s ) + = 1 and ( s + 1) y2 ( s ) + y1 ( s ) = 0
s +1
 1 
⇔ ( s + 1) 2 y1 ( s) + y1 ( s) = ( s + 1) and y2 ( s) =  −  y1 ( s )
 s +1 
 1 
⇔ [( s + 1) 2 + 1] y1 ( s) = ( s + 1) and y2 ( s) =  −  y1 ( s )
 s +1 

Process Control /Lec. 2 29 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
s +1 1
⇔ y1 ( s) = and y2 ( s) = −
( s + 1) + 1
2
( s + 1) 2 + 1
 s +1  −1  1 
Now, L − 1   = e
−t
cos t and L 
−t
 = e sin t
 ( s + 1) + 1  ( s + 1) + 1
2 2

−t −t
Therefore, y1 (t ) = e cos t and y2 (t ) = − e sin t .

Example: Solve y1 ' = 5 y1 + y2 , y 2 ' = y1 + 5 y 2 , y1 (0) = − 3 and y 2 (0) = 7 .


Solution:
Taken Laplace of both equations
sy1 ( s ) − y1 (0) = 5 y1 ( s ) + y2 ( s ) and sy2 ( s ) − y2 (0) = y1 ( s ) + 5 y2 ( s )
⇔ ( s − 5) y1 ( s) − y2 ( s) = − 3 and ( s − 5) y2 ( s) − y1 ( s) = 7
Solving for y1 ( s) and y2 ( s) algebraically we get
7 − y1 ( s ) 7 + y1 ( s )
⇔ ( s − 5) y1 ( s ) − = − 3 and y2 ( s ) =
( s − 5) ( s − 5)
7 + y1 ( s )
⇔ ( s − 5) 2 y1 ( s) − 7 − y1 ( s) = − 3( s − 5) and y2 ( s) =
( s − 5)

[ ]
⇔ ( s − 5) 2 − 1 y1 ( s) = 7 − 3 ( s − 5) and y2 ( s) =
7 + y1 ( s )
( s − 5)
7  s −5  7 7  3 
⇔ y1 ( s) = −3   and y2 ( s ) = + −
( s − 5) − 1
2
 ( s − 5) − 1
2 2
( ) 2 
s − 5 ( s − 5) ( s − 5) − 1  ( s − 5) − 1
7
( 2
=
A
)+
B + sC
( s − 5) ( s − 5) − 1 s − 5 ( s − 5) − 1 2
(
multiple both side ( s − 5) ( s − 5) 2 −1 )
( )
7 = A ( s − 5) − 1 + ( B + sC )( s − 5 )
2

Let s=5 ⇒ A = −7
− 168 − 7
Let s=0 ⇒ 7 = A(25 − 1) − 5 B ⇒ B = = −35
5
s2 ⇒ 0 = A + C ⇒ C = − A = 7
7 7 7 s − 35  3 
y2 ( s ) = − + −
( )
s − 5 ( s − 5) ( s − 5) − 1  ( s − 5) − 1
2 2 

 s −5   3 
y2 ( s ) = 7  −  .
 ( s − 5) − 1  ( s − 5) − 1
2 2

 s −5  −1  1 
Now, L − 1   = e
5t
cosh t and L 
5t
 = e sinh t
 ( s − 5) −1  ( s − 5) −1
2 2

Therefore, y1 (t ) = e 5 t (7 sinh t − 3 cosh t ) and y2 (t ) = e 5 t (7 cosh t − 3 sinh t ) .

Example: Solve y1 ' ' = y1 + 3 y2 , y2 ' ' = 4 y1 − 4 et , y1 (0) = 2 , y1 ' (0) = 3 , y2 (0) =1 and y2 ' (0) = 2
Solution:
The subsidiary equations become

Process Control /Lec. 2 30 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
4
s 2 y1 ( s ) − s y1 (0) − y1 ' (0) = y1 ( s ) + 3 y2 ( s ) and s 2 y2 ( s ) − s y2 (0) − y2 ' (0) = 4 y1 ( s ) −
s −1
4
⇔ ( s 2 − 1) y1 ( s) − 3 y2 ( s) = 3 + 2s and s 2 y2 ( s) − 4 y1 ( s) = 2 + s −
s −1
Solving for y1 ( s) and y2 ( s) algebraically we get
3 + 2s + 3 y2 ( s ) 12 + 8s + 12 y2 ( s ) 4
y1 ( s ) = and s 2 y2 ( s) − =2+ s−
( s 2 − 1) ( s 2 − 1) s −1
3 + 2s + 3 y2 ( s ) 4( s 2 − 1)
y1 ( s ) = and s 2 ( s 2 − 1) y2 ( s) − 12 − 8s − 12 y2 ( s) = ( s 2 − 1)( 2 + s) −
( s 2 − 1) s −1
3 + 2s + 3 y2 ( s )
y1 ( s ) = and [ s 2 ( s 2 −1) − 12] y2 ( s) = +12 + 8s + 2s 2 + s 3 − 2 − s − 4( s + 1)
( s − 1)
2

3 + 2s + 3 y2 ( s )
y1 ( s ) = and [ s 4 − s 2 − 12] y2 ( s) = s 3 + 2s 2 + 3s + 6
( s − 1)
2

3 + 2s + 3 y2 ( s ) s 3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 6 1
y1 ( s ) = and y2 ( s) = =
( s 2 − 1) [ s − s − 12]
4 2
( s − 2)
1
3 + 2s + 3
( s − 2) (3 + 2 s )( s − 2) + 3 3s − 6 + 2 s 2 − 4 s + 3 2s 2 − s − 3
y1 ( s ) = = = =
( s 2 − 1) ( s − 2)( s 2 − 1) ( s − 2)( s 2 − 1) ( s − 2)( s 2 − 1)
s 2 + s 2 − s − 1 − 2 ( s 2 − s − 2) + ( s 2 − 1) ( s + 1)( s − 2) + ( s 2 − 1) ( s + 1) 1
= = = = 2 +
( s − 2)( s − 1)
2
( s − 2)( s − 1)
2
( s − 2)( s − 1)
2
( s − 1) ( s − 2)
1 1
= +
( s − 1) ( s − 2)
1 1 1
⇔ y2 ( s ) = and y1 ( s) = +
s−2 s −1 s − 2
Therefore, y1 (t ) = et + e 2t and y2 (t ) = e 2t .

2.10 Laplace Transform of a integers


If f(t) is a function having Laplace transform F(s)= L{f(t)}, then the Laplace
transform of the integration of a function f(t), is given by:
t
F (s)
L ∫ f (t )dt =
0
s

Proof:

t
t

 − st  − 1 − st t  1
t
1
L ∫ f (t )dt = ∫  ∫ f (t ) e dt =  e ∫ f (t ) + ∫ f (t )e − st dt = F ( s )
 
0 00   s 0 0 s 0 s

2.11 Initial value theorem:


It can be used to find the steady-state value of a system (providing that a steady-state
value exists).
if LF (t ) = F ( s) , then

Process Control /Lec. 2 31 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
F (0) = lim F (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t →0 s →∞

2.12 Final value theorem


lim F (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t →∞ s →0

Example:
U

Find the final value of the function x(t) for which the laplace inverse is:-
1
x( s ) =
s( s 3 + 3s 2 + 3s + 1 )
s ×1
lim x( t ) = lim sx( s ) = lim
t →∞ s →0 s →0 s( s + 3s 2 + 3s + 1 )
3

1
= lim =1
s →0 ( s 3
+ 3s + 3s + 1 )
2

Example:
5s + 2
Suppose Y ( s) =
s (5s + 4)
Then steady state value of Y can be calculated by:
 (5s + 2) 
Y (∞) = lim Y (t ) = lim  s  = 0.5
t →∞ s →0
 s (5s + 4) 

Process Control /Lec. 2 32 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Response of first order systems

3. Dynamic behavior of first order system

Before studying the control system it is necessary to become familior with the
response os some of simple basic systems (i.e study the dynamic behaviour of the
first and second order systems).

3.1 The transfer function:


U

The dynamic behaviour of the system is described by transfer function (T.F)


Laplace transform of the output (responce)
T. F =
Laplace transform of the input (forcing function distubance)

X(s) Transfer Y(s)


Input functionG (s) Output
Forcing function Responce
Block diagram

y(s)
T. F = G(s) =
x(s)
This definition is applied to linear systems

3.2 Development of T.F for first order system:


U

Mercury Thermometer:
U

It is a measuring device use to measure the temperature of a stream.


Consider a mercury in glass thermometer to be
located in a flowing stream of fluid for which the
temperature x varies with time.
The opject is to calculate the time variation of the
thermometer reading y for a particular change of x
The following assumptions will be used in this analysis:-
1. All the resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb (i.e.,
the resistance offered by the glass and mercury is neglected).
2. All the thermal capacity is in the mercury. Furthermore, at any instant the
mercury assumes a uniform temperature throughout.
3. The glass wall containing the mercury does not expand or contract during the
transient response.

It is assumed that the thermometer is initially at steady state. This means that,
before time zero, there is no change in temperature with time. At time zero the
Process Control /Lec. 3 33 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
thermometer will be subjected to some change in the surrounding temperature x(t).
(i.e at t<0 , x(t)= y(t) =constant there is no change in temperature with time).
At t=0 there is a change in the surounding temperature x(t)
Unsteady state energy balance:
U

dy
m Cp = h A (x − y) − 0 = h A x − h A y ……………… (1)
dt
1st order differential equation
P P

Where
U

A: area of the bulb


Cp: heat capacity of mercury
m: mass of mercury in the bulb
t: time
h: film heat transfer coefficient
h depend on the flowrate and properties of the surounding fluid and the dimension
of the bulb.
The dynamic behaviour must be defined by a deviation variables.
At steady state (s.s.) , t<0 , x(t)=constant=x s
R R ,
R y(t)=constant=y s
R R R ,
x(t)=constant=x s R

𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ 𝐴𝐴 (𝑥𝑥𝑠𝑠 − 𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠) = ℎ 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥𝑠𝑠 − ℎ 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠 ……………… (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Substract eq. (2) from eq. (1)
𝑑𝑑(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠 )
𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ 𝐴𝐴 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑠𝑠 ) − ℎ 𝐴𝐴 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌𝑌 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋
at t=0 Y(0)=0 and X(0)=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ 𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋 − ℎ 𝐴𝐴 𝑌𝑌
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑋𝑋 − 𝑌𝑌
ℎ 𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Let 𝜏𝜏 = ℎ 𝐴𝐴
=time constant and has time units
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜏𝜏 + 𝑌𝑌 = 𝑋𝑋 taken laplace for the equation
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜏𝜏[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑌𝑌(0)] + 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)
(𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1)𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)

Process Control /Lec. 3 34 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 1
= 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) = … … … … … … (3)
𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1
Y(s) L. T of the deviation in thermometer reading
T. F = = G(s) =
X(s) L. T. of the deviation in surounding Temperature
Any system has a T.F of the form of equation (3) it is called first order system which
U U

is a first order differntial equation (Linear).

3.3 Properties of transfer functions


U

T.F relates two variables in a physical process. One of these is (Forcing or Input
variable) and the other is the effect (Reponce or Output).
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
𝑇𝑇. 𝐹𝐹 = = 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)
If we select a particular input variation x(t) for which the L.T is x(s) then the reponce.
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠). 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)

𝐿𝐿−1 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿−1 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠). 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)


If G(s) is 1st order of a thermometer
P P

1
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠). 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) = . 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)
𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1
x(s) G(s) y(s)

3.4 Transient response for different changes


U

1
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = . 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠)
𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1
Y(t)=? For different types of x(t)
1-Step Change
U

A
X (s) =
s
A ----------
1 A αo α x(t)
Y (s) = . = + 1
τs + 1 s s τs + 1
A = α o ( τs + 1 ) + α1s t
S = 0 ⇒ αo = A
1
s = −1 / τ ⇒ A = α o (−τ / τ + 1) − α1 then α1 = − Aτ
τ
A Aτ A Aτ 1 / τ A A
A --------Ultimat value
Y ( s) = − = − = −
s τs + 1 s τs + 1 1 / τ s τ + 1/τ y(t)
Process Control /Lec. 3 35 Writtent by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Y (t ) = A − Ae − t τ = A(1 − e − t τ )
Several features of this response, worth remembering, are
• The value of y(t) reaches 63.2 % of its ultimate value when the time elapsed is
equal to one time constant 𝜏𝜏.
• When the time elapsed is 2𝜏𝜏, 3 𝜏𝜏, and 4 𝜏𝜏, the percent response is 86.5%, 95%,
and 98%, respectively.
Where the ultimate value is final steady state value
U .V = lim y( t ) = lim sy( s )
t →∞ s →0

Example:
A thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is at a steady state temperature of
90 Fo. At time t = 0, the thermometer is placed in a temperature bath maintained at
P P

100°F. Determine the time needed for the thermometer to read 98 Fo. P P

Solution:
At s.s. x s =y s =90 Fo
R R R R P

A
Step change X (s) =
s
A=100-90=10
10
X( s ) =
s
1 A 1 10 10 10 A B
Y( s ) = = = = = +
τs + 1 s 0.1s + 1 s s( 0.1s + 1 ) 0.1s( s + 10 ) 0.1s s + 10
A( s + 10 ) + B( 0.1s ) = 10
10
s = 0 ⇒ A = =1
10
s = −10 ⇒ B = −10
1 10 10 10
Y( s ) = − = −
0.1s s + 10 s s + 10
By taken laplace inverse for the equation
Y ( t ) = 10 − 10e −10t = 10( 1 − e −10t )
Substitute Y(t)=y(t)-y s =98-90 R R

Y(t)=8
8 = 10( 1 − e −10t )
0.8 = 1 − e −10t
ln( e −10t ) = ln( 0.2 )
− 10t = ln( 0.2 )
t = − ln(0.2) × 0.1
t=0.161 min
2-Impulse Input
x(t)
Process Control /Lec. 3 36 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Area
X ( s) = A
1 A
Y (s) = ×A=
τs + 1 τs + 1

Y (s) =
s +1 τ
A
Y (t ) = y (t ) − ys = e−t τ
τ
A y(t)
y (t ) = e −t τ + y s
τ
t

3-Sinsoidal input
x( t ) = xs + A sin wt t >0
x( t ) − xs = A sin wt
X (t ) = x(t ) − xs = A sin wt
Aw
X( s ) = 2
s + w2
Aw 1 1
Y( s ) = 2 × = Aw[ 2 ]
s + w ( τs + 1 )
2
( s + w )( τs + 1 )
2

This equation can be solved for y(t) by means of a partial fraction expansion as
described in previous lectures.
1 α s + α1 α2
Y ( s ) = Aw[ 2 ] = Aw[ o2 + ]
( s + w )( τs + 1 )
2
( s + w ) ( τs + 1 )
2

( α o s + α1 )( τs + 1 ) + α 2 ( s 2 + w 2 ) = 1
α o τs 2 + α o s + α1τs + α1 + α 2 s 2 + α 2 w 2 = 1
s0 α1 + α 2 w 2 = 1 (4)
s1 α o + α1 τ = 0 ⇒ α o = − α1 τ (5)
s2 α o τ + α 2 = 0 ⇒ α 2 = −α o τ (6)
By substitution eq.(5) in eq.(6)
α 2 = α1 τ 2 (7)
By substitution eq.(7) in eq.(4)
α1 + α1 τ 2 w 2 = 1
1
α1 =
1 + τ2 w2

Process Control /Lec. 3 37 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
τ2
α2 =
1 + τ2 w2
−τ
α0 =
1 + τ2 w2
−τ 1 τ2
s+
Y ( s ) = Aw[ 1 + τ 2 2
w 1 + τ2 w2 + 1 + τ2 w2 ]
( s 2 + w2 ) ( τs + 1 )
1 − τs + 1 τ2
Y ( s ) = Aw [ + ]
1 + τ 2 w 2 ( s 2 + w 2 ) ( τs + 1 )
Aw − τs 1 w τ2 τ
Y( s ) = [ + + ]
1 + τ 2 w 2 ( s 2 + w 2 ) ( s 2 + w 2 ) w ( τs + 1 ) τ
Aw − τs 1 w τ
Y( s ) = [ + + ]
1 + τ2 w2 ( s 2 + w2 ) w ( s 2 + w2 ) ( s + 1 / τ )
Aw 1
Y (t ) = [−τ cos wt + sin wt + τet τ ]
1+τ w
2 2
w
Using the definition
p cosθ + q sin θ = r sin(θ + φ )
p
r= p2 + q2 tan φ =
q
p
φ = tan −1
q
1
q= p = −τ
w
φ = tan −1 (− wτ )
1 + w2τ 2
r = ( ) 2 + (− τ ) =
1 1
2
+ τ 2
=
w w2 w
1
− τ cos wt + sin wt = r sin( wt + φ )
w

Aw tτ 1 + w2τ 2
Y (t ) = [τe + sin( wt + φ )]
1 + τ 2 w2 w

Awτ t τ A
Y (t ) = e + sin( wt + φ )]
1 + τ 2 w2 1+ w τ
2 2

where
φ = tan −1 (− wτ )

Process Control /Lec. 3 38 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
As t → ∞ then e −t τ = 0 , the first term on the right side of main equation
vanishes and leaves only the ultimate periodic solution, which is sometimes called the
steady-state solution
A
Y( t ) = sin( wt + φ )]
1+ w τ2 2

A X(t) _______T_______

-A

By comparing Eq. for the input forcing Y(t) function with Eq. for the ultimate
periodic response X(t), we see that
1. The output is a sine wave with a frequency w equal to that of the input signal.
1
2. The ratio of output amplitude to input amplitude is < 1.
1 + w2 τ2
3. The output lags behind the input by an angle φ . It is clear that lag occurs, for the
sign of φ is always negative.
φ<0 phase lag
φ>0 phase load

Example:
A mercury thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is placed in a temperature
bath at 100°F and allowed to come to equilibrium with the bath. At time t= 0, the
temperature of the bath begins to vary sinusoidally about its average temperature of
l00oF with an amplitude of 2°F If the frequency of oscillation is 10/𝜋𝜋 cycles/min, plot
P P P P

the ultimate response of the thermometer reading as a function of time. What is the
phase lag?
In terms of the symbols used in this chapter
τ = 0.1
t<0 xs = y s = 100
t≥0 x( t ) = 100 + 2 sin( wt )
10
f =
π
Process Control /Lec. 3 39 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Solution
U

10
w = 2πf = 2π × = 10 rad / min
π
1 10
T= = min/ cycle
f π
X ( t ) = x( t ) − x s = 100 + 2 sin 20t − 100
X ( t ) = 2 sin 20t
2 × 20
X( s ) = 2
s + 20 2
Ultimate response t → ∞ then e −t τ = 0
A
Y( t ) = sin( wt + φ )]
1 + w2 τ 2
φ = tan −1( − wτ ) = tan −1( −20 × 0.1 ) = tan −1( −2 )
φ = −63.5o
Ultimate response at the above angle
2
Y( t ) = sin( 20t − 63.5 )]
1 + ( 0.1 × 20 )2
2
Y( t ) = sin( 20t − 63.5 )]
5
Y ( t ) = 0.896 sin( 20t − 63.5 )] Ultimate response

In general, the lag in units of time


is given by:-
φ 1
phase lag =
360 f
63.5 cycle π min
phase lag =
360 10 cycle
= 0.0555 min

10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 10
A frequency of means that a complete cycle occurs in ( )−1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. since cycle
𝜋𝜋 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜋𝜋
o o
is equivalent to 360 and lag is 63.5
P P P

How to calculate the time constant (𝝉𝝉) for first order system
U

1) Mathematical method
U

Using the definitions


Process Control /Lec. 3 40 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
m cp
τ= Thermometer
hA
τ = AR Liquid level tan k
V
τ= Mixing tan k
q

2) Exponential method(Step change in the input variable)


U

0.63 A

τ t

Y (t ) = A(1 − e −t τ )
as t → ∞ Y (∞) = A(1 − e −∞ ) = A
as t → τ Y (τ ) = A(1 − e −1 ) = A(1 − 0.3678) ≈ 0.63 A

Time constant (𝜏𝜏)is the time required for the response to reach 63% of the its utimate
value.

3. Third method
U

Y ( t ) = A( 1 − e −t τ ) A
dy A
= − Ae −t τ ( −1 τ ) = e −t τ
dt τ
Y(t)slope
dy A A
lim = e 0 =
t →0 dt τ τ
A t
Slope of the tangent at t=0 is τ
A
Therfore τ =
slope
Y ( t ) = A( 1 − e −t τ )
Y ( t ) = A − Ae −t τ
Ae −t τ = A − Y ( t )
A − Y( t )
e −t τ =
A
A − Y( t )
− t τ = ln
A
A − Y( t )
Let B =
A
Process Control /Lec. 3 41 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
−1
ln B = t
τ
let y = ln B and x = t
1
slope = −
τ
Y(t) A − Y( t ) ln B t
B= lnB
A 1
slope = −
τ

1
slope = −
τ
1
τ =−
slope

Process Control /Lec. 3 42 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Physical Examples of First Order System

1.Mercury Thermometer

Mercury thermometer was discussed in detail in a previous lecture.


1T 0T1 0T 0T 0T1

2.Liquid Level Tank

Consider the system shown in below figure which consists of:


1. A tank of uniform cross-sectional area A.
2. Valve attached to the output flow which resistance constant=R.
q o : The output volumetric flowrate (volume/time) through the resistance, is related to
R R

the head h by the linear relationship.


qo ∝ h Linear Valve
h
qo = ……………..(1)
R
Where:
R is related as a linear resistance
If qoα h n (n ≠ 1) Non linear valve
q(t) is a time varying volumetric flowrate with constant density ρ.

Find the T.F. that relates the head to the input flowrate q(t).

We can analyze this system by writing a transient mass balance around the tank:
Mass flow in - mass flow out = rate of accumulation of mass in the tank
dvρ
qρ − qo ρ = (v = Ah)
dt
dh
q − qo = A
dt
h dh
q− = A ………………(2)
R dt
At staedy state
hs dh
qs − = A s =0 ………………(3)
R dt
Substracting Eq(3) from Eq. (2)
h − hs d (h − hs )
( q − qs ) − =A
R dt
let Q = q − q s , H = h − hs

Process Control /Lec. 4 43 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
dH H
A + =Q
dt R
dH
AR + H = RQ Taken laplace for both sides of equation
dt
(τs + 1) H ( s ) = RQ( s ) where τ = AR
H (s) R
= First order system equation …………………(4)
Q( s ) (τs + 1)

R
H (s) = Q( s) …………………(5)
(τs + 1)

Comparing the T.F. of the tank with thr T.F. of the thermometer we see that eq. (5)
contain the factor (R) which is relate H(t) to Q(t) at s.s. as s → 0 , t → ∞
R
For this reason, a factor R in the transfer function is called the steady state gain
τs + 1
To show that
1
Take Q( s) =
s
R 1
Therefore H ( s) = .
τs + 1 s
Final value theorm
R 1 R
lim H (t ) = lim sH ( s ) = lim s . = lim = R s.s gain
t →∞ s →0 s →0 τs + 1 s s →0 τs + 1

Also to find the level as a function of time


H (t ) = L−1 H ( s )

3.Mixing Tank

Consider the mixing process shown in Figure in


which a stream of solution containing dissolved salt
flows at a constant volumetric flow rate q into a tank
of constant holdup volume V. The concentration of
the salt in the entering stream x (mass of salt/volume)
varies with time. It is desired to determine the transfer
function relating the outlet concentration y to the inlet
concentration x.
If we assume the density of the solution to be constant, the flow rate in must equal the
flowrate out, since the holdup volume is fixed.
F: Volumetric flowrate
x, y : Input and output salt concentrations (mass or mole/vol)
Process Control /Lec. 4 44 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Unsteady state material balance
dVy dy
Fx − Fy = =V
dt dt
Steady state
dys
Fxs − Fys = V =0
dt
Subtracting the above both equations and introducing the deviation variables
d ( y − ys )
F ( x − xs ) − F ( y − y s ) = V
dt
X = x − xs
Y = y − ys
dY
V + FY = FX
dt
V dY
+Y = X
F dt
dY
τ +Y = X
dt
(τs + 1)Y ( s ) = X ( s )
Y (s) 1
= 1st order system , where τ =
V
X ( s ) (τs + 1) P P

Example:
U

Find the T.F for the system shown in figure F1 F2


Solution:
h dh
F1 + F2 − =A
R dt
F1s + F2 s −
hs dh
=A s
h
R dt
qo
let F1 = F1 − F1s , F2 = F2 − F2 s , h = h − hs 𝒉𝒉
𝒒𝒒𝒐𝒐 =
h dh 𝑹𝑹
F1 + F2 − =A
R dt
dh
AR + h = F1 R + F2 R
dt
(τs + 1)h ( s ) = F1 ( s ) R + F2 ( s ) R
R R
h (s) = F1 ( s ) + F2 ( s )
(τs + 1) (τs + 1)
R R
When F 1 constant ⇒ F1 ( s ) = 0 ⇒ h ( s ) = F2 ( s )
(τs + 1) (τs + 1)
R R

R R
When F 2 constant ⇒ F2 ( s ) = 0 ⇒ h ( s ) = F1 ( s )
(τs + 1) (τs + 1)
R R

Process Control /Lec. 4 45 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
4.Heating Tank

Energy balance equation.


dT
VρC = wC (Ti − T ) + Q
dt
Assumption: constant liquid holdup and
constant inflow(w is constant), a linear
model result.

If the process is at steady-state, dT dt = 0


0 = wC (Tis − Ts ) + Qs
Figure: Continuous stirred-tank heater.

Subtract equations
dT d (T − Ts )
VρC = VρC = wC[(Ti − Tis ) − (T − Ts )] + (Q − Qs )
dt dt
Define some important new variables(Deviation variables).
T = T − Ts , Ti = Ti − Tis , Q = Q − Qs
By substituting deviation variables for variables.
dT
VρC = wC (Ti − T ) + Q
dt
Vρ dT
= Ti − T + Q / wC
w dt
Let k = 1 wC ,τ = Vρ w
Apply Laplace Transform.
τsT ( s) = (Ti ( s ) − T ( s )) + kQ ( s )

(τs + 1)T ( s ) = Ti ( s ) + kQ ( s )

1 k
T (s) = Ti ( s ) + Q (s)
τs + 1 τs + 1
T ( s) k
If Ti ( s) = 0 G1 ( s) = =
Q ( s ) τs + 1
T (s) 1
If Q ( s) = 0 G2 ( s) = =
Ti ( s ) τs + 1

Process Control /Lec. 4 46 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
5. CSTR with constant holdup:

dC A
V = FC Ai − FC A − VKC A
dt
dC A,ss
at steady state V = FC Ai,ss − FC A,ss − VKC A,ss
dt
by subtracting both equations
d (C A − C A,ss )
V = F (C Ai − C Ai ,ss ) − F (C A − C A,ss ) − VK (C A − C A,ss )
dt
dC A
V + ( F + VK )C A = F CAi ÷ ( F + VK )
dt
V dC A F
+ CA = CAi
( F + VK ) dt ( F + VK )
Let τ = V F
R

and K =
( F + VK ) ( F + VK )
dC A
τ + C A = K CAi
dt
Taking Laplace Transform:
(τs + 1)C A ( s ) = K CAi ( s )
K CAi ( s )
C A ( s) =
(τs + 1)

Taken sinusoidal change in CAi (t) → CAi (t) = sin(wt) → C Ai ( s ) = w


s + w2
R

K w b cs + d
C A (s) = = + 2
(τs + 1) s + w
2 2
(τs + 1) s + w 2
Multiply both sides by (τs+1)(s2+w2) gives: P P P P

Kw = b(s 2 + w 2 ) + (cs + d) (τs + 1)


Kwτ 2
Let s = − 1 ⇒ b = Kw =
τ R
1 R

+ w2 w 2τ 2 + 1
τ 2

Kw 3τ 2 Kw 3τ 2 + Kw - Kw 3τ 2 Kw
Let s = 0 ⇒ d = Kw - bw 2 = Kw − = = 2 2
R R

w τ +1
2 2
w τ +1
2 2
w τ +1
Equating the coefficients of each power of s2, yields: P P

-b - Kwτ
s2 : b + cτ = 0 ⇒ c = =
τ w 2τ 2 + 1
Substituting the constants in the main equation:
Kw τ2 τs 1 Kw τ τs 1
C A ( s) = 2 2 [ − 2 + 2 ]= 2 2 [ − 2 + 2 ]
w τ + 1 τs + 1 s + w 2
s +w 2
w τ +1 s +1 τ s + w 2
s + w2
Using Laplace Table:
−t
Kw 1
C A (t ) = [τe τ − τ cos( wt ) + sin( wt )]
w τ +1
2 2
w

Process Control /Lec. 4 47 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Response of first order systems in series

Many physical systems can be represented by several first-order processes connected


in series as shown in figure:-

Figure 5.1 Two-tank liquid-level system: (a) Non-interacting; (b) interacting.

h1
In fig (5.1 a) variation of h 2 does not effect on q 1 then q1 =
R R R R

R1
h1 − h2
In fig (5.1 b) variation of h 2 does effect on q 1 then q1 =
R R R R

R1

1-Non Interacting System

Material balance on tank 1 gives


h dh
qi − 1 = A1 1
R1 dt
h1s dh
At s.s. qis − = A1 1s = 0
R1 dt
By substracting both equations
h −h d ( h1 − h1s )
( qi − qis ) − 1 1s = A1
R1 dt
H1 dH 1
[ Qi − = A1 ] × R1
R1 dt

Process Control /Lec. 5 48 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
dH 1
R1Qi = H 1 + R1 A1
dt
H1( s ) R1
= where τ1 = A1 R1
Qi ( s ) τ1s + 1

Material balance on tank 2 gives


h1 h2 dh
− = A2 2
R1 R2 dt
h1s h2 s dh
At s.s. − = A2 2 s = 0
R1 R2 dt
By substracting both equations
h1 − h1s h2 − h2 s d ( h2 − h2 s )
− = A2
R1 R2 dt
H1 H 2 dH 2
− = A2 × R2
R1 R2 dt
dH 2 R
A2 R2 + H 2 = 2 H1
dt R1
R2
τ 2 sH 2 ( s ) + H 2 ( s ) = H1( s ) τ 2 = R2 H 2
R1
R2
( τ 2 s + 1 )H 2 ( s ) = H1( s )
R1
R2 R1
H 2( s ) = H 1( s ) By substituting the lapace transform of H 1 (s)
( τ2 s + 1 )
R R

R2 R1 R
H 2( s ) = × Qi ( s ) 1
( τ2 s + 1 ) τ1s + 1
R2
H 2( s ) = Qi ( s )
( τ1s + 1 )( τ 2 s + 1 )

H 2( s ) R2
=
Qi ( s ) ( τ1s + 1 )( τ 2 s + 1 ) Non-interacting system
In the case of three non-interacting tanks in sereies the transfer function of the system
will be as below:-
H 3( s ) R3
=
Qi ( s ) ( τ1s + 1 )( τ 2 s + 1 )( τ3 s + 1 )
Process Control /Lec. 5 49 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example:
Two non-interacting tanks are connected in series as shown in Fig. 5.1 a. The time
constants are τ 2 =1 and τ 1 =0.5; R 2 =1. Sketch the response of the level in tank 2 if a
R R R R R R

unit-step change is made in the inlet flow rate to tank 1.


Solution:
U

The transfer function for this system is found directly from Equation above thus

R2
H 2( s ) = Qi ( s )
( τ1s + 1 )( τ 2 s + 1 )
1
Substituting Qi ( s ) = Unit step change in Q i R

s
R2 1
H 2( s ) =
( τ1 s + 1 )( τ 2 s + 1 ) s
αo α1 α2
= + +
s ( τ1 s + 1 ) ( τ 2 s + 1 )
R2 = α o ( τ1s + 1 )( τ 2 s + 1 ) + α1s( τ 2 s + 1 ) + α 2 s( τ1s + 1 )
let s = 0 ⇒ α o = R2
1 1 1 τ 1 τ −τ
let s = − ⇒ α1( − )( τ 2 ( − ) + 1 ) = R2 ⇒ α1( 22 − ) = R2 ⇒ α1( 2 2 1 ) = R2
τ1 τ1 τ1 τ1 τ1 τ1
τ12
∴ α1 = R2 ( )
τ 2 − τ1
1 1 1 τ 1 τ −τ
let s = − ⇒ α 2 ( − )( τ1( − ) + 1 ) = R2 ⇒ α 2 ( 12 − ) = R2 ⇒ α 2 ( 1 2 2 ) = R2
τ2 τ2 τ2 τ2 τ2 τ2
τ 22
∴ α 2 = R2 ( )
τ1 − τ 2
R2 τ12 1 τ 22 1
H 2( s ) = + R2 ( ) + R2 ( )
s τ 2 − τ1 ( τ1s + 1 ) τ1 − τ 2 ( τ 2 s + 1 )
1 ττ τ 1 ττ τ 1
H 2 ( s ) = R2 [ + ( 1 2 ) 1 +( 1 2 ) 2 ]
s τ 2 − τ1 τ 2 ( τ1s + 1 ) τ1 − τ 2 τ1 ( τ 2 s + 1 )
1 ττ 1 1 ττ 1 1
H 2 ( s ) = R2 [ − ( 1 2 ) +( 1 2 ) ]
s τ1 − τ 2 τ 2 ( s + 1 / τ1 ) τ1 − τ 2 τ1 ( s + 1 / τ 2 )
τ 1τ 2 1 1
H 2 (t ) = R2 (1 − ( )( e −t / τ − e −t / τ ))
1 2

τ1 −τ 2 τ 2 τ1
1 × 0.5 1 −t / 0.5 1 −t / 1
H 2( t ) = 1 − ( )( e − e )
0.5 − 1 1 0.5

Process Control /Lec. 5 50 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
0.5
H 2( t ) = 1 − ( )( e −2t − 2e −t )
− 0.5
H 2 ( t ) = 1 + e −2t − 2e −t )
R1
H1( s ) = .Qi ( s ) H2 (t)
τ1s + 1
H1(t)
R1 1
H1( s ) = .
τ1s + 1 s
H 1( t ) = R1( 1 − e −t / τ1 )
Substitute R 1 =1 R R

H 1( t ) = 1( 1 − e −t / 0.5 )

H 1( t ) = 1 − e −2t

Example:
U

Obtain the transfer function of the following system (no reaction):


Where:
F = volumetric flow rate, F i = F 1 R R
Fi , Ci
R R

C = conc. of solute in stream


FiiCii
V = liquid volume in tank
F1, C1
V1 c1
Solution:
U

Mass balance on concentration; i.e.


In – out = accumulation V2, C2 F2, C2
dC (non-interacting system)
Tank 1: Fi Ci - F1 C1 = V1 1
dt
dC
τ 1 1 + C1 = Ci where τ 1 = V 1 /F 1 R R R R R

dt
Laplace transform →τ 1 s C1 (s) + C1 (s) = Ci (s)
C1 ( s ) 1
= 1
Ci ( s ) τ 1 s + 1 …. (1) Ci (s)
τ 1s + 1
C1 (s)

dC 2
Tank 2: F1 C1 + Fii C ii - F2 C 2 = V2
dt
V2 dC 2 F F
+ C 2 = 1 C1 + ii C ii
F2 dt F2 F2
dC 2
τ2 + C 2 = K 1C1 + K 2 C ii
dt
Process Control /Lec. 5 51 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
V2 F1 Fii
τ2 = , K1 = , K2 =
F2 F2 F2

Laplace transform →τ 2 s C 2 (s) + C 2 (s) = K 1 C1 (s) + K 2 Cii (s)


K1 K2
C 2 (s) = C1 ( s ) + C ii ( s )
τ 2s +1 τ 2s +1

Substitute C 1 (s) from Eq. (1)


R R

K1 K2
C 2 ( s) = Ci (s) + C ii ( s )
(τ 1 s + 1)(τ 2 s + 1) τ 2s +1

2.Interacting System

Material balance on 1sttank P P

dh
qi − q1 = A1 1
dt
h −h dh
qi − 1 2 = A1 1
R1 dt
Steady state
h − h2 s dh
qis − 1s = A1 1s = 0
R1 dt
By substracting both equations
h −h h − h2 s d ( h1 − h1s )
( qi − qis ) − 1 1s + 2 = A1
R1 R1 dt
H 2 H1 dH
[ Qi + = + A1 1 ] × R1
R1 R1 dt
dH 1
Qi R1 + H 2 = H 1 + A1 R1
dt
dH 1
τ1 + H 1 = Qi R1 + H 2
dt
( τ1s + 1 )H 1( s ) = R1Qi ( s ) + H 2 ( s )
R1 1
H1( s ) = Qi ( s ) + H 2( s ) …………..(1)
( τ1s + 1 ) ( τ1s + 1 )

Process Control /Lec. 5 52 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Material balance on second tank
h1 − h2 h2 dh
− = A2 2
R1 R2 dt
h1s − h2 s h2 s dh
− = A2 2 s = 0
R1 R2 dt
H1 H 2 H 2 dH 2
[ − − = A2 ] × R2
R1 R1 R2 dt
dH 2 R
A2 R2 + H 2 = 2 ( H1 − H 2 )
dt R1
R2
( τ 2 s + 1 )H 2 ( s ) = ( H 1( s ) − H 2 ( s )) …………..(2)
R1
Substituting for H 1 (s)from eq(1) in eq(2)
R R

R R1 1
( τ 2 s + 1 )H 2 ( s ) = 2 [ Qi ( s ) + H 2 ( s ) − H 2 ( s )]
R1 ( τ1s + 1 ) ( τ1s + 1 )
R2 Qi ( s ) R2 H 2 ( s ) R2
[( τ 2 s + 1 )H 2 ( s ) = + − H 2 ( s )] × ( τ1 s + 1 )
( τ1 s + 1 ) R1 ( τ1 s + 1 ) R1
R2 ( τ s + 1 ) R2
( τ 2 s + 1 )( τ1 s + 1 )H 2 ( s ) = R2 Qi ( s ) + H 2( s ) − 1 H 2 ( s )]
R1 R1
τ1 R2 s
( τ1τ 2 s 2 + τ1s + τ 2 s + 1 )H 2 ( s ) + H 2 ( s ) = R2Qi ( s )
R1
τ1 R2 A1 R1 R2
Let = = A1 R2 = τ12
R1 R1
( τ1τ 2 s 2 + ( τ1 + τ 2 + τ12 )s + 1 )H 2 ( s ) = R2Qi ( s )
R2
H 2( s ) = .Qi ( s ) Interacting system
τ1τ 2 s 2 + ( τ1 + τ 2 + τ12 )s + 1

R2
H 2( s ) = .Qi ( s ) Non- Interacting system
τ1τ 2 s 2 + ( τ1 + τ 2 )s + 1

The difference between the transfer function for the non-interacting system, and that
for the interacting system, is the presence of the cross-product term A 1 R 2 in the R R R R

coefficient of s. τ12 = A1 R2

Process Control /Lec. 5 53 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example:
U

To understand the effect of interaction on the transient response of a system, consider


a two-tank system for which the time constants are equal (τ 1 =τ 2=τ). R R R R

τ 1 = τ 2 = τ 12 =τ
R R R R R R

Q 2 (t)=? Output flow rate


R R

1
Qi ( s ) =
s
Solution:
Non-interacting system
H 2( s ) R2
= τ1 = τ 2
Qi ( s ) τ1τ 2 s 2 + ( τ1 + τ 2 )s + 1
H 2( s ) R H (s)
= 2 2 2 but Q2 ( s ) = 2
Qi ( s ) τ s + 2τs + 1 R2
Q2 ( s ) 1 1 1 2
= 2 2 = =( )
Qi ( s ) τ s + 2τs + 1 ( τs + 1 )( τs + 1 ) τs + 1
1
If Qi ( s ) =
s
1 1 αo α1 α2
Q2 ( s ) = . = + +
( τs + 1 )2 s s ( τs + 1 )2 τs + 1
By multiplying both sides by s( τs + 1)2 and expanding, we get
α o ( τs + 1 )2 + α1s + α 2 s( τs + 1 ) = 1
α o ( τ 2 s 2 + 2τs + 1 ) + α1s + α 2 ( τs 2 + s ) = 1
s 2 ( α o τ 2 + α 2 τ ) + s( 2τα o + α1 + α 2 ) + α o = 1
s0 ⇒ αo = 1
s2 ⇒ α o τ 2 + α 2 τ = 0 ⇒ τ 2 + α 2 τ = 0 ⇒ α 2 = −τ
s1 ⇒ 2α o τ + α1 + α 2 = 0 ⇒ 2τ + α1 − τ = 0 ⇒ α1 = −τ
1 τ τ
Q2 ( s ) = − −
s ( τs + 1 ) 2
τs + 1
1 τ τ
Q2 ( s ) = − −
s ( τs + 1 )2 τs + 1
1 1 1 1
Q2 ( s ) = − −
s τ ( s + 1 / τ )2 s + 1 / τ
t
Q2 ( t ) = 1 − e −t / τ − e −t / τ for non-interacting
τ

Process Control /Lec. 5 54 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Interacting system
U

If the tanks are interacting, the overall transfer function, according to Equation of
interacting system (assuming further that A 1 =A 2 ) R R R R

1 1
Q2 ( s ) = 2 2 .
τ s + 3τs + 1 s
By application of the quadratic formula, the denominator of this transfer function can
be written as
1 1
Q2 ( s ) =
s ( 0.38τs + 1 )( 2.62τs + 1 )
α α1 α2
Q2 ( s ) = o + +
s 0.38τs + 1 2.62τs + 1
let s = 0 ⇒ α o = 1
1 1
let s = − ⇒ α1 = −0.38τ = 0.0664τ
0.38τ 2.62τ( −
1
) +1
0.38τ
1 1
let s = − ⇒ α1 = −2.62τ = −3.664τ
2.62τ 0.38τ( −
1
) +1
2.62τ
1 0.0664τ 3.0664τ
Q2 ( s ) = + −
s 0.38τs + 1 2.62τs + 1
1 0.0664τ / 0.38τ 3.0664τ / 2.62τ
Q2 ( s ) = + −
s s + 1 / 0.38τ s + 1 / 2.62τ
1 0.17 1.17
Q2 ( s ) = + −
s s + 1 / 0.38τ s + 1 / 2.62τ

Q2 ( t ) = 1 + 0.17e −t / 0.38τ − 1.17e −t / 2.26 τ

Figure: Effect of interaction on step response of two tank system.


Process Control /Lec. 5 55 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Linearization of non-linear systems

To solve non-linear systems there are two methods:-

1-Linearization method
Making the non-linear function as linear using Taylar series and give approximate
results.

2-Non-linear solution
It is difficult and give exact solution

Linearization Technique
y = 2t 
 Linear(all terms to power =1)
y =t + x 
y = t2 

y=2 t  Non-Linear (power ≠1)
y = ln x 


To make the non-linear function linear one use Tayler series.


d f ( x) 1 d 2 f ( x)
f ( x ) = f ( xo ) + ( x − xo ) + ( x − xo ) 2 + ...............
dx x = xo 2! dx 2 x = xo

Neglacting the non linear terms because their value are very small.
Then
d f ( x)
f ( x ) = f ( xo ) + ( x − xo )
dx x = xo

Process Control /Lec. 6 56 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example:
U U

The flow of water through a valve or other construction usually follow a square-root
law.
h qi
If qo = Linear valve
R
qo = c h Non-linear valve
c is a constant
h
qo
d ( ρV ) dh
qi ρ − q o ρ = = ρA
dt dt 𝒒𝒒𝒐𝒐 = 𝒄𝒄√𝒉𝒉
dh
qi − ch1 / 2 = A ……..(1)
dt
q o may be expanded around the s.s. value h s using linearization method
R R R R

1 1
h1 / 2 = hs1 / 2 + ( h − hs )
2 h1S / 2

 1 1  dh
qi − c hs1 / 2 + 1/ 2
( h − hs = A
) …….. (2)
 2 h s  dt

[ ] dh
qis − c hs1 / 2 = A s = 0
dt
at s.s h=h s …….. (3)
R R

1 1  d ( h − hs )
( qi − qis ) − c  1 / 2 ( h − hs ) = A
 2 hs  dt
c 1  dH
Qi −  1 / 2 H  = A
 2 hs  dt
c 1
assume =
2 hs R
H dH
∴ Qi − =A
R dt
dH
RA + H = RQi
dt
By taking laplace transform
( τs + 1 )H ( s ) = RQi ( s )
H( s ) R
= ………….. 1st order system
Qi ( s ) τs + 1 P P

2 hs
Where R = and τ = AR
c
Process Control /Lec. 6 57 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
1-Transfer function is similar to linear.
2- R depends on the s.s. condition (at steady state the flow entering the tank equals to
the flow leaving the tank,then q o =q os ).
R R R R

Example: Mixing tank with chemical reaction


2A → B + C
Re action Rate = r = −kc 2 F, ci
C( s )
G( s ) = =?
Ci ( s ) F, c
c i ,c : Composition of component (A)
R R

V: Constant=L V
F: Constant=L/min 2A → B + C
Solution:
In - out - rate of reaction = accumulation
dc
Fci − Fc − Vkc 2 = V Un-steady state
dt
c 2 = cs2 + 2cs ( c − c s )
dc
Fci − Fc − Vk [ cs2 + 2cs ( c − c s )] = V
dt
dc s
Fcis − Fcs − Vkcs2 = V = 0 Steady state c=c s R

dt
d ( c − cs )
F ( ci − cis ) − F ( c − cs ) − Vk [ 2cs ( c − c s )] = V
dt
dC
V + ( F + 2Vkcs )C = FCi ÷ ( F + 2Vkcs )
dt
dC
τ + C = RCi
dt
C( s ) R
= 1st order system
Ci ( s ) τs + 1

Where C = c − cs , Ci = ci − cis
V F
τ= , R=
F + 2Vkcs F + 2Vkcs

Process Control /Lec. 6 58 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Linearization of nth order nonlinear differential equation
P P

th
Consider the n order nonlinear differential equation f ( x1 , x2 ..., xn ) = u( t )
Expanding the nonlinear function in a Taylor series about an operating point that
xio , i =1,2...,n satisfies the original differential equation and retaining only the linear
terms yields:-
df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn )
f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) ≈ f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) x = x0 + ( x1 − x1o )
i i dx1 x = x0i i

df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn ) df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn )
+ ( x2 − x2o ) + + ( xn − xno )
dx2 x = x0
dxn x = x0
i i i i

Example:
U

Mixing tank F, ci
C( s )
G( s ) = =? F, c
F( s )
c : Variable (kg/L)
F: Variable (L/min)
C i : Constant
R R

V: Constant
Solution:
dc
Fci −  Fc =V
non linear term dt

∂f ∂f
f ( x , y ) = f ( xs , y s ) + x = xs ( x − xs ) + x = xs ( y − ys )
∂x y = ys ∂y y = ys

∴ Fc = Fs cs + cs ( F − Fs ) + Fs ( c − cs )
dc
Fci − [ Fs cs + cs ( F − Fs ) + Fs ( c − cs )] = V Un s.s
dt
dcs
Fs ci − Fs cs = V =0 s.s
dt
d ( c − cs )
ci ( F − Fs ) − cs ( F − Fs ) − Fs ( c − cs ) = V
dt
dY
ci X − cs X − FsY = V
dt
Process Control /Lec. 6 59 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Y = c − cs
where
X = F − Fs
dY
[V + FsY = ( ci − c s ) X ] ÷ Fs
dt
V dY ( c − cs )
+Y = i X
Fs dt Fs
dY
τ
+ Y = RX
dt
Where
V ( c − cs )
τ= , R= i
Fs Fs
Y( s ) R
= st
1 order system
X ( s ) τs + 1 P P

Time Delay
The most commonly used model to describe the dynamics of chemical process is
First-Order Plus Model Delay Model. By proper choice τ d , this model can be
U U R R

represent the dynamics of many industrial processes.

• Time delay or dead time between inputs and outputs are very common
industrial procsses, engineering systems, economical, and biological systems.

• Transportation and measurement lags, analysis times, computation and


communication lags.
Any delay in measuring, in controller action, in actuator operation, in computer
computation, and the like, is called transportation delay or dead time, and it always
reduces the stability of a system and limits the achievable time of the system.

The Transportation Lag


The transportation lag is the delay between the time an input signal is applied to a
system and the time the system reacts to that input signal. Transportation lags are
common in industrial applications. They are often called “dead time”.

Process Control /Lec. 6 60 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Dead-Time Approximations:-
U

qi(t) qo(t)
Dead
Time

q i (t) = Input to dead-time element.


R R

q o (t) = Output from dead-time element.


R R

The simplest dead-time approximation can be obtained qraphically or by physical


representation.
qo ( t ) = qi ( t − τd )
Qo ( s ) = Qi ( s )e − τ d s
Qo ( s ) − τ d s
=e
Qi ( s )
The accuracy of this approxiamtion depends on the dead time being sufficicently
small relative to the rate of the change of the slope of q i (t). If q i (t) were a ramp
R R R R

(constant slope), the approximation would be perfect for any value of τ d . When the R R

slope of q i (t) varies rapidly, only smal τ d ’s will give a good approximation.
R R R R

If the variation in x(t) were some arbitrary function, as shown in figure below, the
response y(t) at the end of the pipe would be identical with x(t) but again delayed by t

Figure Response of transportation lag to various inputs.

Process Control /Lec. 6 61 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: Thermal system
U U

If measured at T 1 this can be modelled as:


R R

T1( s ) K
=
V ( s ) τs + 1
Due to the delay time the temperature T 2 represented by:
R R

T2 ( s ) K e − τ d s
=
V( s ) τs + 1

Example: Mixing tank with time delay.


U U

F, ci

F, c1 F, c2
F, V : Constants
V L
c1
Time delay
C2 ( s ) − τ d s
=e
C1( s )
Volume of tube AL AL L
τd = = = =
Volumetric flow rate q uA u
C1( s ) R
=
Ci ( s ) τs + 1

C2 ( s ) C2 ( s ) C1( s )
 = ×
Ci ( s ) C1( s ) Ci ( s )
C2 ( s ) R −τd s L
=
∴ C ( s ) τs + 1
e Where
τd =
i u (Time Units)

Process Control /Lec. 6 62 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Second order system

A linear second order system under dynamic condition is given by the differential
equation:-
1 d 2Y 2ξ dY
+ + Y = kX
ωn2 dt 2 ωn dt
1

ωn
d 2Y dY
∴ τ2 + 2ξτ + Y = kX
dt 2 dt
Where:-
k : Steady state gain
Y : Response value
X : Input disturbing variable
ω n : Natural frequency of oscillation of the system.
R R

Y (0) = Y (0) = 0
ξ : Damping factor (damping coefficient)
By taking laplace for the above second order differential equation
τ 2 s 2Y ( s) + 2ξτsY ( s) + Y ( s) = kX ( s)
(τ 2 s 2 + 2ξτs + 1)Y ( s ) = kX ( s )

Y ( s) k
G ( s) = = 2 2 T.F. of second order system
X ( s ) τ s + 2ξτs + 1

If x is sudden force, such as, step change inputs, Y will oscillate depending on the
value of damping coefficient ξ .
ξ <1 Response will oscillate (Under damped)
ξ>1 Response will oscillate (Over damped)
ξ=1 Response critical oscillation (critical damped)

Process Control /Lec. 7 63 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Response of second order system
U

1) Step change response


A k A k τ2 A
X (s) = ⇒ Y (s) = 2 2 × = × ……(1)
s τ s + 2ξτs + 1 s 2ξ 1 s
s2 + s+ 2
τ τ
The quadratic term in this equation may be factored into two linear terms that contain
the roots
2ξ 2ξ 4 4ξ 2 4 ξ 2 −1
− ± ( ) −
2
− 2
s1, 2 = τ τ τ 2 = −ξ ± τ 2 τ 2 = −ξ ± τ2
2 τ 2 τ 2
ξ 2 −1
−ξ
= ± =Two real roots
τ τ

ξ 2 −1
−ξ −ξ ξ 2 −1
s1 = − and s 2 = + ……(2)
τ τ τ τ

Eq. (1) can now be re-written as


kA τ 2
Y (s) =
s ( s − s1 )( s − s 2 )

ξ>1 Overdamped Two distinct real roots


ξ=1 Critically Damped Two equal real roots
0<ξ<1 Underdamped Two complex roots

k A α0 α1 s + α 2
Y ( s) = × = +
τ 2 s 2 + 2ξτs + 1 s s τ 2 s 2 + 2ξτs + 1
α o (τ 2 s 2 + 2ξτs + 1) + α1s 2 + α 2 s = kA
s0 α 0 = kA
s1 2α 0ξτ + α 2 = 0 ⇒ α 2 = −2kAξτ
s2 α 0τ 2 + α 1 = 0 ⇒ α 1 = −kAτ 2
1 τ 2 s + 2ξτ
∴ Y ( s ) = kA[ − 2 2 ]
s τ s + 2ξτs + 1

Process Control /Lec. 7 64 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
ξ ξ
s+2 s+2
1
Y ( s ) = kA[ − τ 1
] = kA[ − τ ]
s ξ 1 ξ 2
ξ 2
s ξ ξ2 1 ξ2
(s + 2 s + 2 ) + 2 − 2 (s + 2 s + 2 ) + 2 − 2
τ τ τ τ τ τ τ τ
ξ
s+2
1
Y ( s ) = kA[ − τ ]
s ξ 2 1− ξ 2
(s + ) +
τ τ2

1) For ξ<1 ==> under damped system


ξ ξ ξ
s+2 s+ +
1
Y ( s ) = kA[ − τ 1
] = kA[ − τ τ ]
s ξ 1− ξ 2 s ξ 1− ξ 2
(s + ) 2 + ( ) 2
(s + ) 2 + ( )2
τ τ τ τ
ξ ξ
s+
1
= kA[ − τ − τ ]
s ξ 1−ξ 2 2 ξ 1− ξ 2 2
(s + ) 2 + ( ) (s + ) 2 + ( )
τ τ τ τ
ξ ξ τ 1− ξ 2
s+ × ×
1 τ τ 1− ξ 2 τ
= kA[ − − ]
s ξ 1 −ξ 2 2 ξ 1− ξ 2 2
(s + ) 2 + ( ) (s + ) 2 + ( )
τ τ τ τ
( −ξ / τ ) t 1−ξ 2 ξ ( −ξ / τ ) t 1−ξ 2
Y (t ) = kA[1 − e cos t− e sin t]
τ 1−ξ 2 τ

1− ξ 2
w=
τ
ξ
Y (t ) = kA[1 − e ( −ξ / τ )t (cos wt + sin wt ]
1− ξ 2

ξ 1
r= p2 + q2 = 1+ ( )2 =
1− ξ 2 1− ξ 2

p 1 1− ξ 2
φ = tan −1
= tan −1 = tan −1

q ξ ξ
1− ξ 2

Y (t ) = kA[1 − e ( −ξ / τ )t (r sin( wt + φ ))]


Process Control /Lec. 7 65 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
𝒚𝒚
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

2) For ξ>1 Overdamped system


ξ ξ ξ
s+2 + s+
1
Y ( s ) = kA[ − τ 1
] = kA[ − τ τ ]
s ξ 2 1− ξ 2
s ξ 2 ξ 2 −1
(s + ) + 2 (s + ) − 2
τ τ τ τ
ξ ξ
s+
= kA[ −
1 τ − τ ]
s ξ ξ −1 2
2
ξ ξ −1 2
2
(s + ) 2 − ( ) (s + ) 2 − ( )
τ τ τ τ
ξ ξ τ ξ 2 −1
s+ × ×
1 τ τ ξ 2 −1 τ
= kA[ − − ]
s ξ ξ −1 2
2
ξ ξ −1 2
2
(s + ) 2 − ( ) (s + ) 2 − ( )
τ τ τ τ
ξ
sinh wt ] where w = ξ − 1
2
Y (t ) = kA[1 − e −(ξ / τ ) t (cosh wt +
ξ 2 −1 τ

𝒚𝒚
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

Process Control /Lec. 7 66 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Terms Used to Describe an Underdamped System
U

Second order system response for a step change

1.05 b

0.95 b

tp

Figure (8.3) Terms used to describe an underdamped second-order response.

1. Overshoot (OS)
U U

Overshoot is a measure of how much the response exceeds the ultimate value (new
𝐴𝐴
steady-state value) following a step change and is expressed as the ratio in the Fig.
𝐵𝐵
(8-3).
− πξ
OS = exp
1− ξ 2 )
OS % = 100 × OS

2. Decay ratio (DR)


U U

The decay ratio is defined as the ratio of the sizes of successive peaks and is given by
𝐶𝐶
in Fig. (8.3). where C is the height of the second peak
𝐴𝐴
− 2πξ
DR = exp = (OS ) 2
1−ξ 2

3. Rise time(t r )
U U R R

This is the time required for the response to first reach its ultimate value and is
labeled in Fig. (8.3).
1− ξ 2
π − tan −1

ξ
tr =
w
Process Control /Lec. 7 67 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
4. Response time
U

This is the time required for the response to come within ±5 percent of its ultimate
value and remain there. The response time is indicated in Fig. (8.3).

5. Period of oscillation (T)


U U

The radian frequency (radians/time) is the coefficient of t in the sine term; thus,
2πτ
T=
1−ξ 2

6. Natural period of oscillation


U

If the damping is eliminated (ξ=0), the system oscillates continuously without


attenuation in amplitude. Under these “natural” or undamped condition, the radian
1
frequency is . This frequency is referred to as the natural frequency w n .
τ
R R

1
wn =
τ
The corresponding natural cyclical frequency f n and period T n are related by the
R R R R

expression:-
1 1
fn = = Thus, τ has the significance of the undamped period.
Tn 2πτ

7- Time to First Peak(t p ) :


U U R R

Is the time required for the output to reach its first maximum value.
π πτ
tp = =
w 1− ξ 2

Figure(8.4) Characteristics of a step response of underdamped second-order system.


Process Control /Lec. 7 68 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Derivations

1-Over shoot
wt + φ = φ + nπ


t= max or min n=1, 2, 3 ……
w

If n=0, 2, 4, 6, ……………. ∴ min


If n=1, 3, 5, 7, ……………. ∴ max
1st max when n=1
P P

nπ π
t= =
w w
−ξπ
1 π
y (t ) = kA[1 − e τw
sin ( w + φ )]
1− ξ 2 w
−ξπ
1 1−ξ 2
y max = kA[1 − e (− sin φ )]
1−ξ 2

For Underdampded system


1− ξ 2
cos φ = −ξ , sin φ = 1 − ξ 2 , tan φ =
−ξ
−ξπ
1 1−ξ 2
∴ y max = kA[1 + e ( 1 − ξ 2 )]
1− ξ 2

−ξπ
1−ξ 2
y max = kA[1 + e ]
A max − B
Overshoot = =
B B
−ξπ
1−ξ 2
kA[1 + e ] − kA
Overshoot =
kA
− ξπ
Overshoot = exp
1−ξ 2 )

Process Control /Lec. 7 69 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
2-Decay Ratio
C
Decay ratio = (The ratio of amount above the ultimate value of two sucessive
A
peaks).
nπ 3π
t= for n=3 then t =
w w
−πξ
1−ξ 2
First peak at n=1 y max = kA[1 + e ]
−3πξ
1−ξ 2
Second peak at n=3 y max = kA[1 + e ]
−3πξ −3πξ
− 2πξ
1−ξ 2 1−ξ 2
kA[1 + e ] − kA e 1−ξ 2
Decay Ratio = −πξ
= −πξ
=e
1−ξ 2 1−ξ 2
kA[1 + e ] − kA e
− 2πξ
Decay Ratio = exp
1−ξ 2

3. Rise time (t r )
U U R R

It is the time required for the response to first tauch the ultimate line.
−ξt
1
y (t ) = kA[1 − e τ
sin (tw + φ )]
1− ξ 2

At t r y(t)=kA
R R

−ξt
1
kA = kA[1 − e τ
sin (t r w + φ )]
1−ξ 2

0 = sin (t r w + φ )]
sin −1 (0) − φ
tr =
w
1− ξ 2
nπ − tan −1

nπ − φ ξ
tr = = =
w w

1−ξ 2
π − tan −1

ξ
tr = for n=1
w

Process Control /Lec. 7 70 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
4-Period of oscillation (T)
1− ξ 2
w = Radian frequency =
τ
1
w = 2πf also T =
f

1−ξ 2
f =
2πτ

2πτ
∴T =
1−ξ 2

5. Natural period of oscillation (T n ). R R

The system free of any damping for ξ=0


1− ξ 2 1
w, radian of frequency = ⇒ wn = for ξ = 0
τ τ
1
w n = 2πf n ⇒ = 2πf n
τ
1
fn =
∴ 2πτ

6-Response time(t s ) R R

The time required for the response to reach (±5%) of its ultimate value and remain
there.

7- Time to First Peak (t p ) R R

Is the time required for the output to reach its first maximum value.

t=
w
First peak is reached when n=1

nπ π πτ
tp = = =
w w 1− ξ 2

Process Control /Lec. 7 71 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
2- Impulse Response
U

If impulse δ(t) is applied to second order system then transfer response can be written
as.
k
Y (s) = 2 2 X (s)
τ s + 2ξτs + 1
X ( s ) = Area = A
k
Y (s) = .A
τ 2 s 2 + 2ξτs + 1
kA / τ 2 kA / τ 2
Y (s) = =
2ξ 1 2ξ 1 ξ ξ
s +
2
s + 2 s2 + s + 2 + ( )2 − ( )2
τ τ τ τ τ τ
kA / τ 2 kA / τ 2
= =
2ξ ξ 2 1 ξ 2 ξ 2 1− ξ 2
s +
2
s+( ) + 2 −( ) (s + ) + 2
τ τ τ τ τ τ

i) ξ>1
kA τ ξ 2 −1
τ ξ 2 −1 τ
2
kA / τ 2 kA / τ 2
Y (s) = = =
ξ 2 1− ξ 2 ξ  ξ 2
− 
2
ξ  ξ 2
− 
2
(s + ) + 2 (s + ) 2 − 
1  (s + ) 2 − 
1 
τ τ τ  τ  τ  τ 
   
−ξt
kA
Y (t ) = e τ
sinh wt
τ ξ −1
2

ξ 2 −1
w=
τ
ii)ξ<1
kA τ 1− ξ 2
kA / τ 2 kA / τ 2 τ 2 1− ξ 2 τ
Y ( s) = = =
ξ 1−ξ 2 ξ 2  1 − ξ 2 
2
ξ 2  1 − ξ 2 
2
(s + ) 2 + 2 (s + ) +  (s + ) + 
τ τ τ  τ  τ  τ 
   
−ξt
kA
Y (t ) = e τ
sin wt
τ 1− ξ 2

Process Control /Lec. 7 72 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
1− ξ 2
w=
τ

iii)ξ=1
kA / τ 2 kA / τ 2 kA / τ 2
Y (s) = = =
ξ 1 −ξ 2 1 1 − 12 1
(s + ) 2
(s + ) 2 + 2 (s + ) 2 + 2
τ τ τ τ τ
kA
Y (t ) = te −t /τ
τ 2

Example A step change from 15 to 31 psi in actual pressure results in the measured
response from a pressure indicating element shown in Fig. E5.14.

Figure E5.14
Assuming second-order dynamics, calculate all important parameters and write and
approximate transfer function in the form
R' ( s) K
= 2 2
P' ( s ) τ s + 2ζτs + 1
where R' is the instrument output deviation (mm), P' is the actual pressure deviation
(psi).
Solution:
11 .2 mm − 8 mm
Gain = = 0.20 mm / psi
31 psi − 15 psi
12.7 mm − 11 .2 mm
Overshoot = = 0.47
11 .2 psi − 8 psi

 − πζ 
Overshoot = exp  = 0.47
 1−ζ 2 
 
ζ = 0.234
2πτ
Period = = 2.3 sec
1−ζ 2

Process Control /Lec. 7 73 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
1 − 0.234 2
τ = 2.3 sec× = 0.356 sec

R' ( s) 0.2
=
P' ( s) 0.127 s + 0.167 s + 1
2

Example: A control system having transfer function is expressed as:


Y ( s) 5
G ( s) = = 2 2
X ( s ) τ s + 2ψτs + 1
The radian frequency for the control system is 1.9 rad/min. The time constant is 0.5
min. The control system is subjected to a step change of the magnitude 2.
Calculate :
(i) Rise time
(ii) Decay ratio
(iii) Maximum value of Y(t)
(iv) Response time

Solution:
Given
2
X ( s) =
s
Time constant τ = 0.5 min
Radian frequency w = 1.9 rad / min
1−ξ 2 1−ξ 2
w= ⇒ 1.9 = ⇒ ξ = 0.312
τ 0.5
i) Rise time
1−ξ 2 1 − 0.312 2
π − tan −1 3.1416 − tan −1
ξ 0.312
tr = = = 1.0 min
w 1.9
C − 2πξ − 2π 0.312
ii) Deacay ratio = = exp( ) = exp( )
A 1−ξ 2 1 − 0.312 2
∴Decay ratio = 0.127
iii) Ultimate value of the response Yultimate (B) at t → ∞
Y ( s) 5
=
X ( s ) 0.25s + 0.316 s + 1
2

2
X ( s) =
s
10
Y ( s) =
s (0.25s + 0.316s + 1)
2

Process Control /Lec. 7 74 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
10
lim t →∞ Y (t ) = lim s →0 [ sY ( s )] = lim s →0 = 10
(0.25s + 0.316 s + 1)
2

Yultimate (B) = 10
B
Maximum value of response = B(1 + )
A
B − πξ
Overshoot= = exp( )
A 1−ξ 2
Decay ratio=Overshoot2 P

0.127=Overshoot2 P

B
overshoot = 0.356 =
A
Maximum value of response =10(1+0.356)=13.56
τ
iv) Response time ts =3 =4.8077 min for ± 5% of ultimate value
ξ

Process Control /Lec. 7 75 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
The Control System

The control system


U

A liquid stream at a temperature T i , enters an insulated, well-stirred tank at a constant


R R

flow rate w (mass/time). It is desired to maintain (or control) the temperature in the
tank at T R by means of the controller. If the indicated (measured) tank temperature T m
R R R

differs from the desired temperature T R , the controller senses the difference or error,
R R R

E = TR- Tm
R
R R R

Figure (8.1) Control system for a stirred-tank heater.

There are two types of the control system:-


1) Negative feedback control system
Negative feedback ensures that the difference between T R and T m is used to R R R R

adjust the control element so that tendency is to reduce the error.


E=T R -T m R R R

2) Positve feedback control system


If the signal to the compartos were obtained by adding T R and T m we would R R R R

have a positive feedback systems which is inherently unstable. To see that this
is true, again assume that be system is at steady state and that T=T R =T i . R R R R

If T i were to increase, T and T m would increas which would cause the signal
R R R R

from the compartor to increase, with the result that the heat to the system
would increse.
At s.s. T=T R =T in R R R

E=T R +T m R R R

Process Control /Lec. 8 76 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Servo Problem versus Requlator Problem
U

 Servo Problem
There is no change in load T i , and that we are interested in changing the bath
R R

temperature (change in the desired value (set point) with no disturbance load).

 Requlating problem
The desired value T R is to remain fixed and the purpose of the control system is
R R

to maintain the controlled variable T R in spite of change in load if there is a change in


R R

the input variable (disturbance load).

Control system elements


U

Control system elements are:-


1) Process
2) Measuring element
3) Controller
4) Final Control Element
GL(s)
Ti(s)
Load
Comparator
TR or YR Final control T or Y
Controller Process
element
Set point
GC GV GP

Tmor Ym
Measuring
device
Gm

Closed Loop Feedback control

Process Control /Lec. 8 77 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Development of block Diagram

Process
U

The procedure for developing the transfer function remain the same.
An unsteady-state energy balance around the heating tank gives.
dT
W Cp (Ti − To ) + q − W Cp (T − To ) = ρ Cp V
dt
Where T o is the reference temperature
R R

dT
At steady state, dt =0

dT
W Cp( Tis − To ) + q s − W Cp( Ts − To ) = ρ Cp V =0
dt
By substracting both equations
d ( T − Ts )
W Cp(( Ti − Tis ) − ( T − Ts )) + q − qs = ρ Cp V
dt
Note that the refernece temperature T o cancels in the subtraction. If we introduce
R R

thedeviation variables.
Ti = Ti − Tis
T = T − Ts
Q = q − qs
dT
W Cp( Ti − T ) + Q = ρ Cp V
dt
Taking the laplace transform gives
W Cp (Ti ( s ) − T ( s )) + Q( s ) = ρ Cp VsT ÷ W Cp
ρV Q( s)
sT + T ( s ) = + Ti ( s )
W WCp
The last expression can be written as
1 Q( s ) Ti ( s )
T (s) = +
(τs + 1) WCp τs + 1
Where
ρV
τ=
W
T (s) or Y(s) = controlled var iable
Q(s) or m(s) = manipulated var iable
Ti (s) or d (s) = disturbance var iable
If there is a change in Q(t) only then Ti ( t ) = 0 and the transfer function relating
Ti to Q is

Process Control /Lec. 8 78 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
T ( s) 1 1
=
Q( s ) (τs + 1) WCp
If there is a change in Ti (s ) only thenQ(t)=0and the transfer function relating T to Ti
is
T(s) 1
=
Ti ( s ) ( τs + 1 )

Gd
d( s ) 1
Ti ( s ) τs + 1
+
Gp
m( s ) 1 / WCp + Y( s )
Qi ( s ) τs + 1 T(s)

Block Diagram for process


Y ( s ) = G p ⋅ m( s ) + Gd ⋅ d ( s )

Measuring Element
U

The T.F. of the temperature-measuring element is a first order system


Tm ( s ) km
= ⇒ Tm ( s ) = Gm T ( s )
T ( s) τm s + 1
km
Gm =
τm s + 1
Where T and Tm are deviation variables defined as
T = T − Ts
Tm = Tm − Tm s
∆ Output
K m = steady state gain =
∆ input
τ m =time lag (time constant)=(1-9) sec
R R

T(s) Km
Gm = Tm (s )
τm s + 1

Figure Block diagram of measuring element

Process Control /Lec. 8 79 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Controller and final control element
U

The relationship for proportional controller is


P( s)
= Gc ( s ) E (s ) Kc Q(s )
G ( s)
Q( s) = KC E ( s)
P = P − Ps
E = TR − Tm

G(s) for propertional controller Gc ( s ) = K C


TR = Tm = T at steady state

Controller
Tsp(or TR)+ E P(s)
Gc
-
Tm

Process Control /Lec. 8 80 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Controllers and Final Control Element

Final control Elements:


U

Control valve, Heater, Variec, Motor, pump, damper, louver, …. etc.

Control valve
Control valve that can control the rate of flow of a fluid in proportion to the
amplitude of a pressure (electrical) signal from the controller. From experiments
conducted on pneumatic valves, the relationship between flow and valve-top pressure
for a linear valve can often be represented by a first-order transfer function:
Air supply Air supply

Control valve (Air to close) Control valve (Air to open)

Figure Pneumatic control valve (air-to-close).


(air to close) (air to open)
open close close open
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
P = (3 − 15) psig P = (3 − 15) psig
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
max flow flow max
flow rate rate flow
rate = 0 =0 rate

Transfer Function of Control Valve


m( s ) Q ( s ) KV
Gv( s ) = = =
p ( s ) P ( s ) τv s + 1
∆ Output  Q 2 − Q1 
K v =steady state gain = = 
∆ Input  P2 − P1 S.S
R R

τv = Time lag
τv ≤ 10 sec (Good)
Where:

Process Control /Lec. 9 81


Fourth Class
K v : steady-state gain i.e., the constant of proportionality between steady-state flow
R R

rate and valve-top pressure.


τ v : time constant of the valve and is very small compared with the time
R R

constants of other components of the control system. A typical pneumatic valve has a
time constant of the order of 1 sec. Many industrial processes behave as first-order
systems or as a series of first-order systems having time constants that may range
from a minute to an hour. So the lag of the valve is negligible and the T. F. of the
valve sometimes is approximated by:
Q(s)
= KV
P(s)
The time constant of lag valve depends on the size of valve, air supply characteristics,
whether a valve positioner is used, etc.
Control Action
U

It is the manner, in which the automatic controller compares the actual value of the
process output with the actual desired value, determines the deviations and produce a
control signal which will reduce the deviation to zero or to small value.

Classification of industrial automatic controller:


U

They are classified according to their control action as:


1) On-off controller
2) Proportional controller (P)
3) Integral controller (I)
4) Proportional plus Integral controller (PI)
5) Proportional plus Derivative controller (PD)
6) Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative controller (PID)
The automatic controller may be classified according to the kind of power
employed in the operation, such as pneumatic controller, hydraulic controller or
electronic controller.
Self operated controller: In this controller the measuring element (sensor) and the
actuator in one unit. It is widely used for the water and gas pressure control.
d=Ti(s) 𝑅𝑅
𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 =
𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1
Comparator
E
TR P 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 m
𝑅𝑅 y(s)
GC=Kc 𝐺𝐺𝑣𝑣 = 𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃 =
𝜏𝜏𝑣𝑣 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1
Set point Q T(s)
Or ysp Final control
Controller Process
element

Tm(s) 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 T(s)


𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 =
𝜏𝜏𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 + 1

Figure: Closed loop block diagram of first order system


Process Control /Lec. 9 82
Fourth Class
Types of Feedback Controllers
U

1) Proportional controller (P):


For a controller with a proportional control action, the relationship between the
output of the controller, p(t), and the actuating error signal (input to controller) is
P(t ) = K C × E (t )
p (t ) − ps = K C × E (t ) set point P(s)
KC
p(t ) = K C × E (t ) + ps
P( s)
GC = K C = (T .F )
E ( s) Output signal
∆p
KC = ( ) s.s
∆E
P( s) = KC × E ( s)

Proportional Band (Band Width)


Is defined as the error (expressed as a percentage of the range of measured variable)
required to make the valve from fully close to fully open.
1
P.B = × 100 %
KC

On-Off Control
On-Off control is a special case of proportional control.
If the gain K C is made very high, the valve will move from one extreme position to
R R U U

the other if the set point is slightly changed. So the valve is either fully open or fully
closed (The valve acts like a switch).
The P.B. of the on-off controller reaches a zero because the gain is very high
P.B ≈ 0

2) Propertional-Integral controller (PI):


This mode of control is described by the relationship
t
1
p(t ) = ps + K C [ E (t ) +
τI ∫ E (t )dt ]
0
K C : Steady state gain
R R

τ I : Integral time constant


t 1
KC K C (1 + ) P(s)
( p (t ) − ps ) = P(t ) = K C E (t ) +
τI ∫ E (t )dt τIs
0

Taking L.T

Process Control /Lec. 9 83


Fourth Class
P( s) 1
= K C (1 + ) = Gc ( s )
E (s) τIs

A
Prob(10-1): PI controller with step change in error E(s) =
U U

s
1 A
P ( s ) = K C (1 +
)
τIs s E(t) p(t)
KC.A
K A A KC A τi
∴ P(t ) = K C A + C t
τI 0 ps
0 t 0 t
Y=c+mX Response of a PI controller (lineaer)
t E(t) P(t)

3) Proportional-derivative control (PD):


dE (t )
p(t) = K C [ E(t) + τ D ] + ps
dt
dE (t )
(p(t) - p s ) = P(t) = K C E(t) + K Cτ D
dt
P(s) set point P(s)
= K C + K Cτ D s KC(1+τDs)
E(s)
P(s)
= K C (1 + τ D s ) = Gc
E(s)
K C : gain
R R

τ D : Derivative time (rate time)


R R

Example:
A
For Ramp Error E(t) = At (Ramp) E(s) =
s2
A AK K Aτ
P(s) = K C (1 + τ D s ) × E(s) = K C (1 + τ D s ) × 2 = 2 C + C D
s s s
P(t) = K C At + K C AτD

4) Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller


t
KC dE (t )
∫ E (t )dt +τ d
set point P(s)
p (t ) = K C [ E (t ) + ] + ps K C (1 +
1
+ τ s)
τI 0 dt τIs D

Process Control /Lec. 9 84


Fourth Class
P(t) P(s)

P( s) 1
= K C (1 + + τ s)
E (s) τIs D

Motivation for Addition of Integral and Derivative Control Modes


U

The value of the controlled variable is seen to rise at time zero owing to the
disturbance. With no control, this variable continues to rise to a new steady-state
value.
 With control, after some time the control system begins to take action to try to
maintain the controlled variable close to the value that existed before the
disturbance occurred.
 With proportional action only, the control system is able to arrest the rise of the
controlled variable and ultimately bring it to rest at a new steady-state value.
The difference between this new steady-state value and the original value (the
set point, in this case) is called offset.
 The addition of integral action eliminates the offset; the controlled variable
ultimately returns to the original value. This advantage of integral action is
balanced by the disadvantage of a more oscillatory behavior.
 The addition of derivative action to the PI action gives a definite improvement
in the response. The rise of the controlled variable is arrested more quickly,
and it is returned rapidly to the original value with little or no oscillation.

Process Control /Lec. 9 85


Fourth Class
Figure: Response of a typical control system showing the effects
of various modes of control

Example: A unit-step change in error is introduced into a PID controller. If K c = 10,


U U R R

τ I = 1, and τ D = 0.5, plot the response of the controller, m(t).


R R R R

Solution:
U

The equation of PID controller is


P(s) 1
= K C (1 + + τDs) m(t)
E(s) τ Is
1
E(s) = slop = 10
s
10 1
P(s) = (1 + + 0.5s) 5
s s
10 10
P(s) = + 2 + 5 10
s s
m(t) = 10 + 10t + 5δ (t)
0 t→

Example: Consider the 1st order T. F. of the process with control valve
U U P P

Valve process
P(s) KV KP Y(s)
τV s + 1 τ s +1
Process Control /Lec. 9 86
Fourth Class
If we assume no interaction;
The T. F. from P(s) to Y(s) is

Y (s) KV K p
= For a unit step input in P
P( s ) (τ v s + 1)(τ s + 1)
1 KV K p
Y(s) =
s (τ v s + 1)(τ s + 1)
 ττ  1 −t / τ v 1 −t / τ  
y(t) = K v K p 1 − v  e − e 
 τv −τ τ τv
R R R R

 

Y ( s) KK
If τ>>τ v then the T. F. is = v p
P( s ) (τ s + 1)
R R

For a unit step input in p


y(t) = K v K p (1 – e-t/τ)
R R R R P P

Example: a pneumatic PI controller has an output pressure of 10 psi when the set
point and pen point are togather. The set point is suddenly displaced by 1.0 in (i.e a
step change in error is introduced) and the follwing data are obtained.
Time (s) 0- 0+ 20 60 80
Psi 10 8 7 5 3.5
Determine the actual gain (psi/inch displacement) and the integral time

E
1.0 in
10 psi
Kc
8psi
Kc
τI
For PI control
K
p (t ) = K c + c ∫ Edt + p s
τI
For E=1
K
p (t ) = K c + c t + ps
τI
From the above figure
Kc = 2
Kc 7−5 2
= =
τ I 60 − 20 40
τ I = 20 K c = 20 × (2) = 40 sec
Process Control /Lec. 9 87
Fourth Class
Example: (A) a unit-step change in error is introduced into a pid controller, if K c =10
U U R R

, τ I =1 and τ D =0.5 plot the response of the controller P(t).


R R R R

(B) if the error changed with a ratio of 0.5 in/min plot the response of p(t).
Solution:
U

(A) For a PID control


U

K dE
p (t ) = K ct + c ∫ Edt + K cτ D + ps
τI dt
For a unit step change in error E(t)=1
At t=0 p (0) = K c + p s
Kc
t>0 p (t ) = K c + t + ps
τI
P = p − ps = 10 + 10t

Kc
1 10 τI
E P
0 0

0 0

dE
(B) E=0.5 t = 0.5 and ∫ dEdt = ∫ 0.5dt
dt
∴ p(t ) = 10 × 0.5 t + 10∫ 0.5 tdt + 10 × 0.5 × 0.5 + ps
p (t ) − p s = 5 t + 2.5 t 2 + 2.5
P( t ) = p( t ) − p s = 2.5 + 5 t + 2.5 t 2 t P(t)
0 2.5
1 10
E 0.5 P(t) 2 22.5
3 40
0 2.5 4 62.5
5 90
0 t 0 t

Process Control /Lec. 9 88


Fourth Class
Dynamic Behaviour of Feedback Controlled Process

Overall transfer function of a closed- loop control system:

d(s) Gd
Comparator
ysp E(s) C(s) m(s) y(s)
GC Gf Gp

Controller Final control Process


element

ym(s) y (s)
Gm
Process balance
y ( s ) = G p m( s ) + Gd d ( s ) Measuring Device

Measuring device
y m ( s ) = Gm y ( s )
Controller system
E ( s ) = ysp ( s ) − ym ( s ) Comparator
C ( s ) = Gc E ( s ) Controller
Final control element
m( s ) = G f C ( s )
Algebra manipulation of the above equations and arrange then
y ( s ) = G p m( s ) + Gd d ( s )
y ( s ) = G p G f C ( s ) + Gd d ( s )
y ( s ) = G p G f Gc E ( s ) + Gd d ( s )
y ( s ) = G p G f Gc ( ysp ( s ) − ym ( s )) + Gd d ( s )
y ( s ) = G p G f Gc ( ysp ( s ) − Gm y ( s )) + Gd d ( s )
y ( s) = G p G f Gc ysp ( s ) − G p G f GcGm y ( s ) + Gd d ( s )
(1 + Gc G f G pGm ) y ( s ) = Gc G f G p ysp ( s ) + Gd d ( s )
Gc G f G p Gd
y(s) = ySP ( s ) + d (s)
1 + Gc G f G p Gm 1 + Gc G f G p Gm
Let G = G C G f G P
R R R R R

G Gd
∴ y( s) = y SP ( s ) + d (s)
1 + GGm 1 + GGm
G Gd
= GSP = Gload
1 + GGm 1 + GGm

Process Control /Lec. 10 89 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Types of control proplems:
1) Servo systems:

The distubance does not change (i.e. d (s) = 0 ) while the set point undergoes change.
The feedback controller act in such away as to keep y close to the changing ysp . The
T.F. of closed loop system of this type is:
G p G f Gc
y ( s) = ySP ( s )
1 + Gc G f G p Gm

2) Regulated systems:

In these systems the set point (desired value) is constant ( ysp (s) = 0 ) and the change
occurring in the load. The T.F. of closed loop control system of this type is:
Gd
y ( s) = d (s)
1 + Gc G f G p Gm
y ( s ) = Gload d ( s )

The feedback controller tries to eliminate the impact of the load change d to keep y at
the desired setpoint.

Effect of controllers on the response of a controlled process:


(1) Effect of Propertional Control
U

The general T.F of the closed loop controller is:


Gc G f G p Gd
y (s) = ySP ( s ) + d (s) (*)
1 + Gc G f G p Gm 1 + Gc G f G p Gm
Consider Gm = 1 , G f = 1
Also for propertional controller GC = K C
And eqn. (*) becomes
Kc G p Gd
y ( s) = ySP ( s ) + d (s) (**)
1 + Kc G p 1 + Kc G p
For a first order systems
dy
τ p + y = K pm + Kd d
dt
Which gives

Process Control /Lec. 10 90 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Kp Kd
y (s) = m (s) + d (s)
τ ps + 1 τ ps + 1
Thus for the uncontrolled system we have time constant= τ p R

Static gains: K p for manipolation and K d for load


R R R R

Kp Kd
put G p = and Gd =
τ ps + 1 τ ps + 1
Then by substitution in eqn. (**) and take the closed loop reponse as
Kp Kd
Kc
τ ps + 1 τ ps + 1
y( s ) = ySP ( s ) + d( s )
Kp Kp
1 + Kc 1 + Kc
τ ps + 1 τ ps + 1
K P KC Kd 1 + K p KC
y ( s) = [ ySP ( s ) + d ( s )] ×
τ p s + 1 + K p KC τ p s + 1 + K p KC 1 + K p KC
K P KC Kd
1 + K p KC 1 + K p KC
y ( s) = ySP ( s ) + d (s)
τ ps 1 + K p KC τ ps 1 + K p KC
+ +
1 + K p KC 1 + K p KC 1 + K p KC 1 + K p KC
Rearrange the last eqn.
KP Kd
y (s) = y SP ( s ) + d ( s)
τ ps +1 τ ps +1
Where
τP
τp = Closed loop time constant
1 + K p KC
K p KC
Kp = Closed loop ststic gain
1 + K p KC
Kd
Kd = Closed loop ststic gain
1 + K p KC
The close-loop response has the follwing charactrstics:-
1- It remains first order with respect to load and setpoint change
2- The time constant has been reduced (τ p < τ P ) which mean that the closed-loop
response has become faster than the open loop response, to change in set point
or load.
3- The static gain have been decreased.

Disadvantage of Propertional control


Consider a servo problem with a unit step in the set point

Process Control /Lec. 10 91 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
1
ysp = d (s) = 0
s
Kp 1
y= ⋅
τ ps + 1 s
−t / τ p
y( t ) = K p ( 1 − e )
∴ y( ∞ ) = K p
The ultimate response of t → ∞ never reaches the desired new setpoint. There is
always a discrepancy called offset which is equal to:

Offset = New set point - Ultimate value


K p KC
=1 − K p = 1 −
1 + K p KC
1
∴ offset =
1 + K p KC
Offset decreases as K C becomes larger an thoretically offset → 0 when K C → ∞
R R

1
ysp(t) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
1+𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
1
y(t)

0
2- Effect of Integral Control
U

Consider a servo problem, d ( s ) = 0


Gc G f G p
y ( s) = y SP ( s ) (*)
1 + Gc G f G p Gm
Consider Gm = G f = 1
kp
For the 1st order process G p =
τ ps + 1
P P

For a simple integral control


1
Gc = K c
τIs
Sub in eqn. (*)

Process Control /Lec. 10 92 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
KP K
⋅ C
τ ps + 1 τ I s K P KC
y( s ) = ySP ( s ) = ySP ( s )
1+
KP

KC ( τ p s + 1 )( τ I s ) + K K
P C
τ ps + 1 τ I s
K P KC
K P KC
y( s ) = ySP ( s )
τ pτ I s 2 τ s K K
+ I + P C
K P KC K P KC K P KC
1
y ( s) = 2 2 y SP ( s ) (**)
τ s + 2ψτs + 1
Where
τ Iτ p 1 τI
τ= ψ=
K p Kc 2 τ p K p Kc
Eqn. (**) indicates an important effect of the integral control action:-
1- It increases the order of the dynamic for the closed-loop reponse.
Thus for a first-order uncontrolled process, the response of the closed-loop
becomes second order.
2- Increase K C decreases ψ ∴more oscillatory
3- To examine the effect of integral on s.s error
1
y ( s) = 2 2 y SP ( s )
τ s + 2ψτs + 1
1
If y SP ( s ) =
s
The ultimate value= AK=1*1=1
∴offset= New setpoint-ultimate value
=1-1=0
It indicate that the integral control eliminates any offset

3- Effect of Derivative Control Action


U

For derivative control


Gc = K c τ D s
KP
⋅K τ s
τ ps + 1 c D K P K cτ D s
y( s ) = ySP ( s ) = ySP ( s )
1+
KP
⋅K τ s τ p s + 1 + K K
P c Dτ s
τ ps + 1 c D
K P K cτ D s
y (s) = y SP ( s ) (*)
(τ p + K p K c τ D ) s + 1
Eqn. (*) indicates that:-
Process Control /Lec. 10 93 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
1- The derivative control does not change the order of the reponse.
2- The effective time constant of the closed-loop response ( τ p + K p K C τ D > τ p )
This means that the response of the controlled process is slower than that of the
original first-order process and as K c increase the response become slower.
Effect of Composite Control Action
U

1- Effect of PI control
U

Combination of propertional and integral control modes lead to the follwing effects
on the response of closed-loop system.
1- The order of the response inceases ( effect of I mode).
2- The offset is eliminated (effect of I mode).
3- As K c increses, the response becomes fater ( effect of P and I modes) and more
R R

oscillatory to set point changes [ovesrshoot and decay ratio increase (effet of I
mode)].
Large value of K c create a very sensitive response and may lead to instability.
R R

4- Asτ I decreases, for constant K c , the reponse become faster but more oscillatory
R R

with higher overshoot and decay ratio (effect of I mode).

2- Effect of PID control


U

To increase the speed of the closed loop response, increase the value of the controller
gain K c . But increasing enough K c in order to have acceptable speed, the response
R R R R

become more oscillatory and may lead to unstability.


The introduction of the derivative mode brings a stability effect to the system. Thus
to achive
1- Acceptable response speed by selecting an appropriate value for the gain K c .R R

2- While maintaining moderate overshoot and decay ratios.

Process Control /Lec. 10 94 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: Regular loop with the following elements
U U

3
G P (s) = (process)
10 s + 1
R R

1
G d (s) = (Load)
10 s + 1
R R

G m (s) = 1
R R (measuring device) if not given take 1
G C (s) = 2
R R (controller)
G f (s) = 1.5
R R (valve)
Gd(s)
θd(s)
Determine the system response for a unit step in load 1
10 s + 1
θSP(s) θo(s)
2 1.5 3
Set point
10 s + 1
GC(s) Gf (s) GP(s)

Solution:
U

Gm(s)

θo ( s) Gd ( s )
Regulator loop: =
θ d ( s ) 1 + Gm ( s )G ( s )
3 9
G(s) = G C (s) G f (s) G P (s) = 2×1.5× =
10 s + 1 10 s + 1
R R R R R R

1
θo ( s )
= 10 s + 1
1
=
θd ( s ) 1 + 9 10 s + 10
10 s + 1
1
θ d (s) =
R R 1/10
s
1
θ o (s) = 10 θ o (t) off-set
s ( s + 1)
R R

θ o (t) = 0.1(1 - e-t )


At t = 0 ,θ o (t) = 0
At t = ∞ , θ o (∞) = 0.1
Or
1
1
θ o (∞) = lim sθ o ( s ) = lim s 10 =
s →0 s → 0 s ( s + 1) 10
Offset= New s.s value-Ultimate value= 0 - 0.1= -0.1

Process Control /Lec. 10 95 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: the set point of the control system shown in the figure is gives a step
U U

change of a 0.1 unit. Determine


1- The maximum value of C.
2- The offset.
3- The period of oscillation.
5 C
R K c = 1.6
( s + 1)(2 s + 1)
C ( s) GcG p
=
R( s ) 1 + GcG p
5
1.6 ×
C ( s) ( s + 1)(2 s + 1) 8
= = 2
R( s ) 1 + 1.6 × 5 2 s + 3s + 1 + 8
( s + 1)(2 s + 1)
8
C( s ) 8 9 0.8889
= 2 = =
R( s ) 2 s + 3 s + 9 2 s 2 + 1 s + 1 0.222 s 2 + 0.333 s + 1
9 3
τ = 0.222 ⇒ τ = 0.471
2

2ψτ = 0.3333 ⇒ ψ = 0.3538 (Underdamped)


Ultimate Value=A*K=0.1*0.8889=0.08889
− ψπ − 3.1418 × 0.3538
Overshoot = exp( ) = exp( ) = 0.3047
1 −ψ 2 1 − (0.3538) 2
1) The maximum value =Ultimate value*(1+Overshoot)
= 0.08889*(1.3047)=0.1160
To find the time required to reach maximum value apply K, A , C max , ψ and τ R R

in the equation.
ψ
Y ( t ) = kA[ 1 − e( −ψ / τ )t (cos wt + sin wt ]
1 −ψ 2

1 −ψ 2
w=
τ
2) The offset=New set point- Ultimate value
=0.1-0.088889=0.01111
2πτ 2π × 0.471
3) Period of oscillation = = = 3.1640
1 −ψ 2
1 − (0.3538) 2

Example: Consider the figure below, a unit step change in load enters at either
location 1 or location 2.
What is the offset when the load enters at location 1 and when it enters at location 2
Process Control /Lec. 10 96 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
U1 G1 U2 G2
Gc
2 1
R Kc = 5 C
(2 s + 1) (2 s + 1)

a-when the load enters in location 1


U

1
U 1( s ) = , U2( s ) = 0
s
G1G2
C ( s) = U1 ( s )
1 + GcG1G2
2 1

C( s ) = 2s + 1 2s + 1 U ( s ) = 2
U 1( s )
+ + +
1 2
2 1 4 s 4 s 1 10
1+ ⋅ ×5
2s + 1 2s + 1
2 2 / 11
= 2 U 1( s ) = U 1( s )
4 s + 4 s + 11 4 2 4
s + s+1
11 11
2
K = = 0.1818
11
4
τ= = 0.6030
11
4 4 1
2ψτ = ⇒ ψ = × = 0.3015
11 11 2τ
Ultimate value=A.K=1*0.1818=0.1818
Offset=0 - 0.1818= -0.1818

b-when the load enters in location 2


U

G2
C ( s) = U 2 (s)
1 + GcG1G2
1
2s + 1 2s + 1
C ( s) = U 2 ( s) = 2 U 2 (s)
1+
2

1
×5 4 s + 4 s + 1 + 10
2s + 1 2s + 1
2s + 1 2s + 1
= 2 U 2 (s) =
4 s + 4 s + 11 4 2 4
s + s + 11
11 11
2s + 1 1
C (∞) = lim = = 0.091
s →0 4 2 4
s + s + 11 11
11 11
Offset= 0 - 0.0.091= -0.091

Process Control /Lec. 10 97 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: For the figure
U U

1 1 C
R K c (1 + + τ s)
τIs D τ 1s + 1

Forτ D = τ I = 1 andτ I = 2
a- Calculate ψ when K c =0.5 and K c =2
R R R R

b- Determine the effect for a unit-step change in load if K c =2 R R

C ( s) GcG p
=
R( s ) 1 + GcG p
1 1 1 1
+ τ D s)
K c (1 + K c (1 + + s )
C (s) τIs τ 1s + 1 s 2s + 1
= =
R ( s ) 1 + K (1 + 1 1 1 1
+ τ D s) 1 + K c (1 + + s )
c
τIs τ 1s + 1 s 2s + 1
s + 1 + s2 1
Kc ( )
s 2s + 1 = Kc (s + 1 + s 2 ) Kc (s + 1 + s 2 )
= =
s + 1 + s2 1 2s 2 + s + K c ( s + 1 + s 2 ) (2 + K c ) s 2 + (1 + K c ) s + K c
1 + Kc ( )
s 2s + 1
(s + 1 + s )
2
=
(2 + K c ) 2 (1 + K c )
s + s +1
Kc Kc
a-1) K c =0.5
R R

2 + Kc 2 + 0.5
τ= = = 2.2361
Kc 0.5
(1 + K c ) 1 + 0.5 3 3
2ψτ = = = 3 ⇒ψ = = = 0.6708
Kc 0.5 2τ 2 × 2.2361
a-2) K c =2R R

2+2
τ= = 1.4142
2
(1 + K c ) 1 + 2 1.5 1.5
2ψτ = = = 1.5 ⇒ ψ = = = 0.5303
Kc 2 2τ 2 × 1.41421
Gp
B) C ( s ) = = U (s)
1 + G pGc
1 1
τ 1s + 1 2s + 1
C ( s) = U (s) = U (s)
1 1 1 1
1 + K c (1 + + τ s) 1 + K c (1 + + s )
τ I s D τ 1s + 1 s 2s + 1

Process Control /Lec. 10 98 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
s s 1
= U ( s) = 2 ×
2s + s + Kc (s + 1 + s )
2 2
2 s + s + 2( s + 1 + s ) s
2

1
= 2
4 s + 3s + 1
τ =2
3
2ψτ = 3 ⇒ ψ = = 0.75
4
1
C (∞) = lim s 2 =0
s → 0 4 s + 3s + 1

Offset=0-0=0

Example A PD controller is used in a control system having a first order process as


U U

shown. For Servo problem


a-find expression for ψ and τ for the closed loop response.
b-if τ 1 =1 , τ m =10 sec . Find K c so that ψ=0.7 for two cases (1) τ D =0 ,(2) τ D =3 sec.
R R R R R R R R R R

c- Calculate the offset in both cases. U Gp


Gc
1
R K c (1 + τ D s ) C
(τ 1s + 1)
1
(τ m s + 1)
Gm
For the closed loop T.F.
GcG p Gp
C= R( s) = U (s)
1 + GcG pGm 1 + GcG pGm
1
K c (1 + τ D s ) ⋅
τ 1s + 1
C= R( s)
1 1
1 + K c (1 + τ D s ) ⋅ ⋅
τ 1s + 1 τ m s + 1
K c (1 + τ D s )
C= R( s)
1
τ 1s + 1 + K c (1 + τ D s ) ⋅
τ ms + 1
K c (1 + τ D s )
C= R( s)
τ 1τ m s 2 + (τ 1 + τ m ) s + 1 + K c + K cτ D s
τ ms + 1
K c (1 + τ D s )(τ m s + 1)
C= R( s)
τ 1τ m s + (τ 1 + τ m + K cτ D ) s + (1 + K c )
2

K c ( 1 + τ D s )( τ m s + 1 )
( 1 + Kc )
C= R( s )
τ 1τ m s 2
( τ 1 + τ m + K cτ D )
+ s+1
( 1 + Kc ) ( 1 + Kc )
Process Control /Lec. 10 99 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
τ 1τ m
τ=
1 + Kc
τ 1 + τ m + K cτ D
2ψτ =
1 + Kc
τ 1 + τ m + K cτ D 1 + K c
ψ=
2(1 + K c ) τ 1τ m
τ + τ + K cτ D
∴ψ = 1 m
2 (1 + K c )τ 1τ m

τ1 + τ m + K cτ D
b)∴ψ = for ψ=0.7
2 (1 + K c ) τ 1τ m
1) τ D =0
R R

60 + 10 + 0 35
∴ 0.7 = =
2 (1 + K c ) 60 × 10 600 + 600 K c
600 + 600 K c = 50
600 + 600 K c = 2500
K c = 3.166

2) τ D =3 sec
R R

60 + 10 + 3K c 70 + 3K c
∴ 0.7 = =
2 (1 + K c ) 600 2 (1 + K c ) 600
70 + 3K c = 34.292 (1 + K c )
2.04(1 + 0.042 K c ) = (1 + K c )
4.1616 + 0.355K c + 0.0075K c2 = (1 + K c )
0.0075K c2 − 0.0645K c + 3.1616 = 0
∴ K c = 80.73 or K c = 5.266

(c) The offset


lim f ( t ) = lim sf ( s )
t →∞ s →0
1
R=
s
K c (1 + τ D s )(τ m s + 1)
(1 + K c ) 1 Kc 3.166
Ultimate value= lim s × = = = 0.76
s →0 τ 1τ m s (τ 1 + τ m + K cτ D )
2
s 1 + K c 4.166
+ s +1
(1 + K c ) (1 + K c )
Offset= 1- 0.76= 0.24

Process Control /Lec. 10 100 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Overall transfer function of a closed- loop control system

The transfer function of a block diagram is defined as the output divided by its input
when represented in the Laplace domain with zero initial conditions. The transfer
function G(s) of the block diagram shown in Fig. (1).
Y(s)
= G (s)
X(s)
Here the path of the signals X(s) and Y(s) is a forward path.

X(s) G(s) Y(s)

Fig. (1) Transfer function of a block diagram

Consider the block diagram of cascaded elements shown in Fig. (2a). Form the
definition of a transfer function we have:
X 2 (s)
= G1 (s)
X1 (s)
X 3 (s)
= G 2 (s)
X 2 (s)
Y(s)
= G 3 (s)
X 3 (s)
And substitution yields
Y(s) = G 3 (s)X 3 (s) = G 3 (s)[G 2 (s)X 2 (s)] = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)X1 (s)
Which can be written as
Y(s)
= G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s) = G (s)
X1 (s)

X1(s) X2(s) X3(s) Y(s) X1(s) Y(s)


G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G(s)

(a) (b)

Fig. (2) Cascaded elements

The overall transfer function then is simply the product of individual transfer
functions.

For applications where it is required to generate a signal which is the sum of two
signals we define a summer or summing junction as shown in Fig. (3a). If the
Process Control /Lec. 11 101 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
difference is required, then we define a subtractor as shown in Fig. (3b). Subtractors
are often called error detecting devices since the output signal is the difference
between two signals of which one is usually a reference signal.

X1(s) + +
X1(s)+X2(s) X1(s) X1(s)-X2(s)
+ -

X2(s) X2(s)
(a) (b)
Summer Subtractor (Error detecting device)
Fig. (3) Addition or subtraction of signals
The combination of block diagrams in parallel is shown in Fig. (4a). Form the
definition of the transfer function we have
Y1 (s) = G1 (s)X(s)
Y2 (s) = G 2 (s)X(s)
Y3 (s) = G 3 (s)X(s)
And the summer adds these signals,
Y(s) = Y1 (s) + Y2 (s) + Y3 (s)
or
Y(s) = [G1 (s) + G 2 (s) + G 3 (s)]X(s)
The overall transfer function shown in Fig.(4b) is
Y(s)
= G (s)
X(s)
where
G (s) = G1 (s) + G 2 (s) + G 3 (s)

Y1(s)
G1(s)

X(s) Y2(s) +
G2(s) Y(s) X(s) G(s) Y(s)
+
+
Y3(s)
G3(s)
(b)
(a)
Fig. (4) Parallel combination of elements
In summary, we observe that for cascaded elements the overall transfer function is
equal to the product of the transfer function of each element, whereas the overall

Process Control /Lec. 11 102 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
transfer function for parallel elements is equal to the sum of the individual transfer
function.
Example:Derive the overall transfer function for the control system shown in Fig.
U U

(5).

H1(s)
B1(s)
+ E1(s) C1(s) - E2(s) C2(s) C(s)
R(s) G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
- +
B2(s) H2(s)

Fig.(5) Block diagram of a system with two feedback paths


Solution
U

E1 (s) = R (s) − B2 (s)


E 2 (s) = C1 (s) − B1 (s)
C1 (s) = G1 (s)E1 (s)
C 2 (s) = G 2 (s)E 2 (s)
C(s) = G 3 (s)C 2 (s)
B1 (s) = H1 (s)C(s)
B2 (s) = H 2 (s)C 2 (s)
Substituting of the sub-transfer functions
C(s) = G 3 (s)C 2 (s)
C(s) = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)E 2 (s)
C(s) = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[C1 (s) − B1 (s)]
C(s) = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)E1 (s) − H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s) = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)(R (s) − B2 (s)) − H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s) = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)R (s) − G1 (s)H 2 (s)C 2 (s) − H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s)
C(s) = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)R (s) − G1 (s)H 2 (s) − H1 (s)C(s)]
G 3 (s)
C(s)
C(s) = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)R (s) − G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)H 2 (s) − G 3 (s)G 2 (s)H1 (s)C(s)
G 3 (s)
[1 + G 2 (s)G1 (s)H 2 (s) + G 3 (s)G 2 (s)H1 (s)]C(s) = G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)R (s)
Finally, the overall transfer function
C(s) G1 (s)G 2 (s)G 3 (s)
=
R (s) 1 + G1 (s)G 2 (s)H 2 (s) + G 2 (s)G 3 (s)H1 (s)

Process Control /Lec. 11 103 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: A single-loop control system is shown in figure below. Determine closed-
U U

Y(s)
loop transfer function
R (s)
R(s) +
2( s + 1)( s + 3) Y(s)
G(s)=
- s ( s + 2)( s + 4)

Solution
Y(s) G
Transfer function =
R (s) 1 + GH
2(s + 1)(s + 3) 2(s + 1)(s + 3)
Y(s) s(s + 2)(s + 4) s(s + 3)(s + 4)
= =
R (s) 1 + 2(s + 1)(s + 3) * 1 s(s + 2)(s + 4) + 2(s + 1)(s + 3)
s(s + 2)(s + 4) s(s + 2)(s + 4)
2(s + 1)(s + 3) 2s 2 + 6s + 2s + 6
=
s(s + 2)(s + 4) + 2(s + 1)(s + 3) s3 + 4s 2 + 2s 2 + 8s + 2s 2 + 6s + 2s + 6
Y(s) 2s 2 + 8s + 6
∴ =
R (s) s 3 + 8s 2 + 16s + 6

Block Diagram Reduction


U

When the block diagram representation gets complicated, it is advisable to reduce the
diagram to a simpler and more manageable form prior to obtaining the overall
transfer function. We shall consider only a few rules for block diagram reduction. We
have already two rules, viz. Cascading and parallel connection.
Consider the problem of moving the starting point of a signal shown in Fig. (6a) from
behind to the front of G(s). since B(s)=R(s) and R(s)=C(s)/G(s), then B(s)=C(s)/G(s).
therefore if the takeoff point is in front of G(s), then the signal must go through a
transfer function 1/G(s) to yield B(s) as shown in Fig. (7b).

R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) G(s) C(s)

B(s) Starting point of B(s) B(s) 1/G(s)

(a) (b)

Fig.6 Moving the starting point of a signal

Process Control /Lec. 11 104 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Consider the problem of moving the summing point of Fig. (7a). Since
E(s) = [M (s) + C(s)]G (s) = M (s)G (s) + C(s)G (s)
E(s) = M1 (s) + C1 (s)
where
M1 (s) = M (s)G (s); C1 (s) = C(s)G (s)
The generation of the signals M 1 (s) and C 1 (s) and adding them to yield E(s) is shown
R R R R

in Fig. (7b). A table of the most common reduction rules is given in Table 1.

M(s) + E(s) M(s) M1(s)


G(s) G(s) E(s)
+
+ +
C1(s) G(s) C(s)
C(s)
(a) (b)

Fig.(7) Moving a summing junction

Process Control /Lec. 11 105 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Table 1 Some rules for block diagram reduction
Rule Original system Reduced system
Cascaded R(s) R(s) C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) C(s) G1(s)G2(s)
elements

R(s) + C(s)
G1(s)
Addition or + R(s) C(s)
G1(s)+G2(s)
subtraction
G2(s)

R(s) C(s)
G(s)
R(s) C(s)
G(s)
Moving a
starting point 1
B(s) G (s)
B(s)

R(s) + C(s) R(s) + C(s)


G(s) G(s)
Moving a - -
summing point
B(s) B(s) G(s)

R(s) + C(s)
Closed loop G(s) R(s) G (s) C(s)
-
system 1 + H ( s )G ( s )
H(s)

Consider the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. (8a). The final transfer
function is shown in Fig. (8d).

Process Control /Lec. 11 106 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
First reduction
G3(s)

R(s) + +
G1(s) G2(s) C(s)
+ G4(s)
- +
-

H1(s)

H2(s)

(a) Next reduction

R(s) + C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)+G3(s) G4(s)
+
- -
H 1 (s)
G4 (s )

H2(s)

(b)

R(s) + [G2 ( s ) + G3 ( s)]G4 ( s ) C(s)


G1(s) G5 ( s ) =
1 + H 1 ( s )[G2 ( s ) + G3 ( s)]
-

H2(s)

(c)

R(s) G1(s)G5 (s) C(s)


1 + G1(s)G5 (s)H2 (s)

(d)
Fig.8 Obtaining transfer function by block diagram reduction

Example: Obtain the transfer function C/R of the block diagram shown in Figure
U U

below.

Process Control /Lec. 11 107 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: Obtain the transfer function C/R of the block diagram shown in Figure
U U

below.
G4(s)

R(s) +
+ + +
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) C(s)
- +
H1(s)

H2(s)

Solution:
U U

R(s)
+ +
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) + G4(s) C(s)
- +
H1(s)

H2(s)

R(s)
+ G1(s) x G2(s)
G3(s) + G4(s) C(s)
1- H1(s)x(G1(s) x G2(s))
-

H2(s)

G1 (s).G 2 (s)(G 3 (s) + G 4 (s) )


C(s) 1 − H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)
=
R (s)  G (s).G 2 (s).(G 3 (s) + G 4 (s) )
1 + H 2 (s)  1 
 1 − H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s) 
G1 (s).G 2 (s)(G 3 (s) + G 4 (s) )
1 − H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)
=
1 − H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s) G (s).G 2 (s)(G 3 (s) + G 4 (s) )
+ H(s) 1
1 − H1 (s) ⋅ G1 (s) ⋅ G 2 (s) 1 − H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)
C(s)
=
(G1 (s) ⋅ G 2 (s)) × (G1 (s) + G 4 (s))
R (s) (1 − H1 (s) ⋅ G1 (s) ⋅ G 2 (s) ) + (H 2 (s) ⋅ G1 (s) ⋅ G 2 (s) ) × (G 3 (s) + G 4 (s) )

Process Control /Lec. 11 108 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Stability Analysis

A stable system is one where the controlled variable will always settle near the set
point. An unstable system is one where, under some conditions, the controlled
variable drifts away from the set point or breaks into oscillations that get larger and
larger until the system saturates on each side.

Stable system unstable system

Methods of Stability Test


1-Determination the roots of equation
U
R G2 C
G1

H
G1G 2 G2
C= R (s) + U(s)
1 + G1G 2 H 1 + G1G 2 H
1 + G1G 2 H = 0 (Characterstic Equation)
(s − r1 )(s − r2 )(s − r3 )......... = 0 Im
s-p
s
p ×
Re

A linear control system is unstable if any roots of its characterstic equation are to the
right of imaginary axis.
If this equation has some roots with positive real parts, then the system is unstable, or
some roots equal to zero, the system is marginally stable (oscillatory), therefore it is
unstable.
Then for stability the roots of characteristic equation must have negative
real parts.
Process Control /Lec. 12 109 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example:if
0.5s + 1
G1 = 10 PI control
s
1
G2 = Stirred tank
2s + 1
H =1 Mesuring element without lag
1 + G = 1 + G1G 2 H = 0
10(0.5s + 1)
1+ =0
s(2s + 1)
s(2s + 1) + 5s + 10 = 0
2s 2 + 6s + 10 = 0
s 2 + 3s + 5 = 0
−3 9 − 20
s= 
2 2
−3 11 −3 11
∴ s1 = +j and s 2 = −j
2 2 2 2
3
Since the real part in s1 and s2 in -ve ( − )∴The system is stable
2

2-Routh’s Method
P P

a-Write the characterstic eqn. on the form of a polynomial shape:


a os n + a1s n -1 + a 2s n - 2 + …..a n = 0 (*)

Where ao is positive
It is necessary that ao, a1, a2,…. an-1, an be positive. If any coeff. is negative, the
system is unstable.
If all of the coeff. are positive, the system may be stable or unstable. Then apply the
next step.
b. Routh array:
Arrange the coeff. of eqn. (*) into the first two rows of the Routh array shown
below.
Row
1 ao a2 a4 a6
2 a1 a3 a5 a7
3 A1 A2 A3
4 B1 B2 B3
n+1 C1 C2 C3
Process Control /Lec. 12 110 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
a1a 2 − a o a 3 a1a 4 − a o a 5 a1a 6 − a o a 7
A1 = , A2 = , A3 =
a1 a1 a1
A1a 3 − a1A 2 A a −a A
B1 = , B2 = 1 5 1 3
A1 A1
B1A 2 − A1B2 B A − A1B3
C1 = , C2 = 1 3
B1 B1
Examine the elements of the first column of the array ao, a1, A1, B1,C1……….W1
a) If any of these elements is negative, we have at least one root on the right of
the imaginary axis and the system is unstable.
b) The number of sign changes in the elemnts of the first column is equal to the
number of root to the right of the imaginary axis.

∴The system is stable if all the elements in the first column of the array are
positive

Example:Given the characteristic eqn.


s4 + 3s3 +5s2 + 4s +2= 0
P P P P P P

Solution:
Row 3 × 5 − 4 × 11 11
A1 = =
1 1 5 2 3 3
2 3 4 0 3× 2 − 0
A2 = =2
3 11 3 2 0 3
4 2.36 0 11 3 × 4 − 6
B1 = = 2.36
5 2 11 3
2.36 × 2
C1 = =2
2.36
∴The system is stable

Example: Apply the Routh’s stability criterion to the equation:


P P

s4 + 2s3 +3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0
P P P P P P

Solution:
s4 1 3 5
P P

s3 2 4
P P

s2 1 5
P P

s1 -6 0
P P

s0 5
P P

The system is unstable.

Process Control /Lec. 12 111 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: A system has a characteristic equation s 3 + 9s 2 + 26s + 24 = 0. Using the
Routh criterion, show that the system is stable.
Solution
q(s) = s 3 + 9s 2 + 26s + 24
Using the Routh-Hurwitz criterion,
s 3 1 26
s 2 9 24
s 1 26 0
s 0 24 0
No sign change in 1st column then the system is stable.

Example: Consider the feedback control system with the characteristic equation.
K
s3 + 2s 2 + (2 + K c )s + c = 0
τI
Solution:
The corresponding Routh array can now be formed
Row
1 1 2 + Kc 0
2 2 Kc 0
τI
3 2(2 + K c ) − K c τ I 0 0
2
4 Kc τ I 0 0

The elemnets of the first-column are positive except the third, which can be positive
or negative depending on Kc and τI.
So state the stability
Put 2(2 + K c ) − K c τ I > 0 ⇒ 2(2 + K c ) > K c
2 τI
If Kc and τI satisfy the condition, then the system is atable

Critical stability
Put the third element=0
i.e 2(2 + K c ) = K c
τI
For τI=0.1
2(2 + K c ) = 10K c ⇒ 4 = 8 K c
K c = 0.5
Process Control /Lec. 12 112 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
1) if K c < 0.5 , the system is stable (all of the elements in the 1st column is +ve)

2) if K c > 0.5 , the third element of the 1st column is negative. We have two sign
change in the elements of the first column.

∴we have two roots to the right of imaginary axis.

Example:
U
R 1
Kc C
(τ 1s + 1)(τ 2 s + 1)

1
(τ 3s + 1)

1 1
Ifτ 1 = 1, τ 2 = , τ 3 =
2 3
Determine Kc for a stable system
Solution:
The char. Eqn.
1
1 + Kc =0
1 1
(s + 1)( s + 1)( s + 1)
2 3
1 1
(s + 1)( s + 1)( s + 1) + K c = 0
2 3
1 3 1
( s 2 + s + 1)( s + 1) + K c = 0
2 2 3
s3 s 2 s s 2 3s
+ + + + + 1 + Kc =0
6 2 3 2 2
1 3 2 11
s + s + s + 1 + Kc = 0
6 6
Row
1 1/6 11/6
2 1 1+Kc
3 10 − K c 0
6
4 1+Kc

Since Kc>0
∴The system will be stable
If 10-Kc>0

Process Control /Lec. 12 113 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
K c < 10
Therfore Kc must within the range 0<Kc< 10

Example: U
R 3
K c (1 + ) 2
s
C
1
0.2s 2 + 0.4s + 1
Study the stability for Kc=2
Solution:
3 1
1 + K c (1 + ) × 2 × =0
s 0.2s + 0.4s + 1
2

s+3 2
1 + Kc ( )× =0
s 0.2s + 0.4s + 1
2

sK + 3K c 2
1+ ( c )× =0
s 0.2s + 0.4s + 1
2

0.2s3 + 0.4s 2 + s + 2sK c + 6K c = 0


0.2s3 + 0.4s 2 + (1 + 2K c )s + 6K c = 0
Row Row For Kc=2
1 0.2 1+2Kc 1 0.2 5
2 0.4 6Kc 2 0.4 12
3 A1 0 3 2 − 2.4 0
4 B1 0 0.4
4 1.2 0
0.4(1 + 2K c ) − (1.2K c ) 0.4 + 0.8K c − 1.2K c 0.4 − 0.4K c
A1 = = =
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.4 − 0.4K c > 0
The system is stable for K c < 1
B1 = 6K c ⇒ 6K c > 0
And K c > 0
Therfore Kc must within the range 0 <Kc< 1

Process Control /Lec. 12 114 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Example: Designers have developed small, fast, vertical-take off fighter aircraft that
are invisible to radar. This aircraft concept uses quickly turning jet nozzles to steer
the airplane. The control system for the heading or direction control is shown in
figure.
Determine the maximum gain of the system for stable operation.

+ controller ( s + 20)
R(s) Y(s)
k s ( s + 10) 2 Heading
-

Solution
k (s + 20) ks + 20k ks + 20k
G(s) = = 2 = 3
s(s + 10) 2
s(s + 20s + 100) s + 20s 2 + 100s
Characteristic equation,
1+GH = 0
ks + 20k
1+ 3 *1 = 0
s + 20s 2 + 100s
s 3 + 20s 2 + 100s +ks+20k =0
s3 + 20s 2 + (100 + k )s + 20k = 0
The corresponding Routh array can now be formed
Row
1 1 100+k
2 20 20k
3 a 0
4 b 0

20(100 + k ) − 20k 20 *100 + 20k − 20k


a= = = 100
20 20
a * 20k − 0
b= =20 k
a
The system is stable, no sign change in 1st column,
b>0
20k >0
k>0
∴ Range of k is must be k>0

Process Control /Lec. 12 115 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Frequency Response Analysis

It is how the output response (amplitude, phase shift) change with the frequency of
the input sinusoidal.
The input frequency is varied, and the output characteristics are computed or
represented as a function of the frequency. Frequency response analysis provides
useful insights into stability and performance characteristics of the control system.
Figure below shows the hypothetical experiment that is conducted.

Figure: How frequency response is defined.

Response of a first-Order System to a Sinusoidal Input


U

Consider a simple first-order system with a transfer function


y(s) Kp
G (s) = = (1)
F(s) τ ps + 1
Let F(t) be a sinusoidal input with amplitude A and frequency ω;
F(t) = A sin (ωt)
Then

F(s) = 2 (2)
s + ω2
Sub. F(s) from eq. (2) into eq. (1)
Kp Aω Kp Aω
y(s) = × 2 = ×
τ ps + 1 s + ω τ ps + 1 (s + jω )(s − jω )
2

Expand into partial fraction and find


C1 C2 C3
y(s) = + +
s + 1 / τ p s + jω s − jω
Compute the constants C 1 , C 2 and C 3 and find the inverse of laplace transform.
R R R R R R

K p Aωτ p − K Aωτ p K A
C1 = 2 2 , C2 = 2 p 2 , C3 = 2 p2
τp ω +1 τp ω +1 τp ω +1
Kp Aωτ p − t /τ p Kp Aωτ p Kp A
y( t ) = e − cos(ωt ) + sin(ωt )
τ p2 ω 2 + 1 τ p2 ω 2 + 1 τ p2 ω 2 + 1
−t /τ p
As t→∞, then e → 0 , and the first term disappers.

Process Control /Lec. 13 116


Fourth Class
Thus, after a long time, the response of a first order system to a sinusoidal input is
given by:
Kp Aωτ p Kp A
yss ( t ) = − 2 2 cos(ωt ) + 2 2 sin(ωt )
τp ω +1 τp ω +1
Kp A
yss ( t ) = [−ω τ p cos(ωt ) + sin(ωt )] (3)
τ p2 ω 2 + 1
Use the follwing trigonometric identity.
p cosθ + q sin θ = r sin(θ + φ )
p
r = p2 + q 2 φ = tan −1
q

q =1 p = −ω τ p
r = (−τ pω ) 2 + (1) = τ 2p ω 2 + 1
2

p − ω τp
φ = tan −1 = tan −1 ( ) = tan −1 (−ω τ p )
q 1
Then eq.(3) yield
Kp A
yss ( t ) = 2 2 [( τ 2p ω 2 + 1) sin(ωt + φ )]
τp ω +1
Kp A
yss ( t ) = sin(ω t + φ ) (4)
τ p2 ω 2 + 1

φ = tan −1 (−ωτ p ) = Phase lag (5)

From eq.(4) and eq. (5), we observe that:


1) The ultimate response (also referred to as s.s.) of a first order system to a sin
input is also a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency ω.
2) The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is called the “
amplitude ratio” and is a function of the frequency:
K pA
τ p2ω 2 + 1 Kp
AR = amplitude ratio = =
A τ p2ω 2 + 1
Kp
AR = (6)
τ p2ω 2 + 1
3) The output wave lags behind (phase lag) the input wave by an angle φ >,
which is a function of the frequency ω (see eq.(5)).
Input = A sin (ωt) φ
Process Control /Lec. 13 117
Fourth Class
A B

T Output = B sin (ωt- φ )


It is the most important methods for stability analysis and used for design purposes
control system.
Suppose the input to the process is sinusoidal signal
Where: A is amplitude
1
ω is frequency (rad/sec) =
T
T is period of one complete cycle (time)

Frequency Response of a Second Order System


U

For a second order system the transfer function is:


Kp
G (s) = 2 2
τ s + 2ψτs + 1
Put s=jω then
1) Amplitude Ratio
Kp
AR =
(1 − τ 2ω 2 ) 2 + (2ψ τ ω ) 2
2) Phase shift
2ψ τ ω
φ = tan −1 (− )
1 − τ 2ω 2
Which is aphase lag since φ < 0

Frequency Response of a Pure Dead-Time Process


U

G (s) = e − t d s
Put s=jω
∴ G ( jω ) = e − j t d ω
AR = 1
φ = − t dω
That is aphase lag since φ < 0

Process Control /Lec. 13 118


Fourth Class
Frequency Response of a Feedback Controllers
U

1- Propertional controller:
U

The transfer function is G (s) = K c

∴ AR = K c
φ =0

2- PI controller:
U

1
The transfer function is G (s) = K c (1 + )
τI s
1
∴ AR = K c 1 +
(ωτ I ) 2

−1
φ = tan −1 ( ) <0
ωτ I

3- PD controller:
U

The transfer function is G (s) = K c (1 + τ D s)

AR = K c 1 + τ 2D ω 2

φ = tan −1 (τ D ω ) >0
The positive phase shift is called phase lead and implies that the controller output
lead the input.

4-PID controller:
U

1
The transfer function is G (s) = K c (1 + + τ D s)
τI s
1
AR = K c (τ Dω − )2 + 1
τ Iω

1
φ = tan −1 (τ Dω − )
τ Iω

ϕ is + or – ve depending on the values of τ D , τ I and ω R R R R

Process Control /Lec. 13 119


Fourth Class
Bode Diagrams

The bode diagrams consist of a pair of plots showing:


1. How the logarithm of the amplitude ratio varies with frequency.
2. How the phase shift varies with frequency.

First Order system:


U

Kp
Amplitude ratio AR = (*)
1 + τ p2ω 2
Phase lag= φ = tan −1 − τ p ω
AR 1
log = − log(1 + τ p2 ω 2 ) (**)
Kp 2
The plot can be carried by considering its asymptotic behaviour as ω→0 and as
ω→∞ . Then
1. As ω→0, then τ p ω → 0 and from eq.(*)
AR AR
log → 0 or = 1.This is the low-frequency asymptote. It is a horizontal line
Kp Kp
AR
passing through the point = 1.
Kp

2. As ω→∞, then τ p ω → ∞ and from eq.(**)


AR
log = − logτ p ω . This is the high frequency asymptote.
Kp
AR
It is a line with slope -1 passing through the point = 1forτ p ω = 1 .
Kp
3. At the corner τ pω = 1 → ω = ωc
1
ωcorner = ωc =
τp
AR 1
The frequency ωc is known as the corner frequnecy (and = = 0.707 )
Kp 2
The phase lag plot
U

as ω → 0 , φ →0
1
as ω → , φ → tan −1 (−1) = −45o
τp
as ω → ∞ φ → tan −1 (−∞) = −90 o
,
Process Control /Lec. 13 120
Fourth Class
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝

𝜙𝜙
or
Phase lag

𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝 𝜔𝜔
Figure:Bode diagram for first-order system.

Second –order system


U

Kp − 2ψτω
AR = φ = tan −1 ( )
(1 − τ ω ) + (2ψτω )
2 2 2 2 1 − τ ω
2 2

ψ=0.1

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝

ψ=0.1

𝜙𝜙
or
Phase lag

𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝 𝜔𝜔
1
Figure: Block diagram for second-order system
τ 2s 2 + 2ψτs + 1
Process Control /Lec. 13 121
Fourth Class
AR 1
log = − log[(1 − τ 2ω 2 ) 2 + (2ψτω ) 2 ]
Kp 2
AR 1
1) as ω → 0 , then log = − log(1) = 0
Kp 2
AR
∴ = 1 stright line of a slope=0 (L.F.A)
Kp
−0
φ = tan −1 =0
1
AR 1
2) as ω → ∞ , then log = − log (τω ) 4 = −2 log (τω ) (H.F.A)
Kp 2
It is a straight line with a slope -2 passing through the pointAR=1 and τω=1
1
3) ω = ωc =
τ
Pure dead-time system
U

For the system


AR = 1
φ = −τ d ω

as ω → 0 , φ = 0
as ω → ∞ , φ = ∞
1.0
AR

ϕ -180

-360 | | |
1 10 100
ω
Example: Two systems in series
1 6
G1 (s) = and G 2 (s) =
2s + 1 5s + 1
The overall T.F. is
1 6
G (s) = ⋅
2s + 1 5s + 1
1 6
∴ AR = ⋅
1 + 4ω 2 1 + 25ω 2
log AR = log 6 + log(AR )1 + log(AR ) 2

Process Control /Lec. 13 122


Fourth Class
1
1- Region 1: From ω=0 to ω = , slope of the overall asymptote =0+0=0
5
(i.e. horizontal * going through the point AR=1)
1 1
2- Region 2: From ω = to ω = , slope of the overall asymptote =0+(-1)=-1
5 2
1
going through the point AR=1 , ω =
5
1
3- Region 3: From ω > , slope of the overall asyptote =(-1)+(-1)=-2
2
For ϕ
When as ω → 0 , φ1 → 0 , φ2 → 0, φ → 0
When as ω → ∞ , φ1 → −90 , φ2 → −90, φ → −180
1� 1�
1 𝜏𝜏2 𝜏𝜏1
1 1
5𝑠𝑠 + 1 2𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −1
6
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −2
0

-45

𝜙𝜙 -90
-135

-180 | |
0.2 ω 0.5

Feedback Controller
U

1-Propertional controller
AR = K c φ = 0

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
1.0
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐

ϕ 0

ω
Process Control /Lec. 13 123
Fourth Class
2-Propertional Integral controller (PI)
1
AR = K c 1 +
(ωτ I ) 2
1
φ = tan −1 (− )<0
ωτ I
AR 1 1
log( ) = log(1 + )
Kc 2 (ω τ I ) 2

1- Low frequency asymptote


1 AR
as ω → 0 , >> 1 thenn log( ) → − log(ω τ I )
(ω τ I ) 2
Kc
Consequently, the LFA is a straight line with slope=-1
1
φ = tan −1 − = −90o
0
2- High frequency asymptote
1 AR AR
as ω → ∞ , → 0 then → log( ) → 0 i.e →1
(ω τ I ) 2 Kc Kc
AR
HFA is a horizontal line at value =1
Kc
For the ϕ
as ω → 0 , φ → −90
as ω → ωc , φ → −45
as ω → ∞ , φ → 0

Process Control /Lec. 13 124


Fourth Class
-1

Figure Bode diagram for PI controller.

2-Propertional Derivative controller (PD)


AR = K c 1 + τ D2 ω 2
φ = tan −1 (ω τ D ) > 0
1) Low frequency asymptote

AR 1 AR
as ω → 0 , log( ) = log(τ D2 ω 2 ) = 0 ⇒ =1 (L.F.A) slope=0
Kc 2 Kc
φ = tan −1 0 = 0o
2) High frequency asymptote

AR 1
as ω → ∞ , log( ) = log(τ D2 ω 2 ) = log(τ Dω ) (H.F.A) slope=+1
Kc 2
φ = tan −1 0 = 90o

as ω = 0 , φ = 0
as ω = ωc , φ = +45o
as ω = ∞ , φ → +90o

Process Control /Lec. 13 125


Fourth Class
+1

ω=1/τD

Figure: Bode diagram for PD controller.


3-Propertional Integral Derivative controller (PID)
AR 1 2
= 1 + (τ Dω − )
Kc τ Iω
1
φ = tan −1 (τ Dω − )
τ Iω

AR 1 2
1) as ω → 0 then = 1+ ( ) PI Controller
Kc τ Iω

AR
2) as ω → ∞ then = 1 + (τ Dω ) 2 PD Controller
Kc

1 AR
3) as ω → then = 1 + (τ Dω − 1) 2
τI Kc

1 AR 1 2
4) as ω → then = 1 + (1 − )
τD Kc τ Iω
Frequency Response of non-interacting capactine in sereies
U

G (s) = G1 (s) × G 2 (s) × G 3 (s) × ............ × G n (s)


AR t = AR1 × AR 2 × AR 3 × ............ × AR n

log AR t = log AR 1 + log AR 2 + log AR 3 + ............ + log AR n

φ t = φ1 + φ 2 + φ3 + ............ + φ n
Process Control /Lec. 13 126
Fourth Class
Example: Bode Digram of PID Controller
U U

1
G1 (s) = 10(1 + + 5s)
10s
1
ωc1 (s) = = 0.1 signal(−1)
10
1
ωc1 (s) = = 0.2 signal(+1)
5

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 1.0
1� 1�
𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷

90

+45
ϕ
0

-45

-90
1�
𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼 ω 1�
𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷

Example:
U U

Bode plots of open loop system

Gc Gf Gp
YSP(s) 1 10 5e −0.2s
K c (1 + ) Y(s)
τ Is 0.1s + 1 (2s + 1)(s + 1)

Ym(s)
2
0.5s + 1
The Open loop T.F. of the feedback control
G OL = G c G f G p G m
1 1 1 1
G OL = 100K c (1 + ) ⋅ ⋅ e − 0.2s
τ Is 0.1s + 1 (2s + 1)(s + 1) (0.5s + 1)
With K c =4 and τ I =0.25
R R R R

∴K=400

Process Control /Lec. 13 127


Fourth Class
1
(1 + )
0.25𝑠𝑠

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −1 1
1
0.1𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −2
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 1
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 0.5𝑠𝑠 + 1
1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −3 𝑠𝑠 + 1
1
2𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −4
0.1 0.5 1 2 4 10
0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −3

-45
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −4
-90
𝜙𝜙 .0
-135

-180
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂

Example: Plot the B.D. for the open loop T.F. for the fig. below
U U

G U Gp
c
R K c (1 + τ D s) 1
(s + 1) (0.1s + 1)
2 C

Ym(s) s

e 10

For Kc=10 and τ D =0.5 the overall transfer function is


R R

s

10(0.5s + 1)e 10
G OL (s) =
(s + 1)2 (0.1s + 1)
Overall Bode diagram
1 → 1
G1 (s) = ωc1 = = 1 stright line slope=-1
1s + 1 1
1 → 1
G 2 (s) = ωc 2 = = 1 stright line slope=-1
1s + 1 1
G 3 (s) = 0.5s + 1 → ωc3 = 1 = 2 stright line slope=+1
0.5
1 → 1
G 4 (s) = ωc 4 = = 10 stright line slope=-1
0.1s + 1 0.1
s

G 5 (s) = e 10 stright line slope=0

Process Control /Lec. 13 128


Fourth Class
Amplitude Ratio Curve Prediction
ω SL1 SL2 SLC SL3 sLd SLTotal
0-1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1-2 -1 -1 0 0 0 -2
2-10 -1 -1 +1 0 0 -1
10- -1 -1 +1 -1 0 -2

Phase Lag Curve Prediction


ω ϕ L1 ϕL2 ϕC ϕ L3 ϕd SLTotal
0 0 0 0 0 - -
1 -45 -45 0 - - -
2 - - 45 - - -
10 - - - -45 - -
∞ -90 -90 90 -90 -∞ -∞

Figure: Block diagram for: (a) Amplitude ratio; (b) phase angle.

Process Control /Lec. 13 129


Fourth Class
The Instrumentation and Control Diagrams

Instrumentation
The example level-control problem had three critical pieces of instrumentation: a
sensor (measurement device), actuator (manipulated input device), and controller.
The sensor measured the tank level, the actuator changed the flow rate, and the
controller determined how much to vary the actuator, based on the sensor signal.
Each device in a control loop must supply or receive a signal from another device.

Sensors (Sensing Element)


A device, usually electronic, which detects a variable quantity and measures and
converts the measurement into a signal to be recorded elsewhere. A sensor is a device
that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by
an observer or by an instrument.
There are many common sensors used for chemical processes. These include
temperature, level, pressure, flow, composition, and pH.

For example, a mercury thermometer converts the measured temperature into


expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube.
A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by
a voltmeter.

Control of unit operations


1) Level Control
• A level control is needed whenever there is a V/L or L/L interface
• Many smaller vessels are sized based on level control response time

Process Control /Lec. 14 130 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Figure 14.1 Liquid level control system

Example: A boiler drum with a conventional feedback control system is shown in


Fig. 14.2. The level of the boiling liquid is measured and used to adjust the feed water
flow rate.
This control system tends to be quite sensitive to rapid changes in the disturbance
variable, steam flow rate, as a result of the small liquid capacity of the boiler drum.
Rapid disturbance changes can occur as a result of steam demands made by
downstream processing units.

Figure 14.2 The feedback control of the liquid level in a boiler drum.

The feedforward control scheme in Fig. 14.3 can provide better control of the liquid
level. Here the steam flow rate is measured, and the feedforward controller adjusts
the feedwater flow rate.

Process Control /Lec. 14 131 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Figure 14.3 The feedforward control of the liquid level in a boiler drum.

2)Pressure Control
• Pressure control is usually by venting a gas or vapor.
• In hydrocarbon processes, off-gas is often vented to fuel.
• In other processes, nitrogen may be brought in to maintain pressure and vented
via scrubbers.
• Most common arrangement is direct venting.
• Several vessels that are connected together may have a single pressure
controller.

PV

PIC
PT

Figure 14.4 Pressure control system

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Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
3) Flow Control
• Most common arrangement is a control valve downstream of a pump or
compressor.
FIC

FV
PI FT

Figure 14.5 Flowrate control system

Example:Vaporizer Flow Control


• Vaporizer flow control needs to prevent liquid accumulation.
• Hence use level controller to actuate heat input to the vaporizer and maintain a
constant inventory.
• Control of liquid flow in is easier than control of vapor flow out.

FIC
Vapor
LIC

FV
FT

LV

LT

Feed
Steam
Trap
Condensate
Figure 14.6 Vaporizer control system

4) Temperature Control: Single Stream


• Heaters and coolers are usually controlled by manipulating the flow rate of the
hot or cold utility stream.
• Final control element can be on inlet or outlet of utility side.

Process Control /Lec. 14 133 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Hot or cold
utility

Process
TIC
TE TT

TV

Figure 14.7 Temperature control system

Example: Heat exchangers temperature control


• Temperature control for an heat exchanger is usually by manipulating the flow
through a bypass.
• Only one side of an exchanger can be temperature controlled.
• It is also common to see heat exchangers with temperature control on the
downstream heater and cooler.

TIC
TE TT

TV

Figure 14.8 Temperature control of heat exchanger

Example: Air coolers temperature control


• Ambient air temperature varies, so air coolers are oversized and controlled by
manipulating a bypass.
• Alternatively, air cooler can use a variable speed motor, louvers or variable
pitch fans.

Process Control /Lec. 14 134 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
M M M M
TV

TO VARIABLE
TIC SPEED MOTOR TIC
TE TT TE TT
CONTROL CIRCUIT

(a) (b)
Figure 14.9 Temperature control of air coolers

Example: Temperature Control of CSTR

Feed

TC

Cooling
water
TT

Product

Figure 14.10 Temperature control of CSTR

Distillation Control
 Distillation control is a specialized subject in its own right.
 In addition to controlling condenser pressure and level in the sump, a simple
distillation column has two degrees of freedom.
 Material balance (split) and energy balance (heat input or removed).
 Therefore needs two controllers.
 Therefore has the possibility that the controllers will interact and “fight”
each other.
 Side streams, intermediate condensers & reboilers, pump-arounds, etc. all add
extra complexity and degrees of freedom.

The Energy Balance (LQ) Distillation Column Control Structure


The LQ control structure is the most natural control structure for a simple distillation
column. This is because the separation in a distillation column occurs due to
successive condensation and vaporization of the counter-current vapour and liquid
streams flowing through the column. Adjusting the cold reflux, the source of
Process Control /Lec. 14 135 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
condensation, and the reboiler duty, the source of vaporization, is then a natural
choice for regulating the separation achieved in the column. The LQ control structure
shown in figure (14.11 a) is thus the most commonly applied distillation control
structure. It is also sometimes referred to as an energy balance structure as changing
L (cold reflux) or Q alters the energy balance across the column to affect the distillate
to bottoms product split.

Material Balance Distillation Column Control Structures


The other control structures are referred to as material balance structures as the
product split is directly adjusted by changing the distillate or bottoms stream flow
rate. The material balance structures are applied when a level loop for the LQ
structure would be ineffective due to a very small product stream (D or B) flow rate.
Figure 14.11 b, c and D show Schematics of DQ, LB and DB distillation column
control structures. The DQ structure is thus appropriate for columns with very large
reflux ratio (L/D > 4). The distillate stream flow is then a fraction of the reflux stream
so that the reflux drum level cannot be maintained using the distillate. The level must
then be controlled using the reflux. The LB structure is appropriate for columns with
a small bottoms flow rate compared to the boil-up. The bottoms stream is then not
appropriate for level control and the reboiler duty must be used instead. The DB
control structure is used very rarely as both D and B cannot be set independently due
to the steady state overall material balance constraint. In dynamics however, the
control structure may be used when the reflux and reboil are much larger than the
distillate and bottoms respectively.

Process Control /Lec. 14 136 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Figure 14.11 Schematics of LQ, DQ, LB and DB distillation column control
structures

Other Distillation Column Control Structure


Other variants of the basic control structure types include the L/D-Q, L/D-B and DQ/
B. In the first two structures the reflux ratio is adjusted for regulating the separation.
In the last structure the reboil ratio is adjusted. These control structures are illustrated
in Figure 14.12.
Process Control /Lec. 14 137 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Note that when the reflux is adjusted in ratio with the distillate, the distillate stream
can be used to control the reflux drum level even as it may be a trickle compared to
the reflux rate.

Figure 14.12 Schematics of L/D-Q, L/D-B, and D-Q/B distillation column control
structures.
Process Control /Lec. 14 138 Written by Assoc. Prof.
Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Batch Distillation
• Reflux flow control adjusted based on temperature (used to infer composition)

Figure 14.13 Batch distillation column control system

Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers process used to transfer heat between two process streams. The flow
of these process streams is usually set elsewhere in the plant so that adjusting the
flowrate of one of the process streams to regulate the amount of heat transferred is
not possible.
To provide a control degree-of-freedom for regulating the heat transferred, a small
by-pass (~5-10%) of one of the process streams around the heat exchanger is
provided. The outlet temperature of this process stream or the other process stream
can be controlled by manipulating the by-pass rate. These two schemes are illustrated
in Figure 14.14. In the former, tight temperature control is possible as the amount of
heat transferred is governed by the bypass. In the latter, a thermal lag of the order of
0.5 to 2 minutes exists between the manipulated and controlled variable.

Process Control /Lec. 14 139 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Figure 14.14 By-pass control of process to process heat exchangers
(a) Controlling and bypassing hot stream (b) Controlling cold stream and bypassing
hot stream

Control of Miscellaneous Systems


Vapor Absorption Cycle
In addition to compression systems, refrigerant absorption systems are also applied
industrially. The absorption based refrigeration cycle and its control scheme is shown
in Figure 14.15. Ammonia (refrigerant) rich strong liquor is distilled at high pressure
to recover liquid ammonia as the distillate and ammonia lean weak liquor as the
bottoms. The liquid ammonia is fed to the evaporator where it absorbs heat from the
process stream to be chilled and evaporates. Vapor ammonia is absorbed by the
‘weak liquor’ water stream. The ‘strong liquor’ so formed is fed to the distillation
column to completed the closed circuit refrigerant loop. The temperature of the
chilled process stream is controlled by adjusting the level setpoint of the evaporator.
The heat transfer rate is thus varied by changing the area across which heat transfer
occurs. The evaporator level controller adjusts the distillate liquid ammonia flow. An
increase in the level of the evaporator implies an increase in the ammonia evaporation
rate so that the weak liquor rate is increased in ratio to absorb the ammonia vapours.
The strong liquor is cooled and collected in a surge drum. The level of the surge drum
is not controlled. Liquid from the surge drum is pumped back to the distillation
column through a process-to-process heater that recovers heat from the hot ‘weak
liquor’ bottoms from the distillation column. The flow rate of the strong liquor to the
column is adjusted to maintain the column bottoms level. Also, the steam to the
reboiler is manipulated to maintain a tray temperature.

Process Control /Lec. 14 140 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor
Figure 14.15 Absorption refrigeration control system

Process Control /Lec. 14 141 Written by Assoc. Prof.


Fourth Class Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakoor

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