Flacs 英文使用手册 PDF

A Company in the CMR Group
User’s Guide
FLACS V8
CONFIDENTIAL
FLACS V8 User’s Guide TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRINTING CONVENTIONS
PREFACE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Application fields of FLACS................................................................. 1-2
1.2 Dispersion processes.............................................................................. 1-4
1.3 Gas explosion processes ........................................................................ 1-7
Flame propagation mechanisms .................................................... 1-8
Type of fuel................................................................................. 1-13
Fuel concentration....................................................................... 1-14
Inhomogeneities in the cloud ...................................................... 1-15
Degree of filling by the cloud ..................................................... 1-15
Location of ignition point ........................................................... 1-15
Strength of ignition source .......................................................... 1-17
Size and location of explosion vent areas ................................... 1-17
Location and size of structural elements and equipment............ 1-19
1.4 Water spray.......................................................................................... 1-22
1.5 Blast waves .......................................................................................... 1-26
1.6 Explosion load ..................................................................................... 1-29
Duration and impulse .................................................................. 1-29
Explosion wind ...........................................................................1-30
2 REFERENCE
2.1 Using a unix workstation....................................................................... 2-2
Login ............................................................................................. 2-2
Files and directories ...................................................................... 2-3
Unix commands ............................................................................ 2-6
Environment variables .................................................................. 2-7
2.2 Creating a proper setup for FLACS....................................................... 2-8
2.3 Combustion models in FLACS............................................................ 2-19
Burning-velocity model .............................................................. 2-20
2.4 Contents of oxygen in air..................................................................... 2-23
1
2.5 Introduction to the FLACS files .......................................................... 2-24

2.6 Scenario file ......................................................................................... 2-26
SINGLE_FIELD_VARIABLES................................................. 2-27
SIMULATION_AND_OUTPUT_CONTROL...........................2-34
INITIAL_CONDITIONS............................................................ 2-38
BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS.................................................... 2-40
GAS_COMPOSITION_AND_VOLUME .................................. 2-44
IGNITION ................................................................................... 2-45
MONITOR_POINTS ..................................................................2-46
SINGLE_FIELD_SCALAR_TIME_OUTPUT .......................... 2-46
SINGLE_FIELD_3D_OUTPUT................................................. 2-47
PRESSURE_RELIEF_PANELS ................................................ 2-48
LOUVRE_PANELS ................................................................... 2-54
GRATING ................................................................................... 2-62
LEAKS ........................................................................................ 2-65
WATERSPRAY.......................................................................... 2-69
2.7 Jet release of liquefied gas under high pressure .................................. 2-74
2.8 Grid file ................................................................................................ 2-85
2.9 Porosity file ..........................................................................................2-88
2.10 Obstruction file .................................................................................... 2-89
2.11 Runtime simulation control file ........................................................... 2-90
2.12 Time dependent CFL-numbers file ...................................................... 2-92
2.13 Time dependent leak data files ............................................................ 2-94
2.14 Scalar-time output file ......................................................................... 2-98
2.15 Field output file.................................................................................... 2-99
2.16 Simulation log files............................................................................ 2-100
2.17 Simulation dump files........................................................................ 2-102
2.18 Simulation save files .......................................................................... 2-103
3 GUIDANCE
3.1 About using FLACS .............................................................................. 3-2
3.2 About the grid ........................................................................................ 3-5
3.3 About the initial conditions.................................................................... 3-9
3.4 About the boundary conditions ............................................................ 3-10
3.5 About the obstacles (congestion, confinement and vents)................... 3-14
3.6 About the panels .................................................................................. 3-15
3.7 About the multiblock option ................................................................ 3-19
3.8 About the blast simulation facility ....................................................... 3-23
3.9 About the leakages (and gas dispersion)..............................................3-27
2
3.10 About the watersprays (and mitigation) .............................................. 3-29

3.11 About the gas mixture.......................................................................... 3-31
3.12 About the ignition................................................................................ 3-34
3.13 About the monitor points (and output) ................................................ 3-35
4 THEORY
4.1 Gas properties ........................................................................................ 4-2
Mixing of ideal gases .................................................................... 4-2
Isentropic ideal gas relations ......................................................... 4-3
Calculation of jet sources.............................................................. 4-3
4.2 Combustion............................................................................................ 4-7
Stoichiometric reaction, book-keeping of atoms .......................... 4-7
Gas components in FLACS .......................................................... 4-8
Laminar burning properties in FLACS ......................................... 4-9
4.3 Mathematical model (fluid flow equations) ........................................ 4-11
Governing equations ................................................................... 4-11
Turbulence production near walls, wall functions ...................... 4-14
Leaks ........................................................................................... 4-14
Model summary .......................................................................... 4-15
4.4 Numerical solution procedure.............................................................. 4-16
Equation solver ...........................................................................4-16
Numerical discretization schemes............................................... 4-17
Pressure velocity coupling .......................................................... 4-17
Initial and boundary conditions .................................................. 4-17
4.5 Nomenclature....................................................................................... 4-18
5 EXAMPLES
5.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 5-2
5.2 Geometry definition............................................................................... 5-4
Before you start ............................................................................. 5-4
What to input................................................................................. 5-6
5.3 Grid and porosity ................................................................................. 5-12
Grid definition............................................................................. 5-12
Porosity calculation ..................................................................... 5-12
Verify porosities.......................................................................... 5-13
5.4 Explosion simulations - scenario definition ........................................ 5-14
Important parameters .................................................................. 5-14
Quality assurance ........................................................................ 5-20
5.5 Dispersion simulations - scenario definition ....................................... 5-22
3
Important parameters ..................................................................5-22

Control file .................................................................................. 5-24
Quality assurance ........................................................................ 5-25
5.6 Dispersion and explosion simulations ................................................. 5-26
5.7 Results.................................................................................................. 5-28
5.8 Simulations in the GexCon / Module-A geometry .............................. 5-29
5.9 Explosion simulation ...........................................................................5-32
5.10 Dispersion simulation .......................................................................... 5-38
5.11 COMBINED simulation ...................................................................... 5-44
6 Cloud interface module

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 6-1
6.2 File formats ............................................................................................ 6-2
6.3 KEYWORD and PARAMETER descriptions....................................... 6-5
6.4 Examples.............................................................................................. 6-10
7 CHANGES IN FLACS99
7.1 New features in FLACS99r2 ................................................................. 7-1
LITERATURE
GLOSSARY
INDEX
4
FLACS V8 User’s Guide PRINTING CONVENTIONS
PRINTING CONVENTIONS
This User’s Guide uses the following typographical conventions:
If you see ... It means ...

computer text Text displayed by the computer system. For example,
login:
indicates a login prompt displayed by the system.
This text font may also be used for command names
and options.
italic text Text supplied by you. For example,
runflacs job_number
means that you type runflacs followed by a job
number of your choice.
Italic text is also used for text emphasis.
bold text Bold text is generally used for text emphasis.
bold italic text
bold computer
text
Underlined text Local headings, e.g. used inside sub-sections and
tables.
Contents of a text file, For example,
Text in a shadowed frame • the scenario file
• the FLACS job file
• script files
Figure showing a single directory or a directory struc-

ture. For example,
directory/ flacs1.0/
README examples/ src/ sys/
1
FLACS V8 User’s Guide PRINTING CONVENTIONS
Hopefully this User’s Guide will be of help to you in your work with FLACS.
2
FLACS V8 User’s Guide PREFACE
PREFACE
The purpose of this user’s guide is to assist you in your work with the FLACS pro-
gramme, in understanding its basic structure, to prepare sensible input, to be able to
interpret the results and to use the programme within a valid range of applications.
The first part is an introduction where the new user should get acquainted with FLACS:
+ INTRODUCTION
The main part consists of four chapters where you will find most of the useful informa-
tion about FLACS:
+ REFERENCE
+ GUIDANCE
+ THEORY
+ EXAMPLES
In addition there are three parts at the end which will help you to navigate and to find
answers to some of your questions about FLACS and related topics:
+ LITERATURE
+ GLOSSARY
+ INDEX
The use of FLACS also involves use of its preprocessor CASD and its postprocessor
FLOWVIS. Those programmes have their own user’s guides and it is outside the scope
of the present FLACS user’s guide to explain how to use them.
A logical sequence of activities when using FLACS is:

preparation and verification of input data (using CASD)
simulation (using FLACS)
presentation and verification of results (using FLOWVIS)
You are not required to have the detailed knowledge of either modelling of compressi-
ble, reacting turbulent flows or of CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) to run
FLACS. Some experience in using a computer for routine matters like using an editor
1
and executing computer commands is needed. It is of course important that you possess
the basic knowledge of the simulated scenario to be able to set the parameters that char-
acterizes the scenario.
The correct interpretation of the results from FLACS will require some experience and
also knowledge about the physical processes involved. A suggested starting point for
the novice in the field may be the Gas Explosion Handbook from CMR. Also most of
the reports from the gas explosion research at CMI and CMR through the years contain
a lot of valuable information to all FLACS users.
Summary of changes in FLACS 2.2 compared to FLACS 2.1

The overall effect of the changes in flacs2.2 on the results compared to flacs2.1 is very
small (in the order of 0-1% in maximum pressure). The code is more robust and gives
better indications of errors and it has new possibilities to avoid numerical problems.
Changes in FLACS:
• simplified installation (CDROM)
• updated version string `FLACS, Version 2.2, December 1998'
• new version identification for rd-files (VERSION 1.0)
• corrected pressure scale on r3-files (also available in 2-1-2)
• possibility to set fixed length for time step calculation (use with stretched jet
grids)
• improved error checking for leaks
• corrected flow rate for oblique jets, not depending on jet angle
• porosity not set further downstream of jets (only at jet outlet)
• consistent pressure-density-temperature update for jets
• corrected total leak rate (diffusion flux set to zero)
• corrected error in thermodynamics for hydrogen leaks
• corrected ignition model for ER not equal to 1
• corrected compression/expansion work in porous areas, improves stability
• possibility to select relaxation to improve stability
• possibility to switch off artificial choking
• possibility to use the CLOUD interface (cs.CLOUD file)
• improved SIF model
• initial velocity field if wind buildup time is zero (quicker wind buildup)
• additional output for the gas monitor region (rt.FUEL file)
• location of maximum pressure added (rt.P file)
• updated run scripts
2
Changes in related programmes

Changes to some related programmes have been made and several new
programmes have been added:
• updated porcalc programme (better handling of rotated boxes)
• makegrid and listgrid to handle grid files
• r1file to convert r1-files to ascii
• r3file to convert r3-files to ascii (may be used by the CLOUD interface)
• rdfile to convert rd-files (change version, update fields, change to
• coarser grid)
• a1file to deal with ascii files (e.g. the output from r1file)
• jet programme to calculate sonic jets
• hull programme (needed by the CLOUD interface)
3
4
FLACS V8 User’s Guide INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• Application fields of FLACS

• Dispersion processes
• Gas explosion processes
• Water spray
• Blast waves
• Explosion load
This chapter is meant to be a description of the understanding of dispersion and explo-

sion processes for which the FLACS model has been built. The chapter describes factors
influencing the course of dispersion processes and gas explosions, several parameters
describing the properties of gases relevant for dispersion and gas explosion processes
and the background of the several physical models used in FLACS. It is the intention to
give an introduction. For a more thorough description this chapter refers to several ref-
erences in open literature, confidential reports issued during the development of the
FLACS-tool and the Gas Explosion Handbook.
1-1
1.1 Application fields of FLACS

The FLACS tool is applied in connection with the consequences of a release of flamma-
ble liquid or gas. Considering the release of flammable material in general an event tree
can be set up as shown in Figure 1.1. The figure shows all possible events after the ac-
cidental release of flammable gas or evaporating liquid into the atmosphere. If the gas
cloud, formed from the release, is not within the flammability limits or if the ignition
source is lacking, the gas cloud may be diluted and disappear. Ignition may occur imme-
diately, or may be delayed by up to tens of minutes, all depending on the circumstances.
In case of an immediate ignition (i.e. before mixing with air or oxidiser has occurred) a
fire will occur.
No
Ignition
No
Immediate Fire Damage
Ignition
Damage to
Release of Gas Personnel
and/or Liquid and Material
Formation of
Combustible Ignition Gas Fire
Fuel-Air Cloud (delayed) Explosion
(Pre-mixed)
Fire
and
BLEVE
Figure 1.1 An event tree showing typical consequences of accidental releases of

combustible gas or evaporating liquid into the atmosphere.
The most dangerous situation will occur if a large combustible premixed fuel-air cloud
is formed and ignites. The time from release start to ignition can be from a few seconds
up to tens of minutes. The amount of fuel can be from a few kilograms up to several tons.
The speed of a flame in a premixed fuel-air cloud is much higher than in a situation
where the fuel and air are not mixed. Due to the speed of the flame (reaction) a pressure
1-2
build-up may result which is the main cause of damage to installations. These high speed
reactions are referred to as gas explosions.
The pressure generated by the combustion wave will depend on how fast the flame prop-
agates and how the pressure can expand away from the gas cloud (governed by confine-
ment). The consequences of gas explosions range from no damage to total destruction.
The pressure build-up due to the gas explosion can damage personnel and material or it
can lead to accidents such as fires and BLEVES (domino effects). Blast waves generated
by the pressure build-up in the explosive cloud and propagating into the surroundings
can cause additional damage. Fires are very common events after gas explosions.
In the range of events illustrated in Figure 1.1 the FLACS tool can be applied for describ-
ing gas releases, the subsequent dispersion process and in case of an ignition the gas ex-
plosion process. With respect to gas explosion processes FLACS only handles deflagra-
tion processes. Transition to detonation and detonation processes are not described by
FLACS. FLACS can be used to predict blast pressures in the surroundings, i.e. at some
distance from the area in which the explosion takes place, as well. The tool cannot be
used to predict the processes and consequences of fires (radiation, direct heating).
The main outcomes of the FLACS tool, i.e. the results of the calculations, are concen-
tration-profiles and fields when considering dispersion and the primary effects of gas ex-
plosions: static overpressure profiles and fields, dynamic overpressure profiles and
fields both inside the flammable cloud and at some distance from this cloud (blast ef-
fects).
In the next sections theoretical aspects of each of the application areas of FLACS are de-
scribed, without going to deep into the theory behind the algorithms applied in the code.
For these we refer to the several reports produced during the development of the code.
1-3
1.2 Dispersion processes

FLACS can be used to describe the processes occurring during and/or after a release of
a flammable gas into the surroundings. FLACS has been developed and validated for de-
scribing releases in congested areas. FLACS should not be used without further valida-
tion for describing release and dispersion processes in open areas, i.e. areas where there
are no obstacles and/or confining structures and dispersion processes are dominated by
atmospheric transport processes, convection and turbulence.
The size of a flammable gas cloud formed after a release in a congested area depends on:
• the size of the release

• the type and orientation of the release
• the degree of ventilation (natural or forced)
• the degree of congestion
• the properties of the released gas
The size of the release is described as the total amount (expressed in kg/s) of fuel re-
leased per unit of time.
The type of release is one of the most important factors determining how fast the release
gas will be mixed with air. A release can be characterized as a jet release (i.e. gas, two
phase or evaporating liquid), or a diffuse release, i.e. evaporating pool. A jet release and
a diffuse source are shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Jet release and evaporating pool.
1-4
The two sources have quite different characteristics. The jet release will have a high mo-
mentum and establish a strong flow field due to additional air entrainment. Recirculation
zones may be generated where the gas concentration can reach a combustible level. For
jet releases in a building or offshore module, the recirculation can result in build-up of
large combustible clouds. The evaporating pool will act as a diffuse release source and
the wind forces and buoyancy will control the dispersion process. The flow velocities
will be much lower than for the jet release. If the evaporating liquid forms a dense gas,
a layer of combustible gas may be formed at the ground level, or in a lower compartment.
Similarly in an open area a dense gas cloud will have the tendency to intrude into con-
fined spaces such as buildings. The intrusion of combustible gas into such confined or
semi-confined spaces poses serious problems.
The mixing of fuel with air will be enhanced in case of a jet release if the release is e.g.
impinging on a wall or a nearby pipeline.
The degree of ventilation will strongly affect the size of the flammable cloud. Experi-
ments performed in a 1:5 scale representation of an offshore module show the effect of
forced ventilation. Figure 1.3 shows the concentration in three tests with the same source
but with different wind velocities (i.e. bulk flow) through the module.
Figure 1.3 Concentration as function of time for different wind velocities through
a 1:5 scale representation of an offshore module.
1-5
Initially the concentration rise was similar for all three cases, at a certain concentration
level however, the transportation of fuel out of the module was equal to the leak rate and
the concentration profile is flattening out. The higher the wind speed, the lower the con-
centration where the concentration profile is flattening out.
The degree of congestion will determine flow patterns in the flammable cloud affecting
the shape of the flammable cloud. In addition to that smaller equipment and pipelines
may enhance the mixing of fuel with air.
The properties of the released gas affect the dispersion process as well. A high density
of the gas may result in a cloud lying on the ground and due to that spreading over a rel-
atively large area. The density of the cloud may be high due to expansion upon release
(especially important when the released gas was stored under its vapour pressure as a
liquid) resulting in a temperature drop and therefore density increase. A low density as
e.g. hydrogen will result in a gas cloud against the roof of a structure.
The explosive area of the gas cloud (area between the lower explosion limit and upper
explosion limit) will determine the size of the flammable cloud also.
FLACS-98 can be used to simulate both high-momentum jet leaks and diffusive leaks.
The leaks should be gaseous leaks. Representation of two-phase releases is poor and
should be treated as a gas release using the size of the leak as a reference parameter. Pool
evaporation is represented as a few diffusive leaks with constant leak rate. The effects
of wind and other parameters on the rate of evaporation are not taken into account. Gas
dispersion simulations with high momentum jet leaks usually require many hours of
CPU usage due to short time-step and long leak duration (several minutes).
Ventilation is simulated using a wind as boundary condition. This is useful for simula-
tion of gas dispersion with specified wind speed and turbulence parameters.
1-6
1.3 Gas explosion processes

In an accidental gas explosion of a hydrocarbon-air cloud (ignited by a weak source - a
spark) the flame will normally start out as a slow laminar flame with a velocity of the
order of 3-4 m/s. If the cloud is truly unconfined and unobstructed (i.e. no equipment or
other structures are engulfed by the cloud) the flame is not likely to accelerate to veloc-
ities of more than 20-25 m/s, and the overpressure will be negligible if the cloud is not
confined. The main reasons for the flame acceleration under these conditions are flame
instabilities, turbulence generated in the atmosphere by wind and by the flame itself at
the ground surface.
Figure 1.4 Gas explosion in a partly confined area with process equipment.
In a building or in an offshore module with process equipment as shown schematically

in Figure 1.4, the flame may accelerate to several hundred meters per second. When the
gas is burning the temperature will increase and the gas will expand by a factor of up to
8 or 9. The unburnt gas is therefore pushed ahead of the flame and a turbulent flow field
is generated. When the flame propagates into a turbulent flow field, the effective burning
rate will increase and the flow velocity and turbulence ahead of the flame increases fur-
ther. This strong positive feedback mechanism is causing flame acceleration and high
explosion pressures and in some cases transition to detonation.
In a confined situation, such as a closed vessel, a high flame velocity is not a requirement
for generation of pressure. In a closed vessel there is no or very little relief (i.e. venting)
of the explosion pressure and therefore even a slow combustion process will generate
pressure.
1-7
The consequences of a gas explosion will depend on:
• type of fuel
• size and fuel concentration of the combustible cloud
• location of ignition point
• strength of ignition source
• size, location and type of explosion vent areas
• location and size of structural elements and equipment
• mitigation schemes
Gas explosions may be very sensitive to changes in these factors. Therefore it is not a
simple task to estimate the consequences of a gas explosion.
Flame propagation mechanisms

In general we will consider a gas explosion to be a mechanism where the flame front
propagates at subsonic speed relative to the unburnt gas, immediately ahead of the wave.
In a gas explosion the propagating velocity can span more than three orders of magni-
tude. The mechanism of flame propagation will be quite different in the different veloc-
ity regimes.
Figure 1.5 Illustration of the structure of a laminar flame front in a premixed gas.
1-8
When the cloud is ignited by a weak ignition source (i.e. a spark or a hot surface) the
flame starts as a laminar flame. For a laminar flame the basic mechanism of propagation
is molecular diffusion of heat and mass. The laminar flame structure is illustrated in Fig-
ure 1.5. This diffusion process of heat and mass into the unburnt gas is relatively slow
and the laminar flame will propagate with a velocity of the order of 3-4 m/s.
The propagation velocity of the laminar flame depends on the type of fuel and the fuel
concentration. Figure 1.6 shows the laminar burning velocity (i.e. flame front velocity
relative to the unburnt mixture just ahead of the flame) for methane-, ethylene- and hy-
drogen-air. Methane has a maximum burning velocity of about 0.4 m/s. Maximum lam-
inar burning velocities of 0.4-0.5 m/s are typical for hydrocarbons. Ethylene, acetylene
and hydrogen have higher burning velocities due to fast chemical kinetics and high mo-
lecular diffusivity. Due to variations in apparatus and measurement techniques different
sources will state different values for laminar burning velocity.
Figure 1.6 Laminar burning velocity for methane-, ethylene- and hydrogen-air.
In most accidental explosions the laminar flame will accelerate and transit into a turbu-
lent deflagration (i.e. turbulent flame), since the flow field ahead of the flame front be-
comes turbulent. The turbulence is caused by the interaction of the flow field with proc-
ess equipment, piping, structures, etc.
1-9
One of the mechanisms causing the increased burning rate in turbulent deflagrations is
the wrinkling of the flame front by large turbulent eddies. Figure 1.7 shows a wrinkled
flame front. For this combustion regime the increased flame surface area is causing the
burning rate to increase. This regime is characterized by the turbulent integral length
scale, lt, being significantly larger than the thickness of the flame front, δ.
When the turbulent integral length scale, lt, is of the order of the thickness of the flame
front δ or smaller, the flame becomes a thick turbulent flame brush. In this regime the
turbulence is causing increased diffusion of heat and mass and thereby a high burning
rate.
Figure 1.7 Wrinkled flame front when δ < size of turbulent eddies. Turbulent flame
brush when δ > size of turbulent eddies.
When a flame propagates through a premixed gas cloud there are two mechanisms caus-
ing pressure build-up. These are:
1) fast flame propagation

2) burning in a confined volume
In most accidental explosions a combination of these two effects causes the pressure
build-up.
In a partly confined area with obstacles (i.e. process equipment, piping etc.) the flame
may accelerate to several hundred meters per second during a gas explosion. The mech-
anisms causing the increased burning rate in turbulent deflagrations are the wrinkling of
the flame front by large eddies and the turbulent transport of heat and mass at the reac-
1-10
tion front. This turbulence is mainly caused by the interaction of the flow with structures,
pipe racks, etc.
Figure 1.8 Turbulence generation in a channel due to repeated obstacles during a

gas explosion.
Figure 1.8 shows how turbulence is generated in the wake of obstacles in a channel.
When the flame consumes the unburnt gas, the products will expand. This expansion can
be up to 8-9 times the initial volume. The unburnt gas is therefore pushed ahead of the
flame and a turbulent flow field may be generated. When the flame propagates into a tur-
bulent flow field, the burning rate will increase dramatically. This increased burning rate
will further increase the flow velocity and turbulence ahead of the flame. The increased
burning velocity will cause the explosion pressure to rise.
1-11
The mechanism of flame acceleration due to repeated obstacles constitutes a strong pos-
itive feedback loop. This loop is shown in Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9 Positive feedback loop causing flame acceleration due to turbulence.
When a deflagration propagates through a region of obstacles and then ends up in an un-
obstructed region the flame speed will normally drop and adjust to the new environment.
This discussion shows that for a deflagration there are two mechanisms governing the
pressure build-up in partly confined gas clouds, namely:
• Flame acceleration due to enhanced burning due to turbulence generated by

flow past obstacles.
• Venting providing pressure relief or reducing the effect of the feedback mecha-
nism described previously in this chapter.
These mechanisms have competing effects. The flame acceleration due to turbulence
will increase explosion pressure, while venting will reduce the pressure. It is the balance
between these two that is governing the pressure build-up.
Most simple models for prediction of explosion pressure such as venting guidelines for
vented enclosures will not take the mechanism described above into account. Hence it is
obvious that these types of simple models are inadequate for prediction of overpressure
in congested environments and that they may in some cases generate overpressures that
are wrong by orders of magnitude. The only models which can account for the effects of
venting and equipment location on explosion overpressure are those based on solution
of fluid-dynamic equations such as FLACS.
1-12
As mentioned before the process is influenced by many factors. Some of those will be
discussed below.
Type of fuel
The consequences and the probability of occurrence of gas explosions will to a large ex-
tent depend on fuel type. Under similar experimental conditions different fuel-air mix-
tures will generate different explosion pressures. At the present time there are no stand-
ard procedures for classifying the explosion hazard regarding pressure generation for
different fuels. However, various experiments with turbulent deflagrations and detona-
tions show that common fuels can be ranked, at least qualitatively.
At CMR experiments have been carried out with hydrogen-air and several hydrocarbon-
air mixtures (acetylene-, ethylene-, propylene-, cyclohexane-, ethane-, propane-, and
methane-air) in a 10 m long wedge-shaped vessel. Some results from the 10 m wedge-
shaped vessel are shown in Figure 1.10. Note that the results presented in this figure are
based on a specific experimental configuration and that the pressure levels will be dif-
ferent in other experimental situations. In particular higher pressures can be expected in
more complex geometries, like partially confined, obstructed process areas.
Figure 1.10 Comparison of explosion pressure for various stoichiometric fuel-air

mixtures in a 10 m long wedge-shaped vessel.
1-13
Hydrogen gave the highest explosion pressure, 8 barg. Hydrogen and acetylene are the
two most reactive fuels that are normally handled. Ethylene is also very reactive. Pro-
pane and ethane are somewhat less reactive and seem to form an intermediate level of
explosivity. Methane is the least reactive fuel shown in Figure 1.10. Many other hydro-
carbons (e.g. butane) fall into the same group as propane and ethane. The relative differ-
ences found for the various fuels are reflected in the laminar burning velocity of these
fuels.
Fuel concentration
A premixed fuel-air cloud will only burn as long as the fuel concentration is within the
lower and upper flammability limits (LFL, UFL). When the fuel concentration in a cloud
is near the flammability limit the burning rate will be very low. In order to obtain high
pressure for near flammability limit concentrations, a confined situation is required. At
the flammability limits the final pressure for constant volume combustion of fuel-air is
typically 4 times the initial pressure.
For single fuels the maximum explosion pressure is normally observed at stoichiometric
or slightly rich mixtures. Figure 1.11 shows peak pressure measurements from experi-
ments in a 1 m wedge-shaped vessel
Figure 1.11 Peak pressure versus fuel concentration (% vol.) in air.
Figure 1.11 shows that the concentration leading to maximum explosion pressure is
close to the stoichiometric composition. For this geometry, the concentration range
where pressure is observed, is more narrow than the flammable range. The concentration
1-14
range causing significant explosion pressures is dependent on the geometry where the
explosion is occurring. The more confined and obstructed the geometry is, the wider is
the concentration range.
Inhomogeneities in the cloud

Experiments performed with non homogeneous clouds generated by a high-pressure re-
lease of methane show that the explosion pressure in a realistically generated cloud may
reach values as high as in a stoichiometric homogeneous cloud, for which care has been
taken in premixing the fuel-air. However, in general the results show a strong depend-
ency on experimental parameters such as direction of the jet, mass of methane injected,
and the ignition delay time.
High momentum releases (i.e. high pressure reservoir), however, cause a relatively uni-
form gas cloud. This may explain why explosion pressures in real clouds may be as high
as in premixed clouds. Hence it can be concluded that using a homogeneous stoichio-
metric fuel-air cloud in a gas explosion analysis is a conservative, but not unrealistic as-
sumption.
Degree of filling by the cloud

In an accident situation the combustible gas cloud in an obstructed and/or partly con-
fined volume may only fill a part of the volume at the time of ignition. The filling ratio
is, of course, an important parameter. But in some situations 30-50% filling ratio may
cause the same explosion pressure as a 100% filled compartment. The reason for this is
that during an explosion the gas that burns will expand and push the unburnt gas ahead
of the flame. Thereby air or fuel-air outside the flammable range is pushed out of the
compartment.
Location of ignition point

Various experiments have shown that explosion pressures can be very sensitive to the
location of the ignition point. In many scenarios the peak explosion pressure can be
changed by an order of magnitude if the ignition location is moved from "worst case" to
a more favourable place. In general the lowest pressure is obtained if the ignition point
is:
• close to the vent area
or
• at the edge of the cloud
1-15
but as you will see exceptions to this exist.
By igniting near the vent opening the combustion products will be vented and the flow
velocity and the turbulence in the unburnt mixture will be low. Figure 1.12 shows how
different flow regimes will be generated in the same geometry with different ignition lo-
cations. In case a) the flow velocity ahead of the flame will be low if the compartment
is not too long. In case b) a high flow velocity will be generated ahead of the flame which
will generate turbulence by interaction with obstacles and hence support a high burning
rate and cause high explosion pressure. For simplicity obstacles have been omitted from
the figure.
Figure 1.12 The effect of different ignition locations in a compartment.
However, if venting combustion products is not sufficient to keep the flame speed at a
low level, edge ignition may cause higher explosion pressures than central ignition. By
increasing the length of the flame propagation, the flame will have the possibility to ac-
celerate over a longer distance, by passing a greater number of obstacles. This effect will
be most pronounced when one or more of the following apply: very reactive fuel, high
density of obstructions, small vent areas or large obstructed volumes.
1-16
Strength of ignition source

Also the strength of the ignition source can be an important factor in determining the
consequences of a gas explosion.
The most likely ignition source is a weak ignition like a hot surface or a spark. Although
it is therefore common in consequence analyses to choose a weak ignition source as a
probable scenario one should consider the possibility of occurrence of stronger explo-
sion sources also.
An example of strong ignition sources is a jet flame emerging from a partly confined vol-
ume into another gas cloud. Experiments show that a jet flame is a stronger ignition
source than a spark. Jet flames should be considered when explosions occur in channels,
sewage systems, tunnels, motor noise shields or, more generally, when multi-compart-
ment explosions can occur.
Size and location of explosion vent areas

Considering offshore modules the size of an applied vent area but also the location of
the vent opening are important parameters determining the explosion overpressure. In
this document this is demonstrated using experiments performed in a 1:5 scale model of
a separator module, 8 m long, 2.5 m wide and 2.5 m high. The total volume is 50 m3.
Figure 1.13 shows the internal equipment in the separator module.
Figure 1.13 Plan view of internal layout in a 1:5 scale separator module.
1-17
The module has been used for investigation of the effect of vent arrangements. The dif-
ferent layouts that were tested are summarised in Table I.1.
Table 1.1: Vent arrangement for the 1:5 scale separator module.
Closed 2/3 2/3

Layout A v /V A v /V
Areas with louvers
Roof
4.78
Deck
Roof, Rear Wall

2.85 1.48
Deck
Roof, Rear Wall,

50% Front Wall 1.98
Deck
Roof, Rear Wall,
Front Wall, 0.92 0.46
Deck
The peak pressures from the tests are given in Figure 1.14. The peak pressure is plotted
versus the dimensionless parameter Av/V2/3 where Av is the free vent area and V the vol-
ume of the compartment. The different vent arrangements are given in Table I.1. Figure
1-18
1.14 also includes some data from tests in a 1:33 scale model of the same offshore mod-
ule.
Av/V2/3
Figure 1.14 Peak pressure as function of vent parameter for the centrally ignited ex-
plosion in the 1:5 scale separator module.
Av is the size of the vent area and V is the volume of confinement.
The results from the tests can be summarised as follows:
The vent arrangement is extremely important for the explosion pressure. The peak pres-
sure was about 0.01 barg when all four side-walls were open. (Av/V2/3 = 4.8). When the
long side walls were closed and the end walls were louvred (Av/V2/3 = 0.46) the peak
pressure was 1.9 barg. The conclusion is that explosion pressure in a compartment or
building depends strongly on the vent arrangements.
Location and size of structural elements and equipment

As shown in section 3.1.1 the positive feedback mechanism arising during explosions in
congested environments is especially determined by the presence of structural elements
and equipment. The effect of obstructions on flame propagation has been studied by
many investigators. An example of such experiments are those performed in a 50 m3 ex-
plosion tube, 10 m long and 2.5 m wide. The tube is closed in one end and open in the
other (Figure 1.15). Inside the tube, orifice plates can be mounted. The number of rings
and the inner diameter of the rings are variables. As such two important parameters can
be investigated, viz. the relative position of obstacles and the degree of obstruction
(blockage ratio) caused by these obstacles.
1-19
Figure 1.15 The 50 m3 explosion tube. Inner diameter d=1,74 m, 2.06 m and 2.26 m
corresponds to blockage ratios of 50%, 30% and 16%.
Figure 1.16 Peak explosion pressure in a 50 m3 explosion tube for various num-
bered and sized orifice rings.
When the inner diameter of the orifice plate, d, is 1.74 m, the orifice plate will block 50%
of the free tube area. In case of d equal to 2.25 m, the blockage ratio (i.e. B.R = (1-(d/
D)2) is 0.16 or 16%. Figure 1.16 shows some of the results from tests with stoichiometric
propane-air and plane ignition. The peak explosion pressure is ranging from about 1 barg
to 14 barg depending on the number and size of the orifice rings inside the tube. We can
1-20
see from the figure that the blockage ratio is a parameter which has a significant influ-
ence on the explosion pressure. By increasing the blockage ratio, the vent area will be
reduced and the velocity flow through the open part of the orifice plate will increase. The
increased velocity enhances the turbulence generation in the shear layers behind the or-
ifice plates. The figure also shows that the number of rings, i.e. the relative position of
the obstacles is another important parameter.
1-21
1.4 Water spray

It has been shown that ordinary water deluge for fire fighting can have a mitigating effect
on gas explosions.
CMR performed several experimental investigations addressing the effect of water spray
on gas explosions. An example are experiments performed in a 1:5 scale model of an
offshore module. Methane- and propane-air mixtures were investigated.
In tests with central ignition no beneficial effect of the water deluge was observed, ac-
tually there was a slight increase in peak pressure. In tests with end ignition and louvred
walls close to the ignition point, a significant reduction of the explosion pressure was
observed when the water deluge was activated. This reduction was as large as up to a
factor of three. Figure 1.17 summarises the results.
Figure 1.17 Result of water deluge experiments performed in a 1:5 scale offshore
module.
1-22
Figure 1.18 shows pressure records from two identical tests with and without water del-
uge activated. These are tests using end ignition. Here we can clearly see a positive effect
of the water deluge.
Figure 1.18 Pressure records from deluge tests.
From these experimental programmes it was concluded that the effects of water spray
on gas explosions seem to be twofold and competing:
a) The water spray interferes with the low velocity flame in the initial phase of the gas
explosion. It has been established that the main reason for this explosion enhance-
ment is turbulence generation in the gas mixture by the water spray. This causes in-
creased flame acceleration and faster pressure build-up.
b) The mitigating effect is a result of evaporation of water droplets in the flame. To be

able to evaporate, however, the droplets have to be very small, much smaller than the
droplets produced by the water spray systems. Hence droplet break-up must take
place. Droplet break-up is possible if the droplet is exposed to strong hydrodynamic
forces due to strong flows around the droplet. Such flows are possible during the
course of an explosion, viz. if an explosion occurs in highly congested areas resulting
in strong flame acceleration and hence a strongly accelerating flow field ahead of the
flame. In the absence of such strong flame acceleration water spray will not mitigate.
1-23
Figure 1.19 Droplet break-up due to explosion generated wind.
The influence of water spray generated turbulence on flame propagation in premixed gas
mixtures was investigated. It was established that the source of the turbulence generation
is related to the bulk flow of water into the vessel and not to turbulence generated in the
wake of single droplets.
The investigation revealed that the scale of the generated turbulence is at least 1 to 2 or-
ders of magnetises larger than one would expect on the basis of turbulence in the wake
of single droplets. The scale of the turbulence is related to the dimensions of the room
in which the water spray was effected. Based on the scale of the turbulence and the meas-
ured increases of flame speeds (burning rates) an estimate of the turbulence intensity
could be made.
The most effective explosion mitigating water spray systems are those generating either
very small droplets (less than 10 μm) or large droplets (larger than 200 μm). Nozzles
generating droplets between approximately 20 μm and 200 μm are the least effective
systems when considering explosion mitigation. Droplets of approximately 10 μm or
smaller will evaporate in the flame directly. Larger droplets will have to break-up into
smaller droplets to have an effect as well. The hydrodynamic forces acting on the drop-
lets in an accelerating flow ahead of the flame will cause the droplets to accelerate, and
will also cause them to break-up if strong enough. Small droplets (< 200 μm) will easily
adapt to flow acceleration and as a result will not be exposed to strong hydrodynamic
1-24
forces which will cause them to break-up. Larger droplets will not easily adapt to flow
speed variations and hence break-up more easily.
Water deluge has been modelled in FLACS-98. Both the effect of initial turbulence and
droplet break-up and their effect on the burning rate are described based on the experi-
mental findings presented above. As not all processes are understood in detail, nozzle
dependent input parameters regarding both the effect of initial turbulence and burning
rate reduction after break-up had to be defined.
1-25
1.5 Blast waves

If a strong gas explosion occurs inside a process area or in a compartment, the surround-
ing area will be subjected to blast waves. The magnitude of the blast wave at a certain
position will depend on:
• the source, i.e. pressure and duration of the explosion

• the distance from the explosion
Figure 1.20 Free field blast wave.
Figure 1.21 shows maximum explosion overpressures from various CMR experiments
in a 50 m3 tube, a wedge-shaped vessel (results scaled to 50 m3) and a 50 m3 offshore
module, together with the associated blast wave overpressure variation with distance.
The figure illustrates that blast wave strengths are dependent on the strength of the initial
explosion and the distance from the explosion.
Figure 1.21 Peak pressure from free field blast in CMR experiments in 50 m3 test
vessels.
1-26
The results show that the blast wave from a gas explosion can cause high pressures far
away from the area where the explosion actually takes place. In safety evaluation, free
field blast must therefore be considered.
The loading on a construction hit by a blast wave is a rather complex phenomenon.
When a free field blast wave runs into an object like a building, the wave will be reflect-
ed. Figure 1.22 shows how a shock wave is reflected off a building. Due to reflection
and diffraction, the wave loading on the walls and the roof will differ. The maximum
loading will be on the wall facing the explosion. At this wall the shock wave will be re-
flected and the pressure will typically increase by a factor of 2. (Depends on shock
strength.).
Figure 1.22 Blast reflection off a building.
FLACS-98 has been provided with a coupling to a code describing blast wave propaga-
tion. An FCT-algorithm in this code allows for an optimum description of shock waves.
1-27
The code describes both blast propagation (incl. divergence of the blast into the sur-
roundings, i.e. decrease of overpressure as a function of distance) and interaction with
structures (reflections). A multi-block option together with an improved boundary con-
dition description allows for calculation of the strength of blast waves up to large dis-
tances from the explosion with limited CPU-times.
1-28
1.6 Explosion load

Duration and impulse
So far we have only discussed the peak pressure as the characteristic parameter for gas
explosions. Actually the dynamic response of walls, decks, etc. subjected to pressure
from gas explosions will depend on the pressure time curve. In addition to the peak pres-
sure, the rise time and duration of the positive phase are important. In some cases even
the negative phase of the pressure pulse can be important.
One way of characterizing the pressure time curve is to use the time integral of the pres-
sure, known as the pressure impulse. The pressure impulse is simpler to define than the
duration of the pulse and it contains more information.
Figure 1.23 Pressure-time curve.
The importance of the negative impulse will depend very much on the natural frequency
of the structure. If the negative pressure is in the phase with vibration of the structure,
the negative phase can have significant contribution. The negative impulse can be about
1/3 of the positive impulse phase, but this ratio depends on the layout of the geometry
where the explosion occurs.
The high spikes that are observed both in experiments and FLACS-simulations may be
of importance in estimating structural response. The topology of the pressure load (the
distribution in time and space) may also be important.
1-29
There are no simple methods of adequate accuracy for predicting the shape of pressure-
time curves from gas explosions. Advanced numerical simulation tools like FLACS
have to be applied.
Explosion wind
For smaller objects like piping which are inside an exploding gas cloud, the explosion
pressure is less important than the drag forces this piping is subjected to. In fluid dynam-
ics a drag force is often estimated from the formula:
2
F drag = C D Aρu ⁄ 2
C D [-] is the drag coefficient, A [m2] is the projected area of the object normal to the
2
flow direction and ρu ⁄ 2 [Pa] is the dynamic pressure ( ρ [kg/m3] is the fluid density
and u [m/s] is the upstream free flow velocity). For small objects these forces can be
resolved indirectly from FLACS simulations using calculated dynamic pressures as in-
put. For objects large enough to be resolved by the simulation code used to predict the
gas explosion, the pressure differential is calculated directly.
1-30
FLACS V8 User’s Guide REFERENCE
Chapter 2 REFERENCE
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• Using a unix workstation

• Creating a proper setup for FLACS
• Introduction to the FLACS files
• Scenario file:
variables
simulation and output control
panels
monitor points
gas composition
initial conditions
boundary conditions
ignition
leaks
watersprays
louvre panels and grating
• Grid file
• Porosity file
• Obstruction file
• Runtime simulation control file
• Time dependent CFL-numbers file
• Time dependent leak data files
• Scalar-time output file
• Field output file
• Simulation log files
• Simulation dump files
• Simulation save files
This chapter contains comprehensive descriptions of all (well, almost all) features of
FLACS and a few selected topics relating the use of FLACS. It is meant to be a sort of
look-up dictionary where you will find detailed information which otherwise is not cov-
ered in the GUIDANCE chapter.
2-1
2.1 Using a unix workstation

This section is intended to give a brief summary of the required knowledge of using a
unix workstation for running FLACS simulations. The window based user interaction
techniques required for running CASD and FLOWVIS are not covered here. Some
knowledge about computers is required, it is for example an advantage to be familiar
with some of the terminology used to explain how to use a computer. The following top-
ics are touched in this section:
• Login
• Files and directories
• Unix commands
• Environment variables
If you are familiar with using a unix workstation you may just as well skip the next sub-
sections.
Login
Before you start you will need a unix workstation and perhaps some help from your sys-
tem administrator or a friend who knows about computers. Don’t get frustrated if things
do not work all right the first time, that is probably just one of Murphy’s laws striking
again.
The first thing to do before you can use the workstation is to enter your user id and a
password, this is called login. Your system administrator will do the necessary prepara-
tions so that you are allowed to login. The password is the key to accessing your data,
and it should therefore be kept secret and changed frequently. A good password will re-
2-2
strict unauthorized persons from tampering with confidential or otherwise vulnerable in-
formation. Some simple rules should be obeyed when generating a password:
• use at least 6 characters

• mix letters and digits
• mix lower and upper case letters
• do not use a word from the dictionary
There are certainly some words you should never use as your password, because they
would be the first thing a hacker would try. Here are some word categories you should
avoid:
• personal numbers, names or dates etc. (yours or your family’s or your friends’)
• registration number on your car, telephone numbers etc.
• company name, numbers etc.
• common words
And, just as important as the password, the security of your data will also depend on
what kind of access codes you apply to your files and directories. You may grant full or
restricted access rights for user (yourself), group and others to any of your files and di-
rectories. See ”Unix commands” on page 6 for details on how do this.
Files and directories

The figure below shows a typical directory structure on a unix workstation. It is like an
inverted tree, with the root directory on the top and subdirectories branching down-
wards. Only a few details of a full structure is shown, you may for instance follow the
2-3
path /users/me/Project-2/. Directories, which in general may contain new directories and
files, are here indicated with a slash (/) at the end:
bin/ lib/ users/
Adam/ Eve/ me/ you/
Private/ Project-1/ Project-2/
Figure 2.1. Directory structure.
See ”Unix commands” on page 6 about how to list existing files and directories and
about how to create new files and directories. There are two files which are of impor-
tance for the configuration of your environment when you have logged in. These are the
‘.login’ file and the ‘.cshrc’ file. Note that files and directories with names starting with
a dot (.) will be invisible in the listing produced when using the ls command, you may
see the files if you use ls -a instead of just ls.
2-4
Below is a table explaining these and other important files plus some important abbre-
viations:
File Description
.login Setup file which will be used when you log in.
.cshrc Setup file for the c-shell (see: man csh) which will be used
every time you start a new c-shell, i.e. when you log in or
when you open a new window (X-windows). The rc part of
the file name is short form of record, the csh part of the file
name indicates that this applies to the csh command. You may
find several rc-files in your home directory, each applying to
different programmes or commands.
. Single dot: short for the current directory.
.. Double dot: short for the parent directory.
/ Slash: the root directory (also file name separator symbol).
A path name starting with slash is denoted an absolute path
name, otherwise it is denoted a relative path name.
~ Tilde: short for your home directory (~me is the home direc-
tory of a user named me).
2-5
Unix commands
Some useful unix and built-in c-shell commands to start with are listed in the table be-
low:
Command(s) Description
man Show manual page on a topic.
ls List the contents of a directory.
mkdir, rmdir Make or remove a directory.
cd Change current directory.
rm Remove a file or directory.
chmod Change access mode on a file or directory.
vi View a file (unix text editor or any other text editor).
ps Process listing.
top Top cpu process listing (not available on all systems).
kill Kill a process.
compress, uncompress Compress or uncompress data.
alias Create or list a command alias.
nice, renice Alter process priority.
time Time a command.
HINT:
Whenever you need to or would like to learn more about a specific unix command, just
type man followed by the command, then the manual pages for that command will be
presented. E.g. man man will give you the manual pages for the man command. You
may also have access to an easy to use X-windows based help-viewer on your system,
ask your system administrator to find out what’s available.
And here are some useful c-shell tokens:
Token Description
| Pipeline connection between two commands.
> Redirection of standard output.
< Redirection of standard input.
& Put process in background.
2-6
Environment variables
The unix system allows so-called environment variables to be used. Application pro-
grammes or commands may require proper setting of several environment variables in
order to work correctly. The purpose of these variables is to provide an easy way of
transferring configuration values from the command shell to the application programme.
The FLACS programmes are also using a set of environment variables for configuration
purposes, see ”Creating a proper setup for FLACS” on page 8 for specific details. The
commands that may be used to control the environment variables are listed below:
Command Description
env Obtain or alter environment variables.
If name is not present all variables in the environment
are listed, this is the easiest way to list all environ-
ment variables.
setenv name Set the environment variable named name.
unsetenv name Remove the variable named name from the environ-
ment.
printenv name Print the environment variable named name.
$name Gives the contents of the variable named name.
Some common environment variables are listed below:
Variable Description
SHELL The users choice of command shell (e.g. /bin/csh)
HOME The users home directory (e.g. /users/me)
PATH The users list of path names to be searched for com-
mands
TERM Terminal type (e.g. xterm)
PRINTER Name of printer (e.g. lw)
DISPLAY Name of X-windows display (e.g. mycomputer:0)
TZ Time zone specification (e.g. MET-1METDST)
2-7
2.2 Creating a proper setup for FLACS

This section describes the necessary setup to run the FLACS-98 simulator. A certain
knowledge about the unix operating system is required to go further. If you do not have
any such knowledge please read the section ”Using a unix workstation” on page 2 first.
When FLACS was installed on your computer, the following directory structure was cre-
ated:
~flacs/
FLACS95/ FLACS96/ FLACS97/ FLACS98/
Figure 2.2 Directories for different FLACS releases.
Each of the FLACS releases has its own main directory located in the home directory of
the FLACS administrator (~flacs). Details of the FLACS-98 main directory are shown
below (there will be further levels of directories which are not shown):
FLACS98/
bin/ casd4_files/ casdint_files/ flacs/ lib/
Figure 2.3 Directories for the FLACS-98 release.
2-8
In order to be able to run FLACS, the user must have access to the ~flacs/
FLACS98/bin directory where the executable programmes are located. Note that each
of the different computer types has its own subdirectory for the executable programmes.
FLACS-98 has been delivered for the following computer types (called host type):
Host type Description

hp700 Hewlett Packard series 9000/700 series (running HP-
UX 10.1)
hp780 Hewlett Packard series 9000/780 series (running HP-
UX 10.2)
sgi Silicon Graphics (running IRIX 6.2)
sun5 Sun sparcstation (running SunOS 5.5)
i686/i586/i386-linux Linux i386 (running Red Hat 5.1 or sim)
The organisation of the executables into different directories looks like this:
bin/
hp700/ hp780/ sgi/ sun5/ ix86/
Figure 2.4 Directories for FLACS executables.
Each user is encouraged to organize his or her data into directories in order to keep a nice
and clean structure of data which is easy to work with.
2-9
The next figure shows an example of how the directory graph could look like (only a few
details are included):
~me/
Private/ Project- Project-
Figure 2.5 Directories for a typical FLACS user.
This is the point where the environment for running FLACS needs to be introduced. Be-
low is a table of the environment variables that might be required during startup of the
FLACS simulator:
Variable Description
USER Name of user (not needed by FLACS-98)
(e.g. me)
HOSTTYPE Type of computer.
(e.g. sun5)
FLACS_HOME Home directory for the FLACS installation.
(default: ~flacs/FLACS98)
FLACS_VERSION Version of FLACS to be used.
(default: 2.2)
2-10
The contents of the FLACS98/bin/$HOSTTYPE directories are as follows:
Executable Description
casd4.3_dbf The FLACS pre-processor
casdint2.2 Generic interface for CASD (reading text files containing geometry)
flacs2.2 FLACS executable, version 2.2
flowvis3.4 The FLACS post-processor
porcalc2.4_64 Porosity calculation programme (new version)
dbfutil1.2 Utility for accessing CASD file database
flash1.0 Calculating flashing liquid release
hull1.0 Gas cloud interface
jet1.0 Gas release calculator
listgrid1.0 List grid information
makegrid1.0 Generates uniform grid
r1file1.0 Convert r1 data to ascii format
r3file1.0 Convert r3 data to ascii format
rdfile1.0 Convert rd data from one grid resolution to another grid resolution
a1file1.0 Convert a1 data to r1 data
FLMtest FLACS license manager
To perform FLACS simulations the executable programme flacs2.2 must be used. It is

suggested that a script is set up to run FLACS. This may contain additional unix com-
mands to produce almost any desired information on the log file (tt-file), it is also pos-
sible to change the process priority of the simulation job. The script shown below is sim-
ilar to the file flacs/examples/runflacs which was used to run the examples on the
installation tape:
#!/bin/csh -f
# running at reduced priority

renice -n 15 $$
# starting the FLACS simulation

/bin/time $FLACS_HOME/bin/$HOSTTYPE/flacs$FLACS_VERSION $1
>&! tt$1
2-11
The input to runflacs is either a job number or a job file. The format of the job file is
shown below:
VERSION 1.1
$JOBSPEC
BLOCKS =
"110101" "FLACS"
"220101" "BLAST"
"330101" "BLAST"
"440101" "BLAST"
"550101" "BLAST"
"660101" "BLAST"
IGNITION =
"110101"
$END
The job file shown above may be copied from ~flacs/FLACS98/flacs/examples/MUL-

TI/job1. It contains a version identifier (currently "VERSION 1.1") and a Fortran
namelist called JOBSPEC. There are additional keywords not show
n in the file above, they will assume default values if not specified by the user.
The available keywords in JOBSPEC and their default values are shown below:
VERSION 1.1
$JOBSPEC
BLOCKS = " ", " "
IGNITION = " "
SYNC_OUTPUT = .TRUE.
KEEP_OUTPUT = .FALSE.
RESET_LOAD = .TRUE.
$END
2-12
The meaning of the keywords is as follows:
Keyword Description
BLOCKS List of job numbers and block type for each block
• there should normally be only one FLACS
block, but it is possible to use more than one
(see Guidance)
• there may be zero or more BLAST blocks
• a maximum of 10 blocks is allowed
IGNITION Job number for the block where ignition shall occur
• this must be a FLACS block
SYNC_OUTPUT Synchronize output (r3-file) so that all blocks write at
same time
• so that plots at same time can be shown in
FLOWVIS
KEEP_OUTPUT Keep old results on existing r1-file and r3-file (append
new results)
• .TRUE. if you want to run a continuation run
• .FALSE. if you restart a new scenario
RESET_LOAD Set equal .TRUE. if you want to reset initial condition at
LOAD time
• useful for starting an explosion after a disper-
sion
2-13
The available keywords in SETUP and their default values are shown below:
VERSION 1.1
$JOBSPEC
...
$END
$SETUP
TIME_STEPPING = "STRICT"
EQUATION_SOLVER = "BI_CGSTAB"
MASS_CONSERVATION = "BEST"
COMBUSTION_MODEL = "BETA3"
TURBULENCE_MODEL = "K-EPS"
DIFFUSION_MODEL = "LINEAR"
GASDATA_MODEL = "DEFAULT"
AIR = "NORMAL"
AMBIENT_PRESSURE = "1.0E5"
$END
These controls will asume default values if not specified by the user.
A new namelist called PARAMETERS has been added for "VERSION 1.1" of the job
file. The available keywords in PARAMETERS and their default values are shown
below:
VERSION 1.1
$PARAMETERS
ZERO_APOR = 0.0
ZERO_VPOR = 0.0
ER_LOW = 0.0
ER_HIGH = 0.0
FLUX_CONTROL = 1
MAX_ITERATIONS = 100
RESIDUAL_LIMIT = 1.0E-6
ITERATE = 1
TIMEORDER = 0
$END
Note that the values in the PARAMETERS namelist are numerical, not text strings as in
the SETUP namelist.
2-14
It is possible to enter any sequence of the following namelists in the job file:
VERSION 1.1
$JOBSPEC
$END
$SETUP
$END
$PARAMETERS
$END
Note that the $ in the namelist must be positioned in column 2 (only on certain machine
types).
The meaning of the keywords is as follows:
Keyword Description
TIME_STEPPING Selection of time stepping method:
• STRICT
• STRICT:V_MIN=<real number>
• NORMAL
EQUATION_SOLVER Selection of linear equation solver:
• BI_CGSTAB
• TDMA
MASS_CONSERVATION Selection of mass conservation ’quality’:
• GOOD
• BETTER
• BEST
COMBUSTION_MODEL Selection of combustion model:
• BETA3
• SIF
• BETA2
• BETA1
TURBULENCE_MODEL Selection of turbulence model:
• K-EPS
DIFFUSION_MODEL Selection of diffusion model:
• HARMONIC
• LINEAR
2-15
Keyword Description
GASDATA_MODEL Selection of gasdata model, laminar burning
velocity as function of equivalence ratio for the
different types of fuel:
• DEFAULT
• name of directory containing gas-
data files
• BUILT-IN
AIR Specification of contents of O2 in air, as part of
the fuel rich mixture (<percent> is the fraction
multiplied by 100):
• NORMAL
• <percent>%VOLUME
• <percent>%MOLE
• <percent>%MASS
AMBIENT_PRESSURE Specification of ambient pressure, the default
value is:
• 1.0E5
It is possible to choose a time-stepping algorithm which only includes the convective

speed, by specifying TIME_STEPPING as ’STRICT:V_MIN=<real number>’. The
CFL-number based on convective speed (CFLV) is given as usual (in the cs-file). CFL-
number based on speed of sound (CFLC) is not used (the value of CFLC given in the cs-
file is not employed). Acoustical waves are not sought resolved using this approach.
This criterion is intended as an alternative to the default criterion when the flow is sta-
tionary/slowly varying or nearly incompressible. It has been tested in wind/ventilation
simulations. It should not be used for an explosion simulation. A speed-up factor of ca.
8 is seen from test simulations of wind/ventilation using this criterion compared to the
default setup in FLACS. However, the speed-up factor depends on the scenario. When
high-momentum leaks are modelled, the convective speed is relatively large, and the
speed-up effect when using this criterion may be limited in this case. To employ this
criterion, the user must specify a velocity V_MIN [m/s], for example as in
’STRICT:V_MIN=1.0’. This velocity V_MIN is used by the time-stepping algorithm
as a minimum speed when determining the time-step, its value should be positive and
not too small. If a wind field is specified, a natural choice would be to set V_MIN equal
the value of WIND_SPEEED, if no wind field is specified a value of 1.0 m/s for V_MIN
would be a typical value. Note that the value of V_MIN is in general only used in the
initial phase of the simulation (when normally a flow field is started from a condition at
2-16
rest) to ensure that the time-step is not too large even though the velocity of the flow is
zero or very small (when the default time-step criterion is used the value of CFLC limits
the time-step even when the convective speed is zero). Note that the intention by using
this time-step criterion is to speed up the calculation by using a coarser resolution in
time (longer time-steps), and this may change the simulation results compared to a finer
resolution in time (smaller time-steps) when the flow field is transient. A typical choice
of CFLV would be 1.0, a larger value of CFLV may lead to unstable results (depending
on the scenario).
The meaning of the keywords in the PARAMETERS namelist is as follows:

Keyword Description
ZERO_APOR Lower limit for area porosities, may be used to avoid
problems associated with small area porosities:
• 0.0 not in effect (default)
• 0.05-0.1 to avoid MASS_RESIDUAL
ZERO_VPOR Lower limit for volume porosities, may be used to
avoid problems associated with small volume porosi-
ties:
• 0.0 not in effect (default)
• 0.05-0.1 to avoid MASS_RESIDUAL
ER_LOW Lower bound for ER range in
GAS_MONITOR_REGION:
• 0.0 not in effect (using ER_LFL as de-
fault)
ER_HIGH Upper bound for ER range in
GAS_MONITOR_REGION:
• 0.0 not in effect (using ER_UFL as de-
fault)
FLUX_CONTROL Controlling oscillating velocities on stretched grids:
• 1 = normal (default)
• 2 = reduced to avoid oscillations
MAX_ITERATIONS Maximum number of iterations in the linear solver,
this may be used to speed up the computation:
• 100 = high effort (default)
• 50 = medium effort
• 5 = low effort
2-17
Keyword Description
RESIDUAL_LIMIT Residual limit in the linear solver, this may be used to
speed up the computation:
• 1E-6 = high accuracy (default)
• 1E-4 = medium accuracy
• 1E-2 = low accuracy
ITERATE Number of iterations within a time step:
• 1 = normal (default)
• n = iterate n times (n>1)
TIMEORDER Discretization order of time differentials:
• 0 = 1. order (default), enforces ITERATE
=1
• 1 = 1. order, may use ITERATE > 1
• 2 = 2. order, may use ITERATE > 1
Changing the values in the PARAMETERS namelist will affect the accuracy and stabil-
ity of the code. In cases where the simulation gives MASS_RESIDUAL problems it
may be beneficial to set the values of ZERO_APOR=0.1 and ZERO_VPOR=0.1 (or
similar values in the order of 0.01 - 0.1).
In cases with stretched grids one may see oscillating flow in where the ratio between
smallest and largest side length of the control volume is large, try to set
FLUX_CONTROL=2 to avoid the problem.
A speed-up of 10-20% may be achieved by changing the accuracy and effort level from
high to low (MAX_ITERATIONS=5 and RESIDUAL_LIMIT=1E-2).
Increasing the ITERATE value will increase the calculation time drastically. The mem-
ory usage will also increase when TIMEORDER is increased. In cases where a con-
verged solution is not achieved otherwise one may try to set TIMEORDER=1 and
ITERATE=3. Note that this option is still in the phase of testing and should be used
with caution (it does not seem to help very much at present state).
There are additional keywords in the PARAMETERS namelist intended mainly for test
purposes, and it is outside the scope of this guide to explain their use.
2-18
2.3 Combustion models in FLACS

There are two different combustion models in FLACS, the so-called beta-model and the
so-called SIF model. These models are shortly described below.
The thickness of the flame in the real physical world is of the same order as the turbu-
lence integral length scale. So-called laminar flamelet models in standard form seem to
give numerical results for the burning velocity approximately independent on the grid
resolution when the grid cell size is of the same order or smaller than the turbulence in-
tegral length scale. However, in general it is not feasible to use such a fine grid resolution
in practical use of the FLACS code for industrial applications. When the grid cell size is
larger than the turbulence length scale, the computed burning velocity is affected by nu-
merical (false) diffusion, and this may lead to an overestimated value of the calculated
burning velocity. To circumvent this problem, the beta-model was developed at CMR.
This model includes a transformation of the coordinate system, a so-called beta-trans-
formation. With the beta-model a reaction zone about 3 control volumes thick is ob-
tained. Further technical details are found in [Arntzen, 1993].
The beta-model has both pros and cons. In general the model gives reasonably good re-
sults, it has been used in explosion simulations for several years, and it is a simple model.
However, in general the flame burns too slowly for inward flame propagation (i.e. flame
propagation into a confined area with little or no venting) and for small flame radius.
Further, since the numerical representation of the flame is about 3 control volumes thick,
one should ensure that the grid resolution is fine enough to resolve the flame.
The SIF-model (SIF is an acronym for Simple Interface Flame) is a two-fluid model
where the flame is modelled as an interface. It includes a model for the flame area, a con-
vection model for reactants and combustion products, and a model for movement of the
flame to new control volumes in the numerical grid.
There are several advantages of using the SIF-model: The flame is resolved on the nu-
merical grid since it is modelled as an interface. A good representation of the flame area
is ensured when the geometry is represented on a coarse grid. The flame burns with a
specified burning velocity for both inward and outward flame propagation, and for small
flame radius. Flame folding around objects not resolved on the numerical grid (subgrid
representation) is easily modelled. However, at the moment the SIF-model, being a new
model, is not validated to the same extent as the beta-model. Due to fluid-dynamical in-
stabilities, so-called fingering of the flame for large flame radius may be observed using
the SIF-model (the term fingering refers to the phenomenon that the flame is no longer
2-19
a smooth surface with at large radius of curvature everywhere, but is wrinkled so that a
pattern resembling fingers is seen). This phenomenon of fingering will in general to
some extent introduce grid dependency in the numerical computations.
Which model should the user of FLACS employ, the SIF-model or the beta-model? Us-
ing a grid resolution typical for industrial applications (a grid resolution not fine enough
to resolve the real, physical flame when using the beta-model), the SIF-model is expect-
ed to be a more physically correct model than the beta-model since the flame is modelled
as an interface. In particular, the SIF-model is expected to work better compared to the
beta-model in explosion simulations in very obstructed areas of the geometry (areas
where many objects are represented subgrid), and for flame propagation into a confined
area with little or no venting. However, the SIF-model is newly implemented in the
FLACS code and the validation of the model is limited at the moment. A conservative
choice would be to use the beta-model since it has been used for several years and much
experience is gained about the pros and cons of this model. With the current version of
the FLACS code it is recommended to use the beta-model ("BETA3").
If you want to employ the SIF-model in the FLACS calculations, set

COMBUSTION_MODEL equal "SIF" in the specification in the job file. If you want to
employ the latest revised version of the beta-model, set COMBUSTION_MODEL equal
"BETA3" (this is the default choice of combustion model). It is also possible to choose
among two earlier versions of the beta-model, denoted "BETA2" and "BETA1" (if you
for some reason want to employ one of these earlier versions, it is probably wise to con-
tact CMR for further guidance).
Burning-velocity model
The combustion model in FLACS (whether it is the SIF-model or the beta-model) needs
as input the local burning velocity of the flame. The burning velocity is the rate of mo-
tion at which the flame burns into the reactants ahead of the flame. Thus the burning ve-
locity is a speed relative to a coordinate system following the flow. This should be dis-
tinguished from the flame speed which is the rate of motion of the flame relative a
chosen coordinate system (usually this is an inertial reference frame in which the New-
ton’s laws of motion hold).
The burning-velocity is laminar when the flame is smooth and governed by molecular
diffusion. This is typically the case in the very early phase of an explosion (e.g. spark
ignition of an combustible cloud under quiescent conditions). However, shortly after, the
burning-velocity is so-called quasi-laminar when instabilities lead to wrinkling of the
2-20
flame (under idealized conditions in microgravity it is possible to maintain a laminar

flame, but this is not a topic here). The quasi-laminar burning-velocity is modelled in
FLACS as the laminar burning-velocity multiplied by a factor equal or larger than unity.
This factor depends on the fuel and increases as function of the flame radius until a lim-
iting value is reached. In general the burning-velocity of the flame reaches a turbulent
regime some time after the explosion has started. In the FLACS code, the turbulent burn-
ing-velocity depends on the laminar burning-velocity, the turbulent velocity fluctua-
tions, and the turbulence integral length scale. The burning-velocity employed by
FLACS is the maximum value of the quasi-laminar burning-velocity and the turbulent
burning-velocity.
The laminar burning-velocity depends on the type of fuel. If several types of fuel are
mixed, the laminar burning-velocity of the mixture is calculated in FLACS as a weighted
mean of the burning velocity for each component in the mixture summed over all the
components. For a single type of fuel, the laminar burning-velocity depends on the tem-
perature (increased temperature typically gives a higher value for the burning-velocity),
and the pressure (increased pressure typically gives a lower value for the burning-veloc-
ity). Assuming an isentropic compression of the gas, the temperature can be expressed
by the pressure, and the burning-velocity can be expressed as a function of the pressure
alone (in this combined expression the burning-velocity increases with increasing pres-
sure).
For a single type of fuel at a fixed thermodynamic condition (temperature at reference

temperature, pressure at reference pressure), the laminar burning velocity depends on
the equivalence ratio for the fuel-air mixture. This function of the equivalence ratio de-
pends on the kind of fuel considered. It also depends on the oxygen content of the air if
the mole-fraction of oxygen deviates from the value in standard air.
The laminar burning velocity as function of the equivalence ratio for a single type of fuel
at standard conditions (temperature at reference temperature, pressure at reference pres-
sure, standard oxygen content in the air) is specified for each of the different types of
fuel in one of three different ways. The default way of specifying these functions in the
FLACS code is to read an ASCII-file (standard text file) for each of the types of fuel al-
lowed in FLACS. Each such ASCII-file contains a list of ordered pairs where the first
coordinate is a value of the equivalence ratio, and the second coordinate is the corre-
sponding value of the laminar burning velocity. This standard library of files is stored in
the directory $FLACS_HOME/bin/files/gasdata$FLACS_VERSION (here the
UNIX environment variables $FLACS_HOME and $FLACS_VERSION are assumed to
have proper values). The files are named ACETYLENE, BUTANE, CO, CO2, ETHANE,
2-21
ETHYLENE, H2S, HYDROGEN, METHANE, PROPANE, and PROPYLENE. Using the

standard library corresponds to setting GASDATA_MODEL equal "DEFAULT" in the
specification in the job file. It is possible to replace the standard library with a modified
user-defined library. The names of the files should be the same as mentioned above. If
you want to make use of this option, set GASDATA_MODEL equal
"<directory_name>", where <directory_name> is the name of the directory
where the library is stored (e.g. setting GASDATA_MODEL equal "./" would corre-
spond to the current directory). The correct format of the files in the library is found by
studying the files in the standard library in the directory $FLACS_HOME/bin/
files/gasdata$FLACS_VERSION. Only expert users should try to modify the
standard library for laminar burning velocity as function of the equivalence ratio. If you
want to do so, it is probably wise to contact CMR for further guidance.
There is also another way of specifying the laminar burning velocity as function of the
equivalence ratio for the different types of fuel. When GASDATA_MODEL is set equal
"BUILT-IN" in the specification in the job file, the laminar burning velocity as func-
tion of the equivalence ratio is approximated by a curve-fit through three points set by
the FLACS code. These points are defined by the values of the equivalence ratio at the
lower and upper flammability limit, and the value of the equivalence ratio giving maxi-
mum burning velocity. In general it is expected that the functions determined in this way
are less accurate than the functions specified in the standard library mentioned above
(GASDATA_MODEL equal "DEFAULT").
Further details about the burning-velocity model are found in [Arntzen, 1993].
2-22
2.4 Contents of oxygen in air

Dry air (no water vapour) under ordinary conditions contains approximately 21% oxy-
gen by volume (i.e. a mole-fraction of 0.21), 78% nitrogen, and 1% argon (these are the
major constituents of air). The default air composition in FLACS is 20.95 % volume-
fraction of oxygen and 79.05 % volume-fraction of nitrogen (i.e. approximately 21/79
volume ratio of O2/N2).
However, it is possible to specify a modified value for the volume-fraction of oxygen.

When AIR is set equal "<percent>%MASS" in the specification in the job file, the air
as modelled in FLACS contains a mass-fraction of oxygen being <percent>% (here
<percent> is the value of the mass-fraction multiplied by 100). For example, if the user
of FLACS wants air to contain 30% mass-fraction of air, AIR is set equal "30%MASS".
It is also possible to specify in percent the volume-fraction or mole-fraction of oxygen
in air (since the ideal gas law is assumed to hold, the value of the volume-fraction is ex-
actly equal the value of the mole-fraction) by setting AIR equal "<percent>%VOL-
UME" or "<percent>%MOLE". As part of the quality assurance of your work, it is ad-
vised that you verify the oxygen contents of air by inspecting the rt-file of your
simulation. Both the volume-fraction and the mass-fraction for both oxygen and nitro-
gen are specified in the rt-file. To set AIR equal "NORMAL" implies that the default con-
tents of oxygen in air is chosen.
Note that the modification of the contents of oxygen in air refers to the fuel-rich mixture
of fuel and air, where the equivalence ratio of the mixture is given by the value of the
variable ER0 specified in the cs-file. At the moment it is not possible to change the con-
tents of oxygen in the fuel-lean mixture (usually this mixture contains only pure air, i.e.
ER9 in the cs-file is set to zero).
The option to specify the contents of oxygen in air is utilized for example in the case
where FLACS is used to simulate experiments of explosion of a premixed combustible
cloud with oxygen-enrichment. Note that indirectly it is also possible to specify the con-
tents of nitrogen in air, since it is known that the corresponding volume fraction of oxy-
gen is one minus the volume fraction of nitrogen.
2-23
2.5 Introduction to the FLACS files

Input and output data for FLACS are stored in files. The name of each file consists of
two parts separated by a dot (.). The first part of the file name contains a two letter prefix
followed by the 6 digits job number. The second part of the file name, called the file type,
contains a prefix of one or more letters followed by one or more digits (dat3 for most of
the files, n001 etc. for the leak data files). Below is presented tables for all the important
files that a FLACS user may be in touch with, note that underscore "_" is used to mark
the fields where the identification numbers are to be placed:
Table 2.1: FLACS-98 working files

File name template Contents of file
cs______.dat_ Scenario
cg______.dat_ Grid
cp______.dat_ Porosities
co______.dat_ Obstructions
cc______.dat_ Runtime simulation control
cn______.dat_ Time dependent CFL-numbers
cl______.n___ Time dependent leak data
r1______.dat_ Scalar-time output
r3______.dat_ Field output
rt______.dat_ Simulation log
tt______ Simulation log, terminal printout
rd______.n___ Simulation dump
rx______.n___ Simulation save, temporary file created by FLACS
in some cases
2-24
The different identification numbers used in the file type is as follows:
Table 2.2: FLACS-98 working files, file types

File name template Meaning of file type digits
??______.dat_ Number of dimensions (1, 2, or 3)
cl______.n___ Number identifying a leak
rd______.n___ Number identifying a Dump or Load
rx______.n___ Number identifying a variable
The next subsections contain descriptions of each of the files to a certain level
of detail. Complete descriptions of all the file formats are not given, the inter-
ested reader is referred to the report "FLACS INTERFACES, File Interface
Description". The main focus here is on the interpretation of the contents of
each file, especially the input files which define the FLACS simulation setup.
Short explanatory remarks are made for all files.
NOTE: When a file with a given file name template = "??______.*" is

explained, then the file may be called the ??-file (e.g. cs-file for the scenario
file). This will be used consistently in the next subsections.
2-25
2.6 Scenario file

File name template = "cs______.dat_".
For briefness this file may be called the cs-file or scenario file hereafter. It is a text file
and will be created when using the scenario definition menu in CASD.
The term scenario was defined in the introduction to this User’s Guide, briefly as being
the set of parameters which may be used to control the behaviour of a given FLACS sim-
ulation.
The first line of the scenario file identifies the file format, for FLACS-98 this is set to
the following text string: "VERSION 0.5". This must not be changed manually since
it will be used by FLACS to determine how to read and interpret the file. FLACS will
also recognize the older formats such as "VERSION 0.n", where n is in the range 1 to
4, and the oldest format "CASD_VERSION 1.2". Only the most recent format is de-
scribed here.
The scenario file contains several sections, which are structured as follows:
SECTION_NAME
.
A section may contain several lines ...
.
EXIT SECTION_NAME
The scenario file contains the following sections and sub-sections:
Table 2.3: Sections on the FLACS-98 scenario file

Name of scenario section
SINGLE_FIELD_VARIABLES
MONITOR_POINTS
PRESSURE_RELIEF_PANELS
SINGLE_FIELD_SCALAR_TIME_OUTPUT
SINGLE_FIELD_3D_OUTPUT
2-26
Table 2.3: Sections on the FLACS-98 scenario file

Name of scenario section
SIMULATION_AND_OUTPUT_CONTROL
BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS
INITIAL_CONDITIONS
GAS_COMPOSITION_AND_VOLUME
VOLUME_FRACTIONS
IGNITION
LEAKS
OUTLET / VESSEL
WATERSPRAYS
LOUVRE_PANELS
GRATING
MONITOR_VOLUMES
The first section on the scenario file defines the names and identifiers for all the variables
which may be selected for output from FLACS. This section is generated when using
CASD, and will remain constant once the scenario file has been created.
Table 2.4: Normal output variables in FLACS
Name Dim Units Description

H 1 (J/kg) Enthalpy
FUEL 1 (-) Fuel mass fraction
FMIX 1 (-) Mixture fraction
FVAR 1 (-) Mixture variance
K 1 (m2/s2) Turbulent kinetic energy
EPK 1 (1/s) Turbulence ratio
EPS 1 (1/(m2*s3)) Dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy
GAMMA 1 (-) Isentropic gas constant
2-27

LT 1 (m) Turbulent length scale
MU 1 (kg/(m*s)) Effective dynamic viscosity
OX 1 (-) Oxygen mass fraction
P 1 (barg) Pressure
PIMP 1 (Pa*s) Pressure impulse
PROD 1 (-) Combustion product mass fraction
RET 1 (-) Turbulent Reynolds number
RFU 1 (kg/(m3*s)) Combustion rate
RHO 1 (kg/m3) Density
T 1 (K) Temperature
TURB 1 (m/s) Turbulence velocity
TURBI 1 (-) Relative turbulence intensity
VVEC 3 (m/s) Velocity vector
U 0 (m/s) Velocity component x-direction
V 0 (m/s) Velocity component y-direction
W 0 (m/s) Velocity component z-direction
UVW 1 (m/s) Velocity value
UDRAG 1 (Pa) Drag component x-direction
VDRAG 1 (Pa) Drag component y-direction
WDRAG 1 (Pa) Drag component z-direction
DRAG 1 (Pa) Drag value
UDIMP 1 (Pa*s) Drag-impulse component x-direction
VDIMP 1 (Pa*s) Drag-impulse component y-direction
WDIMP 1 (Pa*s) Drag-impulse component z-direction
DIMP 1 (Pa*s) Drag-impulse value
UFLUX 1 (kg/(m2*s)) Flux component x-direction
VFLUX 1 (kg/(m2*s)) Flux component y-direction
WFLUX 1 (kg/(m2*s)) Flux component z-direction
FLUX 1 (kg/(m2*s)) Flux value
UMACH 1 (-) Mach number component x-direction
VMACH 1 (-) Mach number component y-direction
WMACH 1 (-) Mach number component z-direction
MACH 1 (-) Mach number value
2-28

CS 1 (m/s) Sound velocity
TAUWX 1 (-) Wall shear force tauwx
TAUWY 1 (-) Wall shear force tauwy
TAUWZ 1 (-) Wall shear force tauwz
NUSSN 1 (-) Nusselt number
RESID 1 (-) Mass residual in continuity equation
ER 1 (-) Equivalence ratio
ERLFL 1 (-) Equivalence ratio, %LFL
ERNFL 1 (-) Equivalence ratio, normalized flammable
range
EQ 1 (-) Equivalence ratio, finite bounded
EQLFL 1 (-) Equivalence ratio, %LFL
EQNFL 1 (-) Equivalence ratio, normalized flammable
range
Table 2.5: Panel output variables in FLACS

PPOR 1 (-) Panel average area porosity
PP 1 (Pa) Panel average pressure
PPIMP 1 (Pa*s) Panel average pressure impulse
PDRAG 1 (Pa) Panel average drag
PDIMP 1 (Pa*s) Panel average drag impulse
2-29
Some of the most commonly used variables will be explained below:
Table 2.6: Description of commonly used output variables

Name Description
FUEL Fuel mass fraction:
This is the ratio of mass (kg) of pure fuel per unit mass (1 kg) of the total
mixture of fuel, air and combustion products for each control volume.
The fuel may be composed of several elements such as hydrocarbons and
hydrogen. See section Gases for more information on fuel properties.
Plots of FUEL are useful for displaying the fuel cloud.
P Pressure:
This is the static pressure (barg). For a fluid flow one can define a total
pressure being the sum of a static pressure and a dynamic pressure. The
static pressure is isotropic, whereas the dynamic pressure, which caused
by the relative motion of the fluid, is an-isotropic. A pressure transducer
placed in a flow field will in general measure the static pressure plus a
portion of the dynamic pressure, depending on the orientation of the face
of the pressure transducer relative to the flow direction. ‘Head on’ meas-
urements give the total pressure whereas ‘side on’ measurements give the
static pressure.
PIMP Pressure impulse:
t2
This is the time integral of the pressure: I p =

∫ pdt
t1
The pressure impulse is simply the area below the pressure-time curve,
and since it is the product of pressure and time it holds information about
both the amplitude and the duration of the pressure-time curve.
PROD Combustion product mass fraction:
This is the ratio of mass (kg) of combustion products per unit mass (1 kg)
of the total mixture of fuel, air and combustion products for each control
volume. The combustion products consist of carbon-dioxide and water
vapour. See section Gases for more information on the reactions that con-
vert fuel onto combustion products. Plots of PROD are useful for display-
ing the flame (or more correctly the burnt volume).
RHO Density:
This is the fluid mass (kg) per unit volume (1 m3). The equation of state
gives the relation between pressure density and temperature. The equa-
tion of state for an ideal gas is applied in FLACS: p = ρRT , see section
Gases for more information on ideal gases.
2-30

Name Description
T Temperature:
This is the absolute temperature (K) of the fluid. See RHO above for a
description of the relation between pressure density and temperature. The
temperature may be increased by compression which converts mechani-
cal energy into thermal energy, and by combustion which converts chem-
ical energy into thermal energy.
VVEC Velocity vector:
This is the entity which gives the three velocity components of the time
averaged fluid flow. The energy contained in the temporal fluctuations of
the flow which are not captured using a given spatial and temporal resolu-
tion is handled by a turbulence model. VVEC consists of the three com-
ponents U, V, and W. If you are editing the cs-file manually, always
remember to include the components if you have specified VVEC for
output (CASD includes them automatically).
DRAG Drag value:
This is related to the dynamic pressure for the fluid flow. The expression
2
for the dynamic pressure is p dyn = ρu ⁄ 2 . An obstacle submerged in a
fluid flow will interact with the fluid, thereby a drag force results. The
drag force may be measured in experiments and if the Reynolds number
is high, the ratio ‘drag force / dynamic pressure’ is constant:
2
C D = ( F D ⁄ A ) ⁄ ( ρu ⁄ 2 ) . See section Fluid flow equations for
details about the equations governing fluid flow.
DIMP Drag-impulse value:
t2
This is the time integral of the dynamic pressure: I pdyn =

∫p dyn dt
t1
The drag-impulse value is equivalent to the pressure impulse, with the
difference that the dynamic pressure is being integrated instead of the
static pressure.
ER Equivalence ratio
This is a measure for concentration of fuel compared to the stoichiometric
concentration, i.e. ER equals 1 at stoichiometric concentration. Say that
(F/O) is the ratio of fuel to oxygen, then the equivalence ratio is defined
as follows: ER = (F/O) / (F/O)stoichiometric. For zero fuel ER equals zero
and for pure fuel ER goes to infinity.
2-31

Name Description
ERLFL Equivalence ratio, %LFL
This is a measure for concentration of fuel compared to the LFL concen-
tration, where LFL is the lower flammable limit. The LFL value normally
varies with gas type and oxygen concentration (again depending on the
amount of inert gases) in the mixture. In FLACS the fuel is always mixed
with air which has a preset oxygen concentration, so only the variation of
LFL with gas type remains. The definition of ERLFL is as follows:
ERLFL = 100 * ER / ERLFL %
ERNFL Equivalence ratio, normalized flammable range
The flammable range is defined to be from LFL to UFL, where LFL is the
lower flammable limit and UFL is the upper flammable limit. ERNFL is
defined as follows: ERNFL = (ER-ERLFL) / (ERUFL-ERLFL). ERNFL is
zero at LFL and one at UFL.
EQ Equivalence ratio, finite bounded
This is a measure for concentration of fuel similar to the equivalence ratio
(see ER above). Say that (F/O) is the ratio of fuel to oxygen, then the
finite bounded equivalence ratio is defined as follows: EQ = (F/O) / [(F/
O)+(F/O)stoichiometric]. At stoichiometric concentration EQ equals 1/2.
For zero fuel EQ equals zero and for pure fuel EQ equals one.
EQLFL Equivalence ratio, %LFL
This is a measure for concentration of fuel compared to the LFL concen-
LFL with gas type remains. The definition of EQLFL is as follows:
EQLFL = 100 * EQ / EQLFL %
EQNFL Equivalence ratio, normalized flammable range
The flammable range is defined to be from LFL to UFL, where LFL is the
defined as follows: EQNFL = (EQ-EQLFL) / (EQUFL-EQLFL). EQNFL is
PP Panel average pressure:
This is the average pressure (Pa) acting on the panel surface in the per-
pendicular direction. It is the sum of the directional pressure forces acting
on the panel divided by the net surface area of the panel (also accounting
for the area porosity for each control volume). The sign of PP indicates
the direction of the total force, +/- along the positive/negative direction
respectively.
2-32

Name Description
PPOR Panel average porosity:
This is the average pressure porosity, it is the amount of open surface on
the panel divided by the total panel area. Output of PPOR may be used to
verify when the panel yields.
It is possible to use alternative names for some output variables in FLACS 2.2, the old
DRAG name may be substituted by PDYN (dynamic pressure) and the units for the pres-
sure variables may be set in the VARIABLE_DEFINITION section (Pa, hPa, kPa, barg
or mbarg):
Table 2.7: Changing some output variable names and units in FLACS
New Old Units Description

P P (Pa) Static pressure
PIMP PIMP (Pa*s) Static pressure impulse
UPDYN UDRAG (Pa) Dynamic pressure component x-direction
VPDYN VDRAG (Pa) Dynamic pressure component y-direction
WPDY WDRAG (Pa) Dynamic pressure component z-direction
N
PDYN DRAG (Pa) Dynamic pressure
UDIMP UDIMP (Pa*s) Dynamic pressure impulse component
x-direction
VDIMP VDIMP (Pa*s) Dynamic pressure impulse component
y-direction
WDIMP WDIMP (Pa*s) Dynamic pressure impulse component
z-direction
DIMP DIMP (Pa*s) Dynamic pressure impulse
PTOT not available (Pa) Total pressure PTOT=P+PDYN
PTIMP not available (Pa*s) Total pressure impulse
2-33
This section contains parameters for general simulation and output control. The default
setup which is suitable for gas explosion simulations is listed below:
TMAX 99999.0 (s)
LAST 99999
CFLC 5.0
CFLV 0.5
SCALE 1.0
MODD 1
NPLOT 5
DTPLOT 99999.0 (s)
GRID CARTESIAN
WALLF 1
HEAT_SWITCH 0
A detailed description of each parameter is given in the next paragraphs:
TMAX
This is the maximum time interval (seconds) FLACS will simulate. For a simulation of
an explosion in a typical offshore module a value in the order of a few seconds will suf-
fice. The default value set by CASD is 99999.0 s. This value may be reduced if addition-
al control of when to stop a simulation is required. FLACS normally stops a certain time
interval after the fuel is burnt. In a gas dispersion simulation TMAX will typically be from
a few seconds to a few minutes, note that the mechanism to stop after the fuel is burnt
does not apply in this case. Simulation results are not affected by variation of this param-
eter. If ignition has occurred and TMAX is set to less than 10000 then FLACS will not
stop until TMAX has been reached.
LAST
This is the maximum number of timesteps allowed for the simulation. The default value
set by CASD is 99999. This value may be changed if additional control of when to stop
a simulation is required. FLACS normally stops a certain time interval after the fuel is
burnt (gas explosion simulation). A gas dispersion simulation including sonic jets will
probably require some thousands of iterations, and it is better to use TMAX to control the
2-34
maximum time. Simulation results are not affected by variation of this parameter. In
some rare cases it may be necessary to increase the default value for LAST in order to
reach the desired TMAX, this is true if you want to simulate very long duration of gas dis-
persion.
CFLC
This is a Courant-Friedrich-Levy number based on sound velocity. The value of CFLC
connects simulation time step length to control volume dimension through signal prop-
agation velocity (in this case the velocity of sound), in the following way:
Each time step length is chosen so that sound waves may propagate only a limited dis-
tance, which is the average control volume length multiplied by the value of CFLC. The
default value set by CASD is 5.0. The time step limit imposed by this criterion is nor-
mally dominant in the early phase of an explosion, when flow velocities and combustion
rate are still low (see also CFLV).
Simulation results may change with this parameter. Pressures tend to increase with de-
creasing CFLC, but the opposite trend has also been observed in some tests. It is recom-
mended not to change this parameter unless convergence problems occur, in which case
a reduction typically with a factor of 2 may be necessary. Extreme changes of the CFL
numbers (i.e. by an order of magnitude) are not recommended for normal simulations.
Note that for multi-block simulations a maximum CFLC=0.5 should be used for the
BLAST blocks. It is recommended to use CFLC=0.2 in the BLAST blocks in order to
ensure numericalc stability and good representation of the blast wave.
CFLV
This is a Courant-Friedrich-Levy number based on fluid flow velocity. The value of
CFLV connects simulation time step length to control volume dimension through signal
propagation velocity (in this case the fluid flow velocity), in the following way:
Each time step length is chosen so that the fluid may propagate only a limited distance,
which is the average control volume size multiplied by the Courant number. The default
value set by CASD is 0.5. The time step limit imposed by this criterion is normally dom-
inant in the later phase of an explosion, when flow velocities and combustion rate are
high (see also CFLC).
Simulation results may change with this parameter. Pressures tend to increase with de-
creasing CFLV. Calculated overpressures depend more on changes in CFLV than in
CFLC. It is recommended not to change this parameter unless convergence problems oc-
2-35
cur, in which case a reduction typically with a factor of 2 may be necessary. Extreme
changes of the CFL numbers (i.e. by an order of magnitude) are not recommended.
SCALE
This parameter is used to scale all linear dimensions in a scenario. This means that a 10
m long explosion vessel is calculated as being 20 m long if SCALE is set to 2.0. Positions
and sizes of equipment, gas cloud, ignition region, monitor points, panels etc. are scaled
accordingly. The CASD default value is 1.0. This parameter will influence simulation
results, typically explosion pressures increase with increasing scale.
MODD
This is a parameter that may be used to determine how often data for scalar-time plots
are written to file during a simulation: data are namely stored every MODD timesteps.
CASD default is set to 1. It may be beneficial to use a value greater than 1 if a simulation
is expected to involve more timesteps than a few hundred. This variable does not influ-
ence simulation results, only the amount of data which is stored.
NPLOT
This is a parameter that may be used to determine how often data for field plots are writ-
ten to file during a simulation: data are namely stored at given fuel levels where NPLOT
is the number of fuel levels equally spaced between zero and a maximum. Fuel level is
defined as the current total mass of fuel divided by the initial total mass of fuel. This out-
put mechanism is not active in the case of a gas dispersion simulation (leaks are speci-
fied). CASD default for NPLOT is set to 5, maximum is HUGE_INTEGER. This variable
does not influence simulation results, only the amount of data which is stored.
DTPLOT
This is the time interval (in seconds) for field output. This is useful in gas dispersion sim-
ulations and also in gas explosion simulations when frequent output is required. Note
that the field output file will become very large if DTPLOT is set small. The CASD de-
fault is set to 99999.0. This variable does not influence simulation results, only the
amount of data which is stored.
WALLF
This is a control switch that specifies the use of wall-functions in FLACS. Wall-func-
tions are used to resolve the effect of momentum and thermal boundary-layers on the
2-36
momentum and energy equations in near wall regions. The following choices are avail-
able:
0 = OFF
1 = ON (old)
2 = ON (new)
The CASD default value of WALLF is set to 1. This parameter will influence the simu-
lation results.
When WALLF equals 2, turbulence is generated subgrid close to the walls based on cer-
tain assumptions concerning the build-up of the turbulent boundary layer. This subgrid
model is suited for ordinary industrial applications.
When WALLF equals 1 wall-functions are employed based on theory explained in

[Sand and Bakke, 1989]. A slightly modified version of this wall-functions procedure is
employed when WALLF equals 2. When one wants to simulate fully developed turbu-
lent boundary layers near walls, WALLF can be set to 1 or 2 (for example if one wants
to simulate an experimental setup for a fully developed turbulent boundary layer near a
wall).
HEAT_SWITCH (not used)

This parameter is meant to control the activation of thermal attributes on objects in
FLACS, it is currently not used in FLACS-98. The following choices might be available:
0 = OFF
1 = ON
See also:
”Runtime simulation control file” on page 90
”Time dependent CFL-numbers file” on page 92
2-37
INITIAL_CONDITIONS
This section describes parameters which specify a selection of initial conditions, such as
choice of up-direction, the magnitude of the gravitational force and initial turbulence
level and the initial temperature. The default setup for these parameters is listed below:
INITIAL_CONDITIONS
UP-DIRECTION 0.0, 0.0, 1.0
GRAVITY_CONSTANT 9.8 (m/s2)
CHARACTERISTIC_VELOCITY 0.0 (m/s)
RELATIVE_TURBULENCE_INTENSITY 0.0
TURBULENCE_LENGTH_SCALE 0.0 (m)
TEMPERATURE 20.0 (°C)
UP-DIRECTION
This is a vector defining the direction to be taken as upwards. Usually one of the main
directions would be chosen as upwards, however, it is possible to define upwards at an
angle to the main axes. The three components of UP-DIRECTION denotes the X- Y-
and Z-direction respectively. The vector does not need to be of unit length. The default
setting is that +Z is upwards. Changing this vector will affect the results. Normally the
effect is small for explosion simulations, in dispersion simulations where the density of
the leaking gas differs much from the density of air the effect may be important.
GRAVITY_CONSTANT
This is the gravitational acceleration which is normally 9.8 m/s2 (pointing downwards).
Setting a zero value for this parameter means that there are no gravitational influences
on the flow. Note that panels with inertia are also influenced by this parameter if the di-
rection of panel release is in the direction of the UP-DIRECTION vector (refer section
"PRESSURE_RELIEF_PANELS"). Changing this parameter will affect the results.
Normally the effect is small for explosion simulations, but in dispersion simulations
where the density of the leaking gas differs much from the density of air, the effect may
be important.
CHARACTERISTIC_VELOCITY
This parameter may be used to change the value of the reference velocity for the initial
turbulence field. The kinetic energy of turbulence per unit of mass is defined as follows:
k = ( u' 2 + v' 2 + w' 2 ) ⁄ 2 , assuming isotropic turbulence u' = v' = w' this gives:
2-38
k = 3u' 2 ⁄ 2 . It is quite common to relate the isotropic turbulence velocity, u' , to a ref-
erence velocity (which in FLACS has been denoted CHARACTERISTIC_VELOCITY)
in the following way: u' = αu . Here the following symbols have been used:
k = 3u' 2 ⁄ 2 Kinetic energy of the isotropic turbulence (J/kg)
u' = αu Isotropic turbulence velocity (m/s)
α Relative turbulence intensity (-)
u Characteristic velocity (m/s) (e.g. free-stream velocity)
The characteristic velocity should always be a positive value (zero if not used).
RELATIVE_TURBULENCE_INTENSITY
This parameter may be used to change the relative turbulence intensity of the initial tur-
bulence. See CHARACTERISTIC_VELOCITY above for a detailed description. In a
laminar flow field or low turbulence flow field this parameter will be in the range of 0.0
to 0.01, for high turbulence flows it may reach up to 0.30 (i.e. 30% turbulence intensity).
In a realistic scenario the turbulence will wary in time and space. It is recommended not
to change this parameter, except in cases where the value is known from experiments. If
you decide to change it, it must be set to a positive value (zero if not used).
TURBULENCE_LENGTH_SCALE
This parameter may be used to change the value of the length scale of the initial turbu-
lence. A suitable value for this parameter may be difficult to obtain. It is recommended
not to change this parameter, except in cases where the value is known from experi-
ments. In case you want to set the relative turbulence intensity and characteristic veloc-
ity, also the turbulence length scale must be set to a positive value (zero if not used).
TEMPERATURE
The initial temperature (°C) may be specified. The default value is 20.0 (°C).
2-39
BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS
This section describes the selection of boundary conditions for a simulation, which also
includes specification of wind parameters. The entry on the scenario file will by default
be as listed below
BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS
XLO EULER
XHI EULER
YLO EULER
YHI EULER
ZLO EULER
ZHI EULER
Choosing this menu will set specific boundary conditions for the outer boundaries of the
simulation domain. The lower boundaries in X- Y- and Z-direction are denoted by XLO,
YLO and ZLO respectively, and the upper boundaries likewise by XHI, YHI, ZHI. The
following choices are available for each boundary:
EULER Euler equations

EQCHAR Characteristic equations
NOZZLE Nozzle formulation
PLANE_WAVE Plane wave condition
SYMMETRY Symmetry conditions
WIND Wind inflow or outflow
Note that the different boundaries do not need to have the same condition. E.g. WIND
may be specified for one of the boundaries, SYMMETRY for another, EULER for yet an-
other and so on. For boundaries with porous walls like louvres or grating a resistance or
discharge coefficient depending of the porosity and a drag factor is calculated for each
control volume face. The formula used is consistent with the resistance formulation used
for internal obstructions/walls.
EULER
Here the inviscid flow equations (Euler) are discretized for a boundary element, which
means that the momentum and continuity equations are used on the boundary, however
2-40
only in the case of outflow. The ambient pressure is used as the pressure outside the
boundary. A nozzle formulation is used in the case of inflow and sonic outflow. The
EULER condition may tend to give somewhat too low explosion pressures in unconfined
situations, in such cases the boundaries should be extended (see also PLANE_WAVE be-
low).
EQCHAR
This boundary condition is based on extrapolation of the characteristic variables on the
boundaries for sub-sonic inflow and outflow. A nozzle formulation is used in the case of
sonic outflow. This condition has shown to give higher explosion pressures than the oth-
er formulations. An explanation for this is that the expansion of the gas volume outside
the boundary in this case is said to be one-dimensional (channel). It has also shown to
be more robust than the EULER condition in some cases. The EQCHAR condition may
tend to give somewhat too low explosion pressures in unconfined situations, in such cas-
es the boundaries should be extended (see also PLANE_WAVE below).
NOZZLE
Here a nozzle formulation is used for both sub-sonic inflow/outflow and sonic outflow.
This condition is suitable for porous areas with small sharp edged holes or grids (e.g.
louvres and gratings). A discharge coefficient is calculated from the area porosity and a
drag coefficient. This condition has shown to give somewhat higher explosion pressures
than the EULER formulation but is more robust. The NOZZLE condition may tend to
give somewhat too low explosion pressures in unconfined situations, in such cases the
boundaries should be extended (see also PLANE_WAVE below).
PLANE_WAVE
This boundary condition was designed to reduce the reflection of the pressure waves at
open boundaries which occurs when using the EULER, EQCHAR or NOZZLE boundary
conditions. The pressure wave reflection is caused by setting a fixed pressure at the
boundary. The PLANE_WAVE boundary condition extrapolates the pressure in such a
way that reflections are almost eliminated (for outgoing waves). The problem which
then may occur is that the pressure stays at a slightly elevated level after an explosion.
For low confinement scenarios it is recommended to use this boundary condition and to
extend the grid so that the total volume is large compared to the volume of the gas cloud
(thus avoiding the elevated pressure level after the expansion of the burnt gas has taken
place). In semi-confined situations where the boundaries are close to the vents the
PLANE_WAVE condition should not be used, use one of the EULER, EQCHAR or NOZ-
2-41
ZLE boundary conditions instead. In very unconfined situations it is advised to extend

the grid and to use the PLANE_WAVE condition.
SYMMETRY
This is a boundary condition that can be used to reduce the size of the computational do-
main and thereby the simulation costs. It is applicable when a symmetry plane can be
defined in the given geometry/scenario. This symmetry plane will then become a com-
putational boundary which will not, however, act as an ordinary wall e.g. as regards flow
friction. The simulation results may be mirrored across the symmetry plane to give the
results for the full geometry.
BERNOULLI
The BERNOULLI boundary condition is based on a three-dimensional analysis, and is
designed for scenarios with slowly varying, nearly incompressible flow at an open
boundary, being typical for dispersion/wind/ventilation studies. It seems to represent the
physics better than the NOZZLE boundary condition that has been much used for wind/
ventilation simulations. The basic idea is to make an extrapolation using Bernoulli equa-
tion for isentropic, stationary flow. The pressure at the open boundary equals the ambi-
ent pressure, and the velocity vector at the boundary is assumed parallel to the velocity
at the adjacent interior control volume. At present we have little experience of using the
BERNOULLI boundary condition in connection with explosions.
WIND
This is a boundary condition where the flow velocity perpendicular to an outer boundary
and corresponding turbulence parameters may be given. In the current release it is not
possible to enter time dependent wind parameters. However, to avoid strong transient re-
sponses the wind is increased from zero velocity to the specified velocity over a given
time interval. Selecting WIND causes CASD to prompt for the wind parameters. Below
are listed the available wind parameters followed by their default value and units of
measurement:
WIND
WIND_SPEED 0.0 (m/s)
WIND_DIRECTION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0
WIND_BUILDUP_TIME 0.0 (s)
2-42
WIND_SPEED
The WIND_SPEED may be given a positive, zero or negative value. The sign of this pa-
rameter determines the flow direction. A positive value means wind flow in positive di-
rection. I.e. inflow at the lower boundaries and outflow at the upper boundaries. Note
that the local velocity at the boundary is set equal to the given WIND_SPEED multiplied
by the local area porosity at the boundary. This must be considered when you want to
establish a given mass or volume flux at a porous boundary. The following relations are
given:
ui = u0 βi Given velocity is multiplied with local area porosity

• u i is the local velocity
• u 0 is the user specified velocity
• β i is the local area porosity
F i = u i A i β i = u 0 A i β i2 Local volumetric flow at the boundary (each control
volume may have a different flow)
F tot =
∑u A β i i i = u0
∑A β2
i i Total volumetric flow at the boundary (sum over all
control volumes at the boundary)
WIND_DIRECTION
The WIND_DIRECTION is a vector and each component may be given a positive, zero
or negative value. The sign of this parameter determines the flow direction. A positive
value means wind flow in positive direction. I.e. inflow at the lower boundaries and out-
flow at the upper boundaries. Wind at an angle different from normal inflow may be
specified using the WIND_DIRECTION vector.
The RELATIVE_TURBULENCE_INTENSITY is the ratio of isotropic turbulence ve-
locity to the mean flow velocity. A typical value for this parameter will be in the range
of 0.0 to 0.1. It is used to calculate the level of turbulent kinetic energy (k) in the wind
flow. The formula used for calculation of k and related parameters is as follows:
k = 3u' 2 ⁄ 2 Kinetic energy of the isotropic turbulence (J/kg =(m/s)2)
u' = αu Isotropic turbulence velocity (m/s)
α Relative turbulence intensity (-)
u Characteristic velocity (m/s) (= WIND_SPEED)
2-43
The TURBULENCE_LENGTH_SCALE is used to calculate the dissipation rate (ε) of tur-
bulent kinetic energy (k). The value of this parameter should be proportional to the hy-
draulic diameter for the flow if such a value can be determined. The formula used for
calculation of (ε) is as follows:
ε = Cμ k 3 ⁄ 2 ⁄ l Dissipation rate of k (1/(m*s)2)
Cμ Constant = 0.09
l Turbulence length scale (m)
FINAL NOTES ON BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

The CASD default boundary condition is EULER. The setting of boundary conditions
will influence the simulation results. IMPORTANT: The WIND condition is not appli-
cable for gas explosion simulations since it forces the flow velocity to a specified value.
This section allows you to define a box shaped cloud region and the gas concentration
and composition. The menu is shown below:
POSITION_OF_FUEL_REGION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 (m)
DIMENSION_OF_FUEL_REGION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 (m)
VOLUME_FRACTIONS <MENU>
EQUIVALENCE_RATIOS_(ER0_ER9) 1.0, 0.0
The position of the cloud is the location of the minimum point (xmin, ymin, zmin) of the
box, and the sizes (xsiz, ysiz, zsiz) give the side lengths of the box (only positive values
allowed for the sizes). The gas composition is specified by entering volume fractions of
2-44
the listed gas components, and the concentration is given by the Equivalence Ratios
(ER0 inside the gas cloud and ER9 outside)
VOLUME_FRACTIONS
METHANE 1.0
ACETYLENE 0.0
ETHYLENE 0.0
ETHANE 0.0
PROPYLENE 0.0
PROPANE 0.0
BUTANE 0.0
HYDROGEN 0.0
CO 0.0
CO2 0.0
H2S 0.0
The sum of volume fractions does not need to be 1, FLACS will interpret the values as
volumetric parts (normalization is done in FLACS by dividing each value by the sum of
all values).
Note that some new gases are included in the table above compared to earlier versions
of FLACS; carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and hydrogen sulphide
(H2S). Both carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulphide are combustible gases, while car-
bon dioxide is an inert gas. Though it is an inert gas, addition of carbon dioxide will af-
fect the burning velocity of the combustible mixture.
IGNITION
In case of a gas explosion simulation you must specify the location and size of the igni-
tion source and also a time for the ignition to occur. The available parameters here are
as follows:
IGNITION
POSITION_OF_IGNITION_REGION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 (m)
DIMENSION_OF_IGNITION_REGION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 (m)
TIME_OF_IGNITION 0.0 (s)
RADMAX 99999.0 (m)
2-45
The ignition region may be a point, a line, a plane or a volume. Normally you would
choose an ignition point (the sizes are zero), and ignition effected at time zero. The
RADMAX parameter will be ignored by FLACS-98, but it may occur in the scenario file
in some cases.
If the ignition point is inside a partially blocked control volume, the flame might quench.
It is not recommended to ignite inside a partially blocked control volume. But if you still
choose to do so, and if there are any problems to obtain a proper ignition and flame prop-
agation, you might try to increase the DIMENSION_OF_IGNITION_REGION side
lengths up to about 0.05 to 0.10 m.
MONITOR_POINTS
One of the output facilities in FLACS is the
SINGLE_FIELD_SCALAR_TIME_OUTPUT. Here you may define a number of points
in the simulation volume where you want to measure or monitor some values. The max-
imum number of monitor points allowed is currently 100.
MONITOR_POINTS
INSERT 1, 1.0 0.0 0.0 (m)
INSERT 2, 2.0 0.0 0.0 (m)
INSERT 3, 3.0 0.0 0.0 (m)
INSERT 4, 4.0 0.0 0.0 (m)
INSERT 5, 5.0 0.0 0.0 (m)
... ...
When you have defined all your desired monitor points you may specify list of variables
to be monitored and the relevant monitor numbers for each variable (see the next sub-
section).
As indicated in the previous sub-section you must define your monitor points and panels
before you can specify the list of output variables. For each output variable you may en-
ter one or more numbers indicating the monitor point number(s), or panel number if it is
2-46
a panel output variable, for which you want this variable to be measured. An example is
shown below:
NP 12345
NPP 123
...
See also:
”Scalar-time output file” on page 98
This is an output facility in FLACS which enables you to generate plots of the spatial
distribution of the variables (e.g. cut plane plots and volume plots). All you need to do
is to specify the list of desired variables for SINGLE_FIELD_3D_OUTPUT, an exam-
ple is shown below:
NP
NPROD
NVVEC
NU
NV
NW
...
You should be aware that this type of output may give very large files. If you want to
save space you must limit the number of output variables and the number of time instants
for output.
See also:
”Field output file” on page 99
”SIMULATION_AND_OUTPUT_CONTROL” on page 34
2-47
Pressure relief panels are commonly used in the process industry as a mitigating device
in the case of an explosion. When the pressure forces on the panel exceed a certain limit,
the panel yields and the pressure is relieved. There are different opening mechanisms for
the pressure relief panels employed in the industry. One opening mechanism is that each
subanel (the panel consists of subpanels mounted on a frame) turns on a hinge when it
yields. Another opening mechanism is that each subpanel pops out when it yields and
follows the flow field downstream.
In addition to different types of pressure relief panels, a so-called INACTIVE panel used
to monitor variables, and a so-called PLASTIC panel used to model plastic sheets on
vent openings (commonly used in experiments), are incorporated in the FLACS code.
Note that if several panels are specified, they should not overlap each other anywhere
(in the model it is assumed that the panels are non-overlapping).
Below is shown a full list of parameters which may be visible on the scenario file, which
of these parameters that are relevant, depend on the panel type considered.
INSERT 1
POSITION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 (m)
SIZE 1.0, 1.0, 0.0 (m)
MATERIAL BLUE
PANEL_TYPE UNSPECIFIED
OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES 0.0, 0.0 (bar)
INITIAL_AND_FINAL_POROSITY 0.0, 1.0 (-)
WEIGHT 0.0 (kg/m2)
DRAG_COEFFICIENT 1.0 (-)
MAXIMUM_TRAVEL_DISTANCE 0.0 (m)
SUB_SIZES 1.0, 1.0 (m)
Some parameters must always be specified by the user, these are the 5 first parameters
listed above; INSERT, POSITION, SIZE, MATERIAL, PANEL_TYPE. Which of
2-48
the other parameters that are relevant and must be specified by the user, depends on the
panel type considered, see the table below.
Panel type Additional relevant parameter specified by user

INACTIVE
UNSPECIFIED OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES
INITIAL_AND_FINAL_POROSITY
WEIGHT
DRAG_COEFFICIENT
MAXIMUM_TRAVEL_DISTANCE
POPOUT OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES
WEIGHT
SUB_SIZES
HINGED OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES
WEIGHT
SUB_SIZES
PLASTIC OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES
OVERLAY OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES
Each of the different parameters are described below:
2-49
INSERT
Integer identifying the panel considered.
POSITION
Cartesian coordinates [m] of the corner of the panel (the corner with lowest value of the
coordinate in each axis direction).
SIZE
The panel is assumed to be a plane of rectangular shape. The dimension [m] in each of
the axis directions is given. One dimension should be zero, this shows how the panel is
oriented. If e.g. the dimension in x-direction is zero, the normal of the panel points in x-
direction. The other two dimensions should be positive. The panel edges will be adjusted
to match the grid lines perfectly in the FLACS code, so it is advised that you only specify
panels which coincide with the grid lines, in order to avoid any confusion concerning the
geometrical representation of the panel.
MATERIAL
Colour used when visualizing the panel as part of the geometry considered.
PANEL_TYPE
There are 6 different panel types described here. They are listed and described in more
detail below. In addition to the panel types mentioned here, see the section about
”LOUVRE_PANELS” on page 54.
INACTIVE Passive panel, not affecting the geometry or the flow field, used to
monitor variables
UNSPECIFIED Panel with linear displacement when the panel yields
POPOUT Panel with a linear displacement when the panel yields
HINGED Panel with a rotational displacement when the panel yields
PLASTIC Simulates the presence of plastic sheets (commonly used in experi-
ments)
OVERLAY Panel superimposed on other equipment
2-50
A panel in the FLACS code is either active or passive. A passive panel, corresponding
to the case when PANEL_TYPE equals INACTIVE, does not affect the numerical sim-
ulation in any respect (neither the geometrical description including the porosities, nor
the flow field), it is only included in order to monitor variables related to the area which
the passive panel occupies (e.g. area-averaged pressure over all the control-volume faces
of the panel). Only the parameters INSERT, POSITION, SIZE, and MATERIAL are
relevant when the PANEL_TYPE is INACTIVE.
An active panel (all the panel types except INACTIVE) will in general affect both the
porosities representing the geometry and the flow field. For the active panels both an in-
itial and a final area porosity value is given (open area divided by total area). The initial
porosity corresponds to the state of the panel before it has started to yield due to external
pressure forces. The final porosity corresponds to the state of the panel after it has yield-
ed completely due to pressure forces. Note that each control-volume face covered by the
panel is treated separately. Thus it is possible, depending on the scenario, that one part
of the panel is open, while at the same time other parts are closed.
The way of using the initial and final porosities in the FLACS code depends on the type
of panel considered. In the case of the panel types UNSPECIFIED, POPOUT, and
HINGED; for each control-volume face which is covered by the panel, the porosity rep-
resenting the panel is also the porosity of the control-volume face, regardless of any oth-
er equipment or structure included in the geometry. Let us make a specific example to
illustrate an effect of this. Let us consider a panel of type UNSPECIFIED with initial
porosity 0 (completely blocked) and finial porosity 1 (fully open). Before the panel starts
to yield, the area covered by the panel is completely blocked. After the panel has yielded
completely for all the control-volume faces covered by the panel, the area occupied by
the panel before it yielded is fully open for fluid flow. Thus if e.g. a strong solid beam
was placed so that it partially covered the same area as the panel, it is not there (i.e. as
part of the area of the panel) any longer affecting the flow after the panel has yielded.
Said in a somewhat imprecise way; every geometrical object that would affect the area
porosities (if the panel was not included in the geometry) at the area covered by the pan-
el, "blow out" together with the yielding panel. This effect should be taken into account
when using panels of type UNSPECIFIED, POPOUT, or HINGED.
For a panel of type OVERLAY the value of the area porosity determined by the panel is
multiplied by the value of the area porosity determined by other geometrical objects (in
the absence of any panel) giving the effective area porosity, for each control-volume
face covered by the panel. Let us consider an example where the final porosity of the
panel is 1 (fully open). After the panel has yielded completely for all the control-volume
2-51
faces covered by the panel, the area porosities have the same values that they would have
if no panel was included in the geometry. So in this case other geometrical objects than
the panel itself can not "blow out" together with the yielding panel (cf. the comments
above).
For a panel of type PLASTIC, and in the case of the initial area-porosity; for each con-
trol-volume face which is covered by the panel, the porosity representing the panel is
also the porosity of the control-volume face, regardless of any other equipment or struc-
ture included in the geometry (as in the case of the panel types UNSPECIFIED, POP-
OUT, and HINGED). Usually the initial area-porosity of a PLASTIC panel is zero (com-
pletely blocked). If the PLASTIC panel has yielded completely, the area porosities have
the same values that they would have if no panel was included in the geometry (as in the
case of an OVERLAY panel with final area-porosity 1). Note that for a PLASTIC panel
the final area-porosity is always assumed to be 1, regardless of the user-given value.
Panels of the types PLASTIC or OVERLAY are assumed to be light panels, and inertial
forces are neglected by the FLACS code during the dynamical process when the panel
yields due to pressure forces. In the case of panels of types UNSPECIFIED, POPOUT,
or HINGED, inertial forces are in general taken into account.
OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES
When the net pressure over the panel (pressure on the negative side relative the coordi-
nate axis minus pressure on the positive side, i.e. the net pressure from the fluid acting
on the panel) exceeds limits given by the user, the panel starts to yield. Two opening
pressure-differences, in units of [bar], are given by the user, the first corresponds to the
case when the net pressure acts in negative direction, the second when the net pressure
acts in positive direction. If for example the
OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES are given by -0.1 and 0.2, the panel starts
to yield when the net pressure is less than -0.1bar (negative direction) or greater than
0.2bar (positive direction). Note that the FLACS code makes the same interpretation of
the input data, regardless of the sign of the opening pressure-differences given by the us-
er. So if the OPENING_PRESSURE_DIFFERENCES were given instead by 0.1 and
0.2, or by 0.1 and -0.2, the effect on the numerical simulation would be exactly the same.
The opening pressure-differences must be given for the active panels (all the panel types
except INACTIVE).
The initial area porosity [-] of the panel (open area divided by total area) corresponds to
the state of the panel before it has started to yield due to external pressure forces. Simi-
2-52
larly the final porosity corresponds to the state of the panel when it has yielded complete-
ly. In the case of a PLASTIC panel, the final area-porosity should be set to 1 by the user
in order to correspond to how the FLACS code works (the final area-porosity is always
assumed by FLACS to be 1, regardless of the user-given value). Note that the way of
using the initial and final porosities in the FLACS code depends on the type of panel
considered. See the comments above. The initial and final porosity must be given for the
active panels (all the panel types except INACTIVE). The value of the porosity range
from 0 (totally blocked) to 1 (fully open). It is expected that the initial porosity is less
than the final porosity (the net pressure opens up the panel). If this is not the case, the
FLACS code gives a warning.
WEIGHT
The parameter WEIGHT is specified for the panel types UNSPECIFIED, POPOUT,
and HINGED (for the other panel types it is not relevant to specify this parameter). This
parameter is the mass per unit area [kg/m^2] of the part of the panel that is moved when
the net pressure acting on the panel exceeds the opening pressure-difference given by
the user. The value of WEIGHT is either zero or positive. If the value of WEIGHT is
zero, it is assumed in the FLACS code that the panel is so light that inertial forces can
be neglected during the dynamical process when the panel yields due to pressure forces.
If the value of WEIGHT is positive, the dynamics when the panel yields and part of the
panel is accelerated and move away from its initial position, is modelled in the FLACS
code. Note that when you specify the panel type POPOUT, the inertial forces must be
there when the panel yields, that is the WEIGHT must be a positive number. Note that it
is only the part of the panel that is accelerated and move away from its initial position,
that should contribute to the mass per unit area. The mass of a rigid frame that does not
yield, should not be included.
DRAG_COEFFICIENT
A dimensionless drag-coefficient [-] is given by the user for the panel type UNSPECI-
FIED (for the other panel types it is not relevant to specify this parameter). The drag
coefficient is used when the drag force from the panel on the fluid is modelled (both be-
fore, during, and after the panel has yielded). The value of the DRAG_COEFFICIENT
is zero or positive. A typical value is 2.0 (the value 2.0 is set by the FLACS code as a
fixed preset value for the panel types POPOUT and HINGED).
MAXIMUM_TRAVEL_DISTANCE
The maximum travel-distance [m] is given by the user for the panel type UNSPECI-
FIED (for the other panel types it is not relevant to specify this parameter). The use of
2-53
the maximum travel-distance is based on a rough approximation. The maximum travel-

distance is the smallest distance from the initial position of the panel to the position
where the yielded panel no longer affects significantly the effective area-porosity at the
initial position of the panel. The maximum travel-distance is used to model the effective
area-porosity at the initial position of the panel during the dynamical process when the
panel yields. A typical value of the MAXIMUM_TRAVEL_DISTANCE is in the or-
der of 1m (for the panel types POPOUT and HINGED there is an in-built model in the
FLACS code for the effective area-porosity that does not need a value of the
MAXIMUM_TRAVEL_DISTANCE as input from the user).
SUB_SIZES
The parameter SUB_SIZES is given by the user for the panel types POPOUT or
HINGED (for the other panel types it is not relevant to specify this parameter). These
panel types are assumed to consist of subpanels mounted on a frame. The width [m] and
the height [m] of the subpanels are given by the user (it is assumed in the numerical mod-
el that all the subpanels are of uniform size). Both the width and the height should be
positive. In the case of the panel type HINGED it is assumed that each subpanel turns on
a hinge when it yields. The width of the subpanel is defined as the dimension in the di-
rection normal to the axis of the hinge. It is important (since it affects the model in
FLACS) to specify the width of a HINGED panel first and then the height, in the param-
eter SUB_SIZES (for a POPOUT panel it is of no importance which dimension that is
defined as the width).
Note that the PLASTIC and OVERLAY panels can not be chosen in the present version
of CASD. It is possible to edit the scenario file manually to use these panel types, by
initially creating an UNSPECIFIED panel and change it to the desired type. It is advised
that only experts attempt to do this.
LOUVRE_PANELS
Louvre panels are common in offshore installations and also in land-based process in-
dustry. The louvre panels affect the flow field both due to drag forces, and deflection of
the flow downstream of the panel, determined by the geometry of the louvre slats. A new
subgrid model for flow through louvres is described in detail in [Salvesen, October
1996]. Some validation exercises using the new subgrid model are documented in
[Salvesen, November 1996].
A louvre panel is assumed to consist of slats mounted on a frame. The louvre slats may
have an arbitrary form depending on the type of louvre panel considered, but it is as-
2-54
sumed that the slats of a louvre panel are more or less equal in shape, uniformly oriented,
and uniformly distributed. It is assumed that the velocity vector downstream of the lou-
vre panel is forced to be within a fixed plane (a mathematical plane of zero thickness)
determined by the louvre slats, when the flow exits the louvre, independently of the up-
stream velocity.
To be specific, let us consider an example: A louvre panel is oriented with normal in x-

direction. The louvre slats define a plane with unit normal vector in the xy-plane, (-
sin(θ),cos(θ),0), where θ is an angle with absolute value less than 90°. The angle θ is
defined as the angle between the slats of the louvre (assuming that the slats are more or
less plane, or if they are curved that they define a tangent at the exit on the downstream
side) and the normal of the louvre (in our example the x-axis).The assumption is that the
projection of the downstream velocity vector for flow in positive x-direction, on to the
xy-plane, is directed a fixed angle θ relative the positive x-axis (corresponding to the
tangent vector (cos(θ),sin(θ),0)), independently of the upstream velocity. How good this
assumption is in practice depends on several factors: The form (plane or curved) and the
thickness of the slats, and how wide the slats are compared to the distance between two
neighbouring slats. The component of the velocity vector in z-direction, is assumed to
be unaffected by the presence of the louvre panel.
In the example above, a louvre panel is oriented in x-direction. It may also be oriented
in y- or z-direction. In general the louvre slats define two distinct planes, one plane for
flow exiting in positive direction and one plane for flow exiting in negative direction.
Often these two planes are identical. This is the case e.g if the slats are of rectangular
shape. But if the slats are e.g. V-formed, the two planes are distinct. The two planes may
be arbitrary oriented as long as two conditions are satisfied: Firstly, none of the planes
should coincide with the louvre plane itself (this would imply that the louvre panel is
completely blocked). In the numerical code it is checked that the angle between the unit
normal of the louvre plane and the unit normal of the plane determined by the slats (for
flow in positive or negative direction), is not too small, that is less than one degree. Sec-
ondly, if the plane determined by the slats for flow in positive direction is distinct from
the plane for flow in negative direction, the vector cross product of the normal vectors
of these two planes should lie in the louvre plane (in other words, these two normal vec-
tors and the normal of the louvre plane all lie in the same plane).
Note that the subgrid model affects how the momentum flux is calculated for the face of
the staggered control volume adjacent to the louvre plane on the downstream side. The
velocity of a control volume is determined by a balance of momentum fluxes over all the
faces of the control volume. The subgrid model gives the momentum flux at the CV face
2-55
adjacent to the louvre panel, the momentum fluxes at the other CV faces are determined
by the flow field otherwise. A consequence of this is that the first velocity vector down-
stream of the louvre plane need not be directed exactly according to the plane deter-
mined by the louvre slats, since the flow field otherwise also affects the velocity vector.
In the subgrid model it is assumed that the total drag force can be represented as the sum
of three terms; drag due to acceleration of the magnitude of the velocity of the flow, drag
due to bending of the flow, and drag due to friction. In the description of these three
terms below, it is assumed that the flow is in positive direction (either x-, y- or z-direc-
tion). The subscript e (east) corresponds to downstream values, the subscript w (west)
corresponds to upstream values. A similar description is valid for flow in negative direc-
tion (not given here). Drag (absolute value) due to acceleration of the flow is represented
by:
2 2
Cacc max { 0, (1/2)ρ |U | - (1/2)ρ |U | } ,
e e w w
in the case that the plane determined by the louvre slats for flow in positive direction is
the same as the one for flow in negative direction. Here ρ is the density, and U is the
velocity vector. The drag coefficient Cacc is typically set to 1. Note that no contribution
from drag due to acceleration is included if the norm of the velocity vector upstream is
larger than the one downstream (this would correspond to a pressure increase instead of
a pressure drop over the louvre).
In the case that the plane determined by the louvre slats for flow in positive direction is
distinct from the one for flow in negative direction (e.g. if the slats are V-formed), it is
assumed that the drag is represented by:
2 2
Cacc ( max { 0, (1/2)ρint |Uint| - (1/2)ρ |U | } +max
w w
2 2
{ 0, (1/2)ρ |U | - (1/2)ρint |Uint| } ) .
e e
Here Uint is the so-called intermediate velocity vector in the plane determined by the
louvre slats for flow in negative direction. It is assumed that the velocity vector first is
forced to be within this plane, and then is forced to be within the plane determined by
the louvre slats for flow exiting in the positive direction.
Drag due to bending of the flow is modelled as:
2-56
2
(1/2)ρw |Uw| Cbend ( α1 + α2 ) ,
where α1 is the angle between the upstream and the intermediate velocity vector, α2 is
the angle between the downstream and the intermediate velocity vector, 0 ≤ α < π,
i=1,2. Note that the intermediate velocity vector and the downstream velocity vector i are
identical when the two planes determined by the louvre slats (for flow exiting in positive
and in negative direction) are identical (and then α2 =0). The coefficient Cbend (units of
1/radian) could be estimated from experiments or fine grid simulations. In the validation
simulations a value of Cbend =0.11/(π /4) is used. This corresponds to a result found in
the literature; a resistance coefficient for flow in pipes of 0.11 for a bending of π /4 ra-
dian. Confer [Salvesen, November 1996] for more details.
If the flow is neither bended nor accelerated, there is still a drag due to skin friction as-
sumed to be represented by
2
(1/2)ρw Uw Cfric ,
where Cfric is a drag coefficient.
The coefficients Cacc, Cbend, and Cfric are expected to depend on the specific type of
louvre considered, and on both the Reynolds number and the Mach number of the flow.
The direction of the upstream velocity vector may also be of importance. To investigate
how the coefficients depend on the various parameters mentioned above, seems to be a
challenging task. Performing fine-grid simulations or experiments are ways of ap-
proaching the problem. In the present model it is assumed that the coefficients depend
on only the geometry of the louvre (neglecting the dependence on the other parameters
mentioned above).
If experimental values of the coefficients Cacc, Cbend, and Cfric are known for the spe-
cific type of louvre panel considered, these values should be used in the numerical cal-
culations. In many cases only the so-called pressure-loss coefficient (sometimes in the
literature it is also called pressure-drop or resistance coefficient) is known from experi-
ment. This coefficient is defined by
2
p - pe =(1/2)ρw Uw Cpressure ,
w
for upstream flow in positive direction with velocity vector pointing normally on the lou-
vre plane. In the case of flow with low Mach number (incompressible or nearly incom-
pressible fluid), the static pressure drop over the louvre panel is essentially balanced by
2-57
the drag force (i.e. the component of the force from the louvre on the fluid along the nor-
mal of the louvre plane) per unit area (see [Salvesen, October 1996] for details). Thus
for incompressible flow, when Uw = Ue, with upstream velocity vector pointing normal-
ly on the louvre plane, the pressure-loss coefficient can be related to the coefficients
Cacc, Cbend, and Cfric by
2
Cpressure = Cacc( 1/(cos θ) -1 ) + Cbend α1 + Cfric ,
where the relation |Ue| cos θ = Ue is utilized (confer the example above). Here it is as-
sumed that the plane determined by the louvre slats for flow in positive direction is the
same as the plane for flow in negative direction. One approach is to set Cacc equal 1 (this
value is supported by theoretical considerations, cf. [Salvesen, October 1996] ), set
Cbend equal zero or a guessed value based on experimental results found in the literature
(e.g. set Cbend =0.11/(π /4) as described above), and set Cfric so that the relation above
is satisfied for given values of Cpressure, Cacc, and Cbend. Another approach is to set
both Cacc and Cbend equal zero, and set Cfric equal Cpressure. Both these approaches
are expected to give good results when performing simulations. If not even the pressure-
loss coefficient Cpressure is known, one may use a guessed value for this coefficient.
Values of the pressure-loss coefficient are reported in the range from 9.8 to 13.9 for com-
mercially available louvre panels for industrial use. So a value in the range, say between
10 and 11, is in many cases expected to be a reasonable estimate for the pressure-loss
coefficient.
An example of a setup for a louvre panel is shown below:
LOUVRE_PANELS
NAME "NoName"
POSITION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 (m)
SIZE 0.0, 1.0, 1.0 (m)
MATERIAL BLUE
NORMAL_VECTOR_SLATS_POSITIVE 1.0, 0.0, 1.0 (-)
NORMAL_VECTOR_SLATS_NEGATIVE 1.0, 0.0, 1.0 (-)
DRAG_COEFFICIENT_ACCELERATION 1.0 (-)
DRAG_COEFFICIENT_BENDING 0.14 (1/radian)
DRAG_COEFFICIENT_FRICTION 9.0 (-)
AREA_POROSITY 0.7 (-)
2-58
NAME
Character string identifying the louvre panel considered (not used by FLACS).
POSITION
Cartesian coordinates of the corner of the louvre panel (the corner with lowest value of
the coordinate in each axis direction).
SIZE
The louvre panel is assumed to be of rectangular shape. The dimension in each of the
axis directions is given. One dimension should be zero, this shows how the louvre panel
is oriented, and defines the louvre plane. If e.g. the dimension in x-direction is zero, the
normal of the louvre plane points in x-direction. The other two dimensions should be
positive.
MATERIAL
Colour used when visualizing the louvre panel as part of the geometry considered.
NORMAL_VECTOR_SLATS_POSITIVE
Cartesian coordinates of normal vector of plane determined by the louvre slats for flow
in positive direction. This vector need not be specified as a unit vector. But the normal
vector should not be parallel to the normal vector of the louvre plane. This would mean
that the louvre panel is completely blocked by the louvre slats (if e.g. the louvre panel is
oriented in x-direction, to specify the normal vector determined by the louvre slats as
(1.0,0.0,0.0) would be an illegal choice). Note that the normal vector need not lie in the
xy-, xz-, or yz-plane. To specify the vector as for example (1.0,1.0,1.0) would be a valid
choice.
If for example the louvre panel is oriented in x-direction, and the normal vector deter-
mined by the louvre slats is given by (-sin(θ),0,cos(θ)) (here θ is an angle with absolute
value less than 90°), the interpretation is the following: The angle θ is the angle between
the slats of the louvre (assuming that the slats are more or less plane, e.g. of rectangular
shape, or if they are curved that they define a tangent at the exit on the downstream side)
and the normal of the louvre plane (in this example the positive x-axis). The tangent vec-
tor in the xz-plane of the plane determined by the louvre slats is given by
(cos(θ),0,sin(θ)). A typical value of the angle θ would be -45°. This would correspond
to a case where the louvre panel is a shield for rain (assuming that vertically upwards is
in positive z-direction).
2-59
NORMAL_VECTOR_SLATS_NEGATIVE
Cartesian coordinates of normal vector of plane determined by the louvre slats for flow
in negative direction. Similar comments apply here as those given above for
NORMAL_VECTOR_SLATS_POSITIVE.
In many cases this vector equals the normal vector for flow in positive direction. This is
the case if e.g. the louvre slats have a rectangular shape. But if the louvre slats are e.g.
V-formed the plane determined by the louvre slats for flow in negative direction is dif-
ferent from the plane for flow in positive direction.
Note that the normal vector determined by the louvre slats for flow in negative direction
should lie in the plane defined by the normal vector determined by the louvre slats for
flow in positive direction and the normal vector of the louvre plane. If for example the
louvre panel is oriented in x-direction and the normal vector of the plane determined by
the louvre slats for flow in positive direction lies in the xz-plane, then the normal vector
for flow in negative direction should also lie in the xz-plane.
DRAG_COEFFICIENT_ACCELERATION
Drag coefficient Cacc of drag due to acceleration of the magnitude of the velocity of the
flow. This coefficient should be zero or positive. A typical value is 1 (this value is sup-
ported by theoretical considerations). Further guidance is given above.
DRAG_COEFFICIENT_BENDING
Drag coefficient Cbend of drag due to bending of the flow. This coefficient should be
zero or positive. The units of this coefficient is (1/radian). Further guidance is given
above.
DRAG_COEFFICIENT_FRICTION
Drag coefficient Cfric of drag due to friction. This coefficient should be zero or positive.
Further guidance is given above.
AREA_POROSITY
An area porosity of the louvre panel is specified. This is not a projected area porosity on
to the louvre plane (in many cases it is not possible to see through the louvre watching
normally on it, i.e. the projected area porosity is zero), but is viewed as the ratio of open
area to total area in a representative cut plane parallel to the louvre plane. If e.g. the lou-
vre consists of rectangular slats of thickness D uniformly inclined relative to the louvre
plane and uniformly spaced with centre/centre distance 4D, the area porosity is (4D-D)/
2-60
4D=0.75 (this value is independent of the angle of inclination). If the frame of the louvre
blocks the panel considerably, this may be taken into account. If the blockage of the
frame corresponds to an area porosity βframe, the total effective area porosity in our ex-
ample will be 0.75βframe.
Note that in the new subgrid model for louvre panels, the value of the area porosity af-
fects the drag force only indirectly. The drag force is determined by the drag coeffi-
cients, the configuration of the louvre slats (determining the deflection of the flow down-
stream of the louvre), and the flow field. The value of the area porosity affects how the
fluxes (of mass, momentum, etc.,) are set when solving the conservation equations at the
louvre plane, and this will affect the flow field.
If the profile of the louvre slats has a complicated form, it may not be obvious how to
estimate the effective area porosity. If the area porosity varies in different cut-planes par-
allel to the louvre plane, it is expected that a cut-plane with a minimum area porosity is
the most representative. The user may perform several simulations varying the value of
the area porosity, if one wants to investigate the sensitivity of the value of the area po-
rosity on the numerical results. The limited testing in the validation simulations reported
in [Salvesen, November 1996], seems to indicate that the maximum overpressure of an
explosion simulation is in general not very sensitive to changes in the value of the area
porosity. In one scenario the maximum overpressure dropped about 12% when the value
of the area porosity was increased from 0.6685 to 1.0.
GRATING
The static pressure-loss coefficient Cpressure is defined by
2
Δ p = (1/2)ρ U Cpressure ,
where Δ p is the pressure loss across the grating, ρ is the density, and U is the upstream
velocity component normal to the grating. The component normal to the grating of the
force per unit area from the grating on the fluid flowing through it, i.e. the drag force per
unit area, is assumed to be equal to the static pressure drop over the grating. The static
pressure-loss coefficient is modelled by
Cpressure = f (Re) f (β) f (M) ,

1 2 3
where the factor depending on the geometry, characterized by the area porosity β , is giv-
en by;
2-61
2 2
f (β) = ((1-β ))/(β ) ,
2
∗
and the factor depending on the upstream Mach number M, and the upstream choking
Mach number M (upstream Mach no. corresponding to choking at the grating) is given
by;
∗ ∗ 1/7
f (M) = ( (M )/(M -M) ) .
3
∗ ∗
The choking Mach no. is related to the area porosity, M =M (β). This relation is mod-
elled by
∗ 4
M (β) = 0.675 β + 0.325 β ,
being a curve fit to experimental data.
The factor depending on the Reynolds no., Re, is modelled as a curve fit to experimental
results. The characteristic length used in the Reynolds no. is the diameter of the wire (or
of the rod if the grating is constructed by rods rather than wires). This curve fit and ex-
2-62
perimental data are shown in the figure below. Further details about modelling drag forc-
es for flow through grating, are found in [Salvesen and Storvik, June 1994].
Computed curve-fit to experimental data

14 Experimental values
0.45
12
f_1(Re) 10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
log_10(Re)
Figure 2.6 Factor f_1(Re) in pressure-loss coefficient as function of Reynolds no.

(logarithmic scale). Both experimental data and a curve-fit to these data
are shown.
An example of a setup for a louvre panel is shown below:
GRATING
NAME "NoName"
POSITION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 (m)
SIZE 0.0, 1.0, 1.0 (m)
MATERIAL RED
AREA_POROSITY 0.7 (-)
CHARACTERISTIC_LENGTH 0.01 (m)
2-63
NAME
Character string identifying the grating considered (not used by FLACS).
POSITION
Cartesian coordinates of the corner of the grating (the corner with lowest value of the
coordinate in each axis direction).
SIZE
The grating is assumed to be of rectangular shape. The dimension in each of the axis di-
rections is given. One dimension should be zero, this shows how the grating is oriented.
If e.g. the dimension in x-direction is zero, the normal of the grating points in x-direc-
tion. The other two dimensions should be positive.
MATERIAL
Colour used when visualizing the grating as part of the geometry considered.
AREA_POROSITY
Ratio of projected open area of the grating divided by total area. Value between 0 and 1.
CHARACTERISTIC_LENGTH
Characteristic length used in the Reynolds number, defined as the wire diameter (or sim-
ilar dimension if it is not a wire, but a rod). A typical value of the characteristic length
is 0.01m.
2-64
LEAKS
It is possible to specify one or more leakage points in a FLACS simulation. The leakage
is intended to model the flow of gas from a reservoir into the simulation volume, the
available parameters controlling the leakage are shown next:.
LEAKS
INSERT 1
TYPE "JET"
POSITION 1.0, 1.0, 1.0 (m)
OPEN_SIDES "+X"
START_TIME 1.0 (s)
DURATION 10.0 (s)
OUTLET <MENU>
VESSEL <MENU>
POOL <MENU>
INSERT
This command is used to insert a new leakage, the parameters for this leakage will be
explained in the following next pages. Currently the maximum number of leakages is 50.
TYPE
The type of leakage must be specified as one of the following:
DIFFUSE Low momentum point leak (depreciated)

JET Low & high momentum point leak (preferred)
AIR_JET Similar to "JET", but leak mixture is air (ER9)
SUCTION Negative point source, i.e. removal of gas
POOL Flashing & evaporation from an area source
(not yet fully implemented)
POSITION
The position of the leak for a point leak is obvious, for an area leak (e.g. POOL) it is the
location of the minimum coordinate of the box region covered by the leak (xmin, ymin,
zmin).
2-65
OPEN_SIDES
The open sides indicates which side(s) of the control volume affected by the leak should
be made to open up as the leak starts. OPEN_SIDES is a text string containing charac-
ters taken from "+-XYZ". A leakage directed in the positive x-direction should have
OPEN_SIDES = "+X", several sides may be open for a single leak, e.g.
OPEN_SIDES = "+X-X" or OPEN_SIDES = "+XY-ZX".
START_TIME
This is the time (in seconds) when the leakage should start. Normally one would allow
a certain time for wind buildup prior to starting any leaks.
DURATION
This is the duration (in seconds) of the leakage. The finish time for the leakage is the
start time plus the duration, hence you may want to set TMAX accordingly.
OUTLET <MENU>
This is the head of a menu for description of conditions at the leak outlet, thus giving the
conditions for the leak in an explicit manner. The outlet menu is described below.
OUTLET
AREA 0.1 (m2)
MASS_FLOW 0.0 (kg/s)
VELOCITY 10.0 (m/s)
DIRECTION_COSINES 0.0, 0.0, 0.0
OUTLET: AREA
This is the effective opening area (in square meters) at the outlet. This parameter must
always be set for any leakage. For an explicitly set mass flow or velocity at the outlet
you must ensure that the velocity is not above the speed of sound. The following rela-
tions for the conditions at the outlet will apply:
m· = ρuA Mass flow at the leak outlet (kg/m3/s)
ρ = p ⁄ ( RT ) Gas density at the outlet (kg/m3)
2-66
p = p amb Pressure at the outlet is the ambient pressure (Pa)
R = ℜ⁄W Specific gas constant (J/kg/K)
ℜ = 8314,3 Universal gas constant (J/kmole/K)
W Mole weight for the given gas composition (kg/kmole)
T Temperature at the outlet (K) (0.0 °C = 273.15 K)

u Velocity at the outlet (m/s)
The relations shown above may be used to ensure that the outlet conditions are set in a
consistent way.
OUTLET: MASS_FLOW
If you know the mass flow rate at the outlet this may be specified here. Note that setting
MASS_FLOW greater than zero takes priority above setting VELOCITY (see below).
Make sure that the generated velocity is not larger than the speed of sound (approximate-
ly 340 m/s for air). Setting the outlet area large enough for a given mass flow rate causes
the outlet velocity to be as low as desired. FLACS will report the generated velocity on
the log file (rt-file). The mass flow rate must have a positive value (zero if not specified).
OUTLET: VELOCITY
Instead of specifying a mass flow rate at the outlet (see above) you may give the velocity.
FLACS will report the generated mass flow rate on the log file (rt-file). If you specify
both MASS_FLOW and VELOCITY then the mass flow rate takes precedence. The ve-
locity must have a positive value (zero if not specified).
OUTLET: RELATIVE_TURBULENCE_INTENSITY
This parameter must always be specified for a leakage. Normally a value in the range
0.01 to 0.10 will be appropriate. If the relative turbulence intensity cannot be obtained
from any source (literature or experiments) for the given leakage, the following rough
classification may be used:
0.01-0.03 Low turbulence intensity

0.03-0.06 Medium turbulence intensity
0.06-0.10 High turbulence intensity
2-67
It is generally believed that the turbulence generated in the jet zone is less important than
the turbulence generated by the induced downstream flow field, in which case the k-ε
model in FLACS represents the actual modelling. It should be noted here that on the
coarse grids normally used for dispersion calculations in large geometries the generated
turbulence due to fluid stresses may be underestimated, and since numerical diffusion
may be high on such coarse grids one might expect that the turbulent (or effective) mix-
ing process is not represented with high accuracy.
OUTLET: TURBULENCE_LENGTH_SCALE
This parameter must always be specified for a leakage. It may be difficult to obtain the
value for the turbulence length scale. It is generally related to the size of the nozzle or
the feeding pipe for the leakage. A rough estimate is that the turbulence length scale is
in the range of 10% to 20% of the nozzle diameter. When the turbulence length scale is
small the dissipation rate of the turbulence kinetic energy is large, thus the turbulence
will dissipate quickly for small diameter nozzles. In such cases the turbulence generated
by the downstream flow field is the important factor, and the k-ε model in FLACS takes
care of that.
OUTLET: TEMPERATURE
This parameter must always be specified for a leakage.
OUTLET: DIRECTION_COSINES
This is a vector which may be used to define the direction of an oblique jet.
VESSEL <MENU>
This menu gives you additional facilities to calculate the outlet conditions, given that the
leak comes from a pressurized vessel. Any explicit specification of mass flow rate or ve-
locity at the outlet will be ignored if the vessel pressure is set (a positive non zero value
is given). The vessel menu is described below.
VESSEL
PRESSURE 0.0 (barg)
VOLUME 0.0 (m3)
HEAT_EXCHANGE_COEFFICIENT 0.0 (J/s/K/m2)
WALL_TEMPERATURE 0.0 (°C)
2-68
PRESSURE
This is the initial stagnation pressure inside the vessel. If this has been set (a positive non
zero value is given) then the mass flow rate and velocity at the outlet will be calculated
using standard formulae for isentropic flow at sonic conditions. Any explicit specifica-
tion of mass flow rate or velocity at the outlet will be ignored in this case. The pressure
(in barg) must be larger than the critical pressure (in order to obtain sonic flow at the noz-
zle).
TEMPERATURE
This is the initial stagnation temperature (in °C) of the fluid inside the vessel.
VOLUME
This is the fixed volume (in cubic metres) of the vessel. The fluid mass contained in the
vessel decreases as there is a net outflow through the outlet, thus the pressure (and also
the temperature) will decrease with time. An infinite reservoir will be approximated if a
very large volume is given.
HEAT_EXCHANGE_COEFFICIENT
This is the coefficient of heat exchange (in J/s/K/m2) between the walls of the vessel and
the fluid contained in the vessel. A value of zero will in effect give an adiabatic situation,
whereas a very large value gives an isoterm situation.
WALL_TEMPERATURE
This is the temperature (in °C) of the walls of the vessel. It will be used in the calculation
of heat transfer between the fluid contained in the vessel and the vessel itself. The wall
temperature is assumed to be constant throughout the whole duration of the leakage.
POOL <MENU>
This is not fully implemented yet.
POOL
MOLE_WEIGHT 0.0 (g/mole)
WATERSPRAY
A waterspray system can be an effective mitigating device in the case of a gas explosion,
reducing the overpressure significantly. This mitigating effect has been seen in many ex-
2-69
periments. When the droplets are small enough (either because the droplets produced by
the nozzle are small, or because large droplets break up into small droplets when the
flow is accelerated), they tend to reduce the burning rate due to cooling of the flame, and
dilution of the gas mixture by evaporation. However, large droplets in the flame region
(before break-up of the large droplets) tend to increase the turbulence level and thereby
increase the burning rate. So there are competing effects when using a waterspray sys-
tem. In some cases waterspray may even increase the maximum overpressure of an ex-
plosion.
The waterspray model implemented in the FLACS code is relatively simple. One or
more non-overlapping waterspray regions are defined. In each region there is assumed
to be droplets of a given diameter (before break up), and a given water volume-fraction.
If the relative velocity between the droplets and the gas flow exceeds a so-called critical
break-up velocity (depending on the diameter of the droplet), it is assumed that the drop-
lets break up.
Two non-dimensional factors are employed in the numerical model. When there is water
in the reactive mixture (i.e. inside a waterspray region), this is assumed to enhance the
burning rate. Before break-up of the droplets, the burning enhancement-factor denoted
F1 [-] (positive number) is multiplied by the laminar burning velocity S lam and added
to the ordinary burning velocity S turb (i.e. the burning velocity employed in the FLACS
code without any waterspray, this burning velocity is in general in the turbulent regime)
to give the effective burning velocity with waterspray. When the droplet break-up crite-
rion is fulfilled, the burning velocity (without break-up) is multiplied by the burning re-
duction-factor F2 [-] (positive number less than 1), to give the effective burning velocity
S water ;
S water = ( S turb + F1 × S lam )F2

The numerical model does not take into account the transportation of the droplets with
the gas flow. One may try to compensate for this simplification by extending the user-
defined waterspray region in directions where the gas expands during the explosion.
The waterspray model is validated for explosions with stoichiometric fuel-air mixtures.
For off-stoichiometric fuel-air mixtures it is assumed that the pressure reduction caused
by waterspray might be slightly underpredicted.
Below is shown a list of parameters which may be visible on the scenario file
2-70
WATERSPRAY
INSERT 1
POSITION 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 [m]
SIZE 1.0, 1.0, 1.0 [m]
VOLUME_FRACTION 0.2 [per thousand]
MEAN_DROPLET_DIAMETER 300.0 [μm]
NOZZLE_TYPE "FACTORS: 10.0 0.3" [-]
INSERT
Integer identifying the waterspray region considered. A maximum number of 25 regions
may be defined in the current version of the FLACS code.
POSITION
Cartesian coordinates [m] of the corner of the box-shaped waterspray region (the corner
with lowest value of the coordinate in each axis direction). Make sure not to define any
overlapping regions. The FLACS code will assign the nearest grid line to your given po-
sition as the actual position of the waterspray region. In other words, FLACS will make
the waterspray region stick to the grid lines.
SIZE
The dimension [m] in each of the axis directions is given for the box-shaped waterspray
region. All three dimensions should be positive. Make sure not to define any overlapping
regions, the FLACS code will assign the nearest grid line to your given (position + size)
as the actual (position + size) of the waterspray region. In other words, FLACS will
make the waterspray region stick to the grid lines. The FLACS code will issue an error
message and stop if you have defined any overlapping waterspray regions. You should
check the position and size parameters if this error occurs.
VOLUME_FRACTION
Volume fraction [per thousand] of water, defined by volume of liquid water in litre di-
vided by total volume in cubic meter (one cubic meter equals 1000 litre), inside the wa-
terspray region. Thus, if the volume fraction is 0 there is no liquid water, and if the vol-
ume fraction is 1000 there is only liquid water. If this parameter is less than 0.01
(corresponds to a mass fraction less than 1%), the FLACS code will give you a warning
that the waterspray is assumed not effective in the numerical model. As long as the vol-
2-71
ume fraction of water is larger than this small minimum value, the waterspray model in
FLACS is effective (in the current version of FLACS the value of the parameter
VOLUME_FRACTION does not affect how the waterspray model works, so any value
larger than the minimum value will give the same numerical results in the simulation).
MEAN_DROPLET_DIAMETER
The mean diameter [μm] of the water droplets before break-up due to acceleration of the
gas flow, is given by the user. In the waterspray model it is assumed that all droplets have
the same size, and that the droplets are uniformly distributed in space inside the water-
spray region. This is an approximation. In most real situations there will be a droplet size
distribution, which in most cases is non-uniform in space, i.e. the distribution may
change from one region to another region.
In the waterspray model, the mean droplet diameter is defined to be the so-called Sauter
diameter. This diameter is defined by the volume-based mean diameter cubed divided
by the area-based mean diameter squared. The Sauter diameter depends on the operating
water-pressure forcing water out the nozzle. The empirical relation D = P –0,333 (D in
[mm] and P in [barg]) seems to give good estimates for the Sauter diameter over a range
of values for the water pressure, and for various nozzles. However, for some special noz-
zle types giving very large (e.g. nozzle type LDN) or very small (e.g. nozzle type P120)
droplet diameters, this empirical relation may be less accurate. One may then try to es-
timate otherwise the Sauter diameter for the water-pressure considered. You may use ei-
ther your estimate or data given by the vendor of the nozzle.
NOZZLE_TYPE
In earlier versions of the FLACS code (FLACS-94&95) the vendor code (i.e. name) of
the nozzle could be specified by the user, if this code were included in a pre-defined list
of nozzle types. Each nozzle type where characterized by the two non-dimensional fac-
tors F1 and F2 for a fixed operating water pressure. This way of giving input to the wa-
terspray model is not recommended any longer (since the factors F1 and F2 depend on
the operating water pressure and also on other scenario-dependent parameters). The two
non-dimensional factors F1 and F2 (how these factors affect the waterspray model is de-
scribed above) should be calculated and specified for each scenario considered based on
the guidance given below:
The parameter NOZZLE_TYPE should be set equal to the text string "FACTORS: F1
F2" (note that the double quote character " is included twice in the text string), where
2-72
F1 and F2 are the numerical values of the two factors. The two non-dimensional factors
F1 and F2 are modelled by
F1 = 14U z β water
0,03
F2 = ---------------------
Dβ water
where U z [m/s] is the average droplet velocity vertically downward (absolute value),
β water [per thousand] is the water volume-fraction, and D [mm] is the Sauter diameter.
How to obtain the Sauter diameter (mean droplet diameter) is described above. If the
nozzle spreads the water horizontally, the droplets will soon fall down with a constant
velocity (gravity forces are balanced by drag forces). This constant velocity depends on
the droplet diameter. It can be estimated from the empirical relation
0,94
U z = 2,5D
where the units of U z is [m/s] and the units of D is [mm]. For some nozzle types the
droplets leave the nozzle with a significant velocity component vertically downward. In
this case the average downward velocity should be estimated otherwise (giving a larger
value than from the expression above). The water volume-fraction is estimated by
n ( Q ⁄ 60 )
β water = -------------------------------------------
X length Y length U z
where X length [m] is the length in x-direction of the assumed rectangular waterspray re-
gion, Y length [m] is the length in y-direction (it is assumed that the xy-plane is the hori-
zontal plane), n is the number of nozzles (it is assumed that all of the nozzles within the
same waterspray region is of the same type and with the same water flow-rate), and Q
is the water flow-rate [litre/min] for a single nozzle (thus Q /60 is the water flow-rate in
units of [litre/s]). The water flow-rate depends on the operating water-pressure. It is as-
sumed that the flow-rate is related to the water pressure P [barg] by
Q = k P
where the so-called k-value of the nozzle depends on the type of nozzle considered.
2-73
2.7 Jet release of liquefied gas under high pressure

Storage of liquefied gas under high pressure at temperatures above the normal boiling
point of the gas, is common in the industry. In this context gas is understood to be a sub-
stance which may be in both gaseous phase or liquid phase depending on the thermody-
namic condition, but which at atmospheric pressure and normal temperatures is in gas-
eous phase, e.g. ammonia or propane.
When a jet release of liquefied gas into the atmosphere occurs, some or all of the lique-
fied gas will evaporate quickly, or in other words flash off. This is due to the fact that
the storage temperature is higher than the normal boiling point of the gas, and conse-
quently the storage pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure (assuming that there
is thermal equilibrium inside the storage tank the storage pressure is the vapour pressure
at the temperature inside the tank). The flashing process is basically determined by how
much energy the liquefied gas can draw from itself in order to evaporate. The fraction
of the liquefied gas that flashes off depends on the storage temperature, the normal boil-
ing point, the heat capacity of the liquefied gas, and the latent heat of evaporation.
Immediately after the flashing, little air has been mixed with the released gas, and the
temperature of the gas both in gaseous phase and liquid phase is approximately the nor-
mal boiling point of the gas. The released gas continues downwind as a two-phase flow.
Some of the liquefied gas may rain out and form a pool on the ground, the rest will re-
main in the jet as an aerosol or spray, and will gradually evaporate. After the flashing
process, air is gradually entrained into the jet. When air is mixed with released gas the
partial pressure of the released gas in gaseous phase is less than the atmospheric pressure
and even more liquefied gas can evaporate. Generally the cooling effect due to evapora-
tion is so large compared to the heat flow of the relatively warm entrained air, that the
temperature of the jet decreases below the normal boiling point of the released gas. The
gradual evaporation of the liquefied gas continues downstream of the jet until the lique-
fied gas has completely evaporated. Then the temperature of the jet increases as more air
is entrained into the jet. Eventually the jet dies out downstream and a vapour cloud re-
gion is formed, see the figure below for a sketch of the different regions.
2-74
vapor
cloud
high region
pressure hybrid
gas region
reservoir jet
region
source
region
liquefied
gas
pool
region
Figure 2.7 Release of liquefied gas under high pressure. Sketch of different re-
gions.
Presently, the FLACS code simulates only gaseous flow, two-phase flow of an aerosol
is not modelled directly. The question then arises; with a jet release of liquefied gas as
described above, how can this be included in a FLACS simulation. One possibility is to
try to model the jet of liquefied gas with a jet of only vapour of released gas, the temper-
ature being equal the normal boiling point (knowing that in general the temperature of
the released gas after flashing is the normal boiling point), and with the same mass and
momentum flow as through the orifice. However, our experience has been that when do-
ing this, the released gas spreads out from the jet axis in the numerical calculations much
less than it should. The most important reason for this is expected to be the phase tran-
sition from liquid to gaseous phase, including the acceleration of the jet as a result of the
depressurization (flashing) when the jet exits the orifice. Hence, this phase transition
2-75
should be modelled, and this has been done. It is assumed that the jet axis lies in the hor-
izontal plane and that the jet may expand freely in the region of interest.
A jet release of liquefied gas under high pressure involves several processes that are
modelled using conservation laws and empirical relations. When the liquid exits the or-
ifice, some of it flashes off. The mass fraction of vapour after this rapid evaporation is
an important parameter. After the flashing, the flow of the jet continues downstream as
a two-phase flow (aerosol). Knowledge about the droplet distribution is needed to esti-
mate the mass fraction of liquid that rains out and forms a pool on the ground. The frac-
tion of liquefied gas that remains in the jet will eventually evaporate completely as more
and more ambient air is entrained into the jet. It is important to be able to characterize
the jet as function of the axial distance. This includes the mass flow, the momentum
flow, the diameter of the jet, the mass fraction of released gas, and the thermodynamic
condition. A detailed description of how this has been done is given in the technical
CMR-report [Salvesen, August 1995].
The implemented model is not an integrated part of the FLACS code, but a separate util-
ity program called FLASH. This program gives as output data that can be used as input
to the FLACS code. To be more specific; the program calculates the mass flow of re-
leased liquefied gas that rains out and forms a pool on the ground, the rest of the released
gas evaporates inside the jet. The axial distance when all the liquefied gas inside the jet
has just evaporated, is calculated. At this axial distance, the jet is characterized by the jet
diameter, the mass flow rate, the temperature, the mass fraction of released gas in the
entrained jet (from this fraction the corresponding equivalence ratio of the mixture of re-
leased gas and air, can be calculated). Other parameters can also be deduced (e.g. the
density of the jet, the volume fraction of released gas in the entrained jet).
In a practical situation using the FLACS code, a jet release is included in the scenario at
the axial distance when all the liquefied gas inside the jet has just evaporated. Data from
the utility program FLASH is then used as input to FLACS to characterize the jet at this
axial distance. The FLACS code will then model the jet further downstream. Note that
further downstream the jet contains only released gas in gaseous phase.
Eight types of released gas are possible to use in the present version of the utility pro-
gram FLASH. These are listed below (in alphabetical order). Of course, in the future it
is possible to extend this list. Note that butane as used in the model, is assumed to be n-
butane and not isobutane (these two types of butane have somewhat different proper-
ties). Hydrogen gas is not included for the following reason: Usually when a pressurized
and liquefied gas is released into the atmosphere, it cools down due to expansion of the
2-76
gas (energy is needed to expand the gas) and phase transition from liquid to gaseous
phase. However, in the case of hydrogen gas, the gas may under certain circumstances
get warmer during expansion of the gas, this is the so-called Joule-Thompson effect. The
model implemented in the utility program is not expected to be valid in the case of hy-
drogen gas.
The orifice pressure P0 [Pa] (also called driving pressure) is, if not otherwise specified,
assumed to be related to the ambient atmospheric pressure Patm [Pa], the density of liq-
uefied gas ρliq [kg/m3], the orifice area A [m2], the discharge coefficient Cdis [-], and
the mass flow rate m0 [kg/s], by (cf. the theory in [Lees, 1980])
m 0 = AC dis 2ρ liq ( P 0 – P atm )

The discharge coefficient is approximately 0.62 for a sharp-edged orifice (this is the de-
fault value in the utility program FLASH), and 1 for a well rounded nozzle on a vessel.
More detailed information about discharge coefficients can be found e.g. in [Coulsen
and Richardson, 1977-].
There are two options when the driving pressure P0 and the mass flow rate m0 are deter-
mined. The first option is the following: The mass flow rate is calculated from the driv-
ing pressure and the relation given above. The driving pressure is assumed to be the sum
of three terms; the vapour pressure of the liquefied gas at the orifice temperature, the hy-
drostatic pressure of the liquefied gas (determined by the height of liquid from the level
where the release is and up to the level being the interface between liquid and gas), plus
the partial pressure of other gas(es) (gaseous phase), if there is any, inside the storage
tank (an other gas may e.g. be nitrogen having a low critical temperature, 126.2K). In
the utility program FLASH, the user is asked to give the height of liquefied gas (if this
height is set to zero, the hydrostatic pressure does not contribute to the driving pressure),
and to give the partial pressure [kPa] of other gas(es) inside the storage tank (zero pres-
sure implies no contribution to the driving pressure from other gases than the released
gas itself).
The second option is the following: The orifice pressure P0 is either specified directly
by the user of FLASH, or it is calculated from the mass flow rate m0, given by the user
of FLASH, and the relation given above. In the cases where both the orifice pressure P0
and the mass flow rate m0 are specified directly by the user, it is not in general expected
that the relation above is satisfied for the assumed value of the discharge coefficient. Ac-
tually, in this case one may assume that this relation is valid with a new value of the dis-
2-77
charge coefficient defined by this relation (it is easy to calculate by hand this value if one
so wishes).
If the orifice pressure exceeds the vapour pressure of the liquefied gas at the orifice-tem-
perature, the exceeding pressure is assumed to be due to the hydrostatic pressure of the
liquefied gas, plus the partial pressure of other gas(es) (gaseous phase), if there is any,
inside the storage tank. If the orifice pressure is less than the vapour pressure of the liq-
uefied gas at the orifice-temperature, this is assumed to be caused by a pressure loss from
the tank to the orifice (drag forces, cooling of the liquefied gas giving a lower vapour
pressure at the reduced temperature). However, the model is expected to be less accu-
rate, if the orifice pressure is very low compared to the vapour pressure, and one may
also ask whether the scenario is physically realistic with such a low orifice pressure com-
pared to the vapour pressure. In general it is advisable to choose a scenario where the
orifice pressure is larger or equal the vapour pressure of the liquefied gas at the orifice-
temperature. If the orifice pressure P0 is calculated by the FLASH program and the value
is low compared to the vapour pressure of the liquefied gas at the orifice-temperature,
you may consider to run the FLASH program once more and then reduce the area of the
orifice (with all other parameters fixed this will give an increased orifice pressure), or to
specify directly an increased orifice pressure. Actually, using the relation above, it is
easy to calculate by hand for a fixed mass flow rate which value of the orifice-area that
corresponds to an orifice pressure equal the vapour pressure of the liquefied gas at the
orifice-temperature (values of the density of liquefied gas ρliq, and the vapour pressure
of the liquefied gas at the orifice-temperature can be obtained as output from the utility
program FLASH).
The model implemented in the utility program is valid within a certain range of applica-
bility. It is assumed that only liquefied gas exits the orifice (not a mixture of liquid and
gas in gaseous phase). The temperature of the liquefied gas before it exits the orifice is
assumed to be larger than the normal boiling point, but not larger than the critical tem-
perature. For if the temperature of a gas in thermodynamical equilibrium is larger than
the critical temperature, the gas will be in gaseous phase at any pressure, and there can-
not exist any liquefied gas. And if the temperature of a gas in thermodynamical equilib-
rium is equal or less than the normal boiling point, then the vapour pressure is equal or
less than one atmosphere (standard atmospheric pressure, 101.325kPa, approximately
equal air pressure at sea level). The model is concerned with liquefied gas under high
pressure, i.e. a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. To ensure that the orifice pres-
sure is larger than the atmospheric pressure, it is assumed that the temperature of the liq-
uefied gas before it exits the orifice is larger than the normal boiling point (in addition
to the vapour pressure of the released gas, the hydrostatic pressure of liquefied gas at the
2-78
level of release, and partial pressure of other gas(es) inside the storage tank, may also
contribute to the orifice pressure).
The critical temperatures and the normal boiling points for the gas types allowed in the
code are;
Table 2.8: Allowed gas types (in alphabetical order) in the utility program
FLASH. The critical temperature [K] and the normal boiling point [K]
are listed for each gas type.
Gas types in utility program Normal boiling
Critical Temp. [K]
FLASH point [K]
acetylene 308.3 189.2
ammonia 405.6 239.7
butane 425.2 272.7
ethane 305.4 184.5
ethylene 282.4 169.4
methane 190.6 111.7
propane 369.8 231.1
propylene 365.0 225.4
A temperature of e.g. 273.15K (0° Celsius) is between the critical temperature and the
normal boiling point for all the listed gas types except methane.
The temperature of the ambient air is assumed to be larger than the normal boiling point
of the released gas. This ensures that when air is entrained into the jet (when there is still
some liquefied gas in the jet that has not evaporated), it gives a positive contribution to
the total enthalpy of the entrained jet (mixture of released gas and entrained air).
The model should be used with great care in the case of acetylene. The normal freezing
point is 192.4K in the case of acetylene, being higher than the normal boiling point,
189.2K. The validity of the model is uncertain in this case, but used with care it is ex-
pected that the model is better than no model at all. Another aspect concerning acetylene,
is that in the industry it is often stored not as a pure substance, but dissolved in acetone.
Vapour pressure as function of temperature is represented by a vapour-pressure equation

(the so-called Riedel-Planck-Miller vapour-pressure equation) valid within a certain
temperature range. The upper limit is the critical temperature, so it is not possible to ex-
2-79
ceed this limit the way the vapour-pressure equation is used in the utility program. But
it may happen that the temperature of the jet at the axial distance when all liquefied gas
inside the jet has just evaporated, is below the lower limit of the valid temperature range.
If this should happen, the utility program gives a message about it.
After the utility program has calculated how much of the liquefied gas that remains after
flashing, it continues to calculate the mass fraction of the remaining liquefied gas that
rains out from the jet and forms a pool on the ground. If this mass fraction, called the
rainout fraction, is large, the validity of the model is more uncertain. In the case that the
rainout fraction is larger than 0.99, the axial distance when the liquefied gas inside the
jet has just evaporated is not calculated, only a limited amount of output information is
given by the program. The rainout fraction may be large when the temperature of the liq-
uefied gas before it exits the orifice, is close to the normal boiling point of the released
gas. In general it is expected that the model for atomization (breaking up of liquid stream
into droplets) and subsequent rainout of liquefied gas, is more reliable when the temper-
ature of the liquefied gas before it exits the orifice is large compared to the normal boil-
ing point, or when the orifice pressure is large compared to the ambient atmospheric
pressure.
As mentioned above, it is assumed that the jet axis lies in the horizontal plane and that
the jet may expand freely in the region of interest. Clearly, if the jet hits some kind of
obstruction only a short distance downstream of the orifice, affecting the flow field con-
siderably, the model is not applicable. If the jet is not hindered by any obstructions, but
the jet axis deviates much from the horizontal plane, the model for rainout of liquefied
gas from the jet onto the ground forming a pool, is not expected to be accurate. However,
if the rainout fraction is negligibly small based on the (in this case incorrect) assumption
of a horizontal jet axis, the rainout fraction is expected to be negligibly small also in the
case when the jet axis deviates from the horizontal plane.
An example of use of the utility program: Liquefied propane stored at a temperature of

10°C is released through an orifice with diameter 0.01m giving a cross-sectional area of
the orifice equal 3.1459e-4 (using the exponent notation in FORTRAN, i.e. e-4 equals
1/10000). The temperature of ambient air is 15°C. The driving pressure at the orifice is
the vapour pressure of the liquefied gas at the orifice-temperature, plus the hydrostatic
pressure of liquefied gas corresponding to a height of 0.5m. These data are given as input
to the utility program FLASH and the calculations in this program are performed. The
rainout fraction based on the assumption of a horizontal jet axis, is negligibly small,
4.75E-13. At a distance of 3.56m downstream of the orifice all of the liquefied propane
inside the jet has just evaporated. This position is given as input to the FLACS code (usu-
2-80
ally via the CASD preprocessor) where a jet release is specified in the following manner:
A mixture of propane (gaseous phase) and air where the equivalence ratio is 5.27 is re-
leased as a jet with an area of 0.64m^2. The mass flow rate of the entrained jet is
19.25kg/s, and the temperature of the entrained jet is -74.63°C. These data, together
with the jet direction assumed to be the same as the jet direction downstream of the ori-
fice in the original description, characterizes the jet sufficiently when using the jet re-
lease model in the FLACS code. The utility program FLASH gives additional informa-
tion to the data mentioned above. These are included for the benefit of the user though
they are not strictly necessary as far as input to the FLACS code is concerned. The output
from the FLASH code, together with input from the user (printed in bold face) are listed
below. Data needed as input in the FLACS code are printed in italic type style.
2-81
A model of jet release of liquefied gas under high pressure.

Basic assumptions; Liquefied gas (only liquid phase) under high
pressure is released through an orifice. The jet axis is horizontal
and the jet may expand freely in the region of interest. Further
information and guidance are found in the FLACS User‘s Guide.
Type of released gas. Allowed types are (alphabetical order);

acetylene
ammonia
butane
ethane
ethylene
methane
propane
propylene
Write name of released gas:
propane
Give the cross-sectional area of the orifice [m^2]:
3.14159e-4
Give the temperature of liquefied gas at the orifice [Celsius]:
10
Default value of the discharge coefficient of the orifice is 0.62.
This is an approximate value for a sharp-edged orifice on a vessel.
Do you want to redefine this value? (yes/no):
n
The mass flow rate of released gas may be calculated from the orifice
pressure at the orifice, option 1, or it may be specified directly,
option 2.
Specify option (integer value 1 or 2):
1
Give the height [m] of liquefied gas, determining the hydrostatic
pressure at the level of release (if this height is set to zero,
the hydrostatic pressure does not contribute to the orifice
pressure):
0.5
Give the partial pressure [kPa] of other gas(es) inside the storage
tank (zero pressure implies no contribution to the orifice pressure
from other gases than the released gas itself):
0
The vapor pressure of liquefied gas at orifice-temperature
is [kPa]: 6.3071824867697239E+02
The orifice pressure is [kPa]: 6.3357295881256380E+02
The calculated mass flow rate of released gas is [kg/s]: 4.8481349278232893
Give the temperature of ambient air [Celsius]:
15
Results for released propane
Input data needed in the FLACS code:
2-82
Axial distance [m] when all liquefied gas inside the jet has just
evaporated is: 3.5663274774699727
At this axial distance the entrained jet (released gas mixed with
air) is characterized by the following parameters:
Jet area [m^2]: 0.6438314096724963
Mass flow rate of jet [kg/s]: 19.2533138530308110
Temperature of jet [Celsius]: -74.6352016508579080
Equivalence ratio of released gas in entrained jet [-]: 5.2769316474704828
Additional parameters of the jet (not explicitly needed when

specifying the jet as input to the FLACS code):
Density of jet [kg/m^3]: 1.9466890261179870
Jet velocity [m/s]: 15.3616105136853314
Mass fraction of released gas in entrained jet [-]: 0.2518078168168658
Volume fraction of released gas in entrained jet [-]: 0.1810685561151429
Other results:
Mass fraction [-] of vapor of released gas after expansion due
to flashing (before air is entrained into the jet): 0.2695951383064251
Mean droplet diameter of liquefied gas in aerosol
(after flashing) [m]: 6.6852859386857212E-05
Critical droplet diameter [m] for rainout of liquefied gas forming
a pool on the ground: 3.3992505910751874E-03
Mass fraction [-] of liquefied gas after flashing that rains out
forming a pool on the ground (rainout-fraction): 4.7517545453956700E-13
Mass rate [kg/s] of liquefied gas that rains out from the jet and
forms a pool on the ground: 1.6826444299804770E-12
Do you want written out some physical parameters of the released

gas, used in the model? (yes/no):
y
Molecular weight [-]: 44.0970000000000010
Normal boiling point [K]: 2.3109999999999999E+02
Critical temperature [K]: 3.6980000000000001E+02
Critical pressure [kPa]: 4.2455174999999999E+03
Density of liquefied gas [kg/m^3]: 5.8200002764351655E+02
Density of released gas (gaseous phase) at normal boiling point
and atmospheric pressure [kg/m^3]: 2.3254965062866235
Specific heat of vapor of released gas at constant pressure,
at normal boiling point [J/(kg K)]: 1.3246688874308265E+03
Specific heat of liquefied gas at constant pressure,
at normal boiling point [J/(kg K)]: 2.2041823856051469E+03
Latent heat of evaporation of released gas [J/kg]: 4.2555549737082783E+05
Thermal conductivity of liquefied gas [W/(m K)]: 0.1079257770685378
Surface tension between liquefied gas and
its vapor [N/m]: 1.5498101679245844E-02
Dynamic viscosity of vapor of released gas,
at normal boiling point [kg/(m s)]: 6.3740285025824450E-06
Vapor pressure at the temperature of liquefied gas
at the orifice [kPa]: 6.3071824867697239E+02
2-83
Parameters supplied by the user of the FLASH program are summarized in the list be-
low:
• Type of released gas.

• Cross-sectional area of orifice.
• Temperature of liquefied gas at orifice.
• Discharge coefficient of orifice may be set different from default value if the
user so wishes.
• Temperature of ambient air.
• Mass flow rate of liquefied gas is set directly by the user, or it is calculated from
the orifice pressure depending on the hydrostatic pressure of a user-given height
of liquefied gas, and the user-given partial pressure of other gas(es) (if there is
any) in the storage tank. When the mass flow rate of liquefied gas is set directly,
the orifice pressure may be specified by the user, or it calculated by the program.
2-84
2.8Grid file
File name template = "cg______.dat_".
For briefness this file may be called the cg-file or grid file hereafter. It is a binary file
and will be created when using the grid definition menu in CASD. The grid file stores
the computational grid, i.e. the discrete representation of the simulation volume. The
simplest form of a grid is a uniform grid, where all control volumes have the same size
and shape. The figure below shows a two-dimensional section of a uniform grid, and il-
lustrates the position of the internal nodes and the boundary nodes relative to the grid
lines.
GRID LINES
INTERNAL NODES (CONTROL VOLUMES)
BOUNDARY NODES
Figure 2.8 Section of a grid showing internal and boundary nodes
The numbering scheme for the nodes and grid lines may need some attention. In FLACS
and CASD one type of numbering is used, whereas in FLOWVIS a different type of
numbering has been adapted. The explanation to this is that FLACS and CASD have
kept the original numbering scheme which was developed initially, and at a later time
2-85
when FLOWVIS was developed a new and more intuitive numbering scheme was se-
lected. Below is a table which shows the details of the two numbering schemes:
Table 2.9: Numbering schemes for nodes and grid lines
Internal Boundary Format

Sizes Grid lines
nodes nodes designation
N = NX, NY, NZ 2 to N-1 1 and N 2 to N FLACS and CASD
M = N-2 1 to M 0 and M+1 1 to M+1 FLOWVIS
In short words one can say that the FLOWVIS number is one less than the FLACS and
CASD number. This should be kept in mind when setting up plot domains in FLOWVIS
(see the "FLOWVIS User’s Guide" for details). Of course the total number of nodes and
control volumes will be the same for both numbering schemes. Below is a figure show-
ing a three-dimensional grid on a typical offshore module geometry (actually it is a rep-
resentation of the 1:5 scale M24 module located at CMR’s experimental site at the island
of Sotra outside Bergen).
2-86
Figure 2.9 Three dimensional grid on an offshore module geometry
In the figure above the grid is extended outside the module walls and also above the
module roof, this is because it was used for a multiblock simulation (look into the direc-
tory examples/MULTI/ which may be found on the FLACS-98 distribution CD-rom).
In typical semi-confined geometries like an offshore module one may create a grid only
covering the interior including the outer walls of the module, but it is recommended to
extend the grid to improve the boundary conditions. In the cases of very open geometries
and in multiblock simulations one should always extend the grid well outside the main
explosion area.
2-87
2.9 Porosity file

File name template = "cp______.dat_".
For briefness this file may be called the cp-file or porosity file hereafter. It is a binary
file and will be generated when using the PORCALC programme (may be started from
CASD or from the unix shell). It contains data which are calculated based on the geom-
etry and the grid. FLACS will stop if the cp-file is not accessible for reading. The cp-file
is quite large, the size may be calculated as follows: SIZE = 12*4*NX*NY*NZ bytes
(old porcalc), or SIZE = 10*4*NX*NY*NZ bytes (new porcalc).
In order to save space the file may be deleted and regenerated when needed using POR-
CALC, or the size may be reduced using the unix command compress, remember to
uncompress the file before using FLACS, CASD or FLOWVIS.
2-88
2.10 Obstruction file

File name template = "co______.dat_".
For briefness this file may be called the co-file or obstruction file hereafter. It is a binary
file and will be generated when starting the PORCALC programme from CASD. It con-
tains a list of geometrical primitives (boxes and cylinders) which are extracted from the
CASD database. The co-file is not accessed by FLACS. The PORCALC programme
will require read access for the co-file, and it is also used by FLOWVIS when geometry
is specified for a plot.
2-89
2.11 Runtime simulation control file

File name template = "cc______.dat_".
For briefness this file may be called the cc-file or control file hereafter. It is a text file
and may be generated using a text editor. It is a facility for giving instructions to FLACS
during a simulation. Keywords and values may be given on the cc-file which will be read
and interpreted each time step. It may contain any number of lines. Each line shall con-
tain a keyword followed by a value separated by a comma (,) or a space ( ). Float values
may be entered with or without a decimal point, integer values are taken to be the integer
part of a float value. The following keywords are currently recognized:
Keyword Meaning
NLOAD Set load identification and load data at simulation start.
NDUMP Set dump identification.
TDUMP Dump data at given time.
IDUMP Dump data at given iteration number.
FDUMP Dump data at given fuel level.
TOUTF Write results at given time.
IOUTF Write results at given iteration number.
FOUTF Write results at given fuel level.
TSTOP Stop simulation at given time.
ISTOP Stop simulation at given iteration number.
FSTOP Stop simulation at given fuel level.
Fuel level is defined as the current total mass of fuel divided by the initial total mass of
fuel. For gas dispersion simulations, where the initial mass of fuel is zero, the fuel level
cannot be used.
The control file is useful when you want to produce output that is not possible to specify
on the scenario file and when you want to monitor a simulation while it is running. The
dump/load option is one example of output and input that is not possible to specify on
the scenario file.
2-90
Example 1: Contents of cc-file (including comments):

NDUMP 1 dump file name is "rd______.n001"
TDUMP 0.20 dump when time is 0.20 s
NDUMP 2 dump file name is "rd______.n002"
What happened:
The file "rd______.n001" was written at time 0.20 s.
Example 2: Contents of cc-file (including comments):

NLOAD 2 load file name is "rd______.n002"
What happened:
The file "rd______.n002" was read at simulation startup restoring the exact conditions
at the time when the file was written. Simulation output was appended to the existing
result files. An error message was given if the file did not exist.
2-91
2.12 Time dependent CFL-numbers file

File name template = "cn______.dat_".
For briefness this file may be called the cn-file or CFL-numbers file hereafter. It is a text
file and may be generated using a text editor. It is a facility for giving instructions to
FLACS during a simulation.
High flow velocities and change rates and small control volumes put severe constraints
on the size of the time step in computational fluid dynamics. Using large time steps may
cause the solution to become unstable. However, to be able to simulate over a long pe-
riod with todays computer resources, it is necessary to maintain as large a time step as
possible. During a gas dispersion simulation the stability requirements vary, character-
ized by stronger requirements in periods of highly unsteady flows and weaker require-
ments in steady flow periods.
To be able to effectively simulate gas dispersion scenarios including high momentum

jets a facility for specifying time dependent Courant numbers is available. FLACS will
read time varying Courant numbers from the cn-file if it exists. Courant numbers speci-
fied on the scenario file are then overridden.
An example showing the format of the cn-file is given below:

HEADLINE
3
TIME CFLC CFLV
data (1-3)
...
..
1) Line number one is intended to be just for the user's information and contains
no information to the system other than being the first line.
2) Line number two contains the number of data values to be found in each of
the next lines, in this case the number of data values is 3.
3) Line number three contains the names of the variables. The sequence of the
variables is predefined and may not be changed. The time will always be the
first value on a line containing data values.
2-92
4) Line number four and onward contain values for each variable. As the simu-
lation proceeds the file will be scanned for new data values when old values
expire. Intermediate values are calculated by linear interpolation or time in-
tegral (as appropriate) between old time and new time.
The cn-file must be generated manually using a text editor. It is advised that only experts
make use of the cn-file to change the default time setting in FLACS.
See also:
2-93
2.13 Time dependent leak data files

File name template = "cl______.n___".
For briefness this file may be called the cl-file or leak file hereafter. It is a text file and
may be generated using a text editor, it may also be generated using CASD which is the
preferred way to do it.
It is possible to simulate realistic leaks in FLACS. This is done by proper subgrid mod-
elling of the conditions at the leak outlet and by allowing time varying leak data and mul-
tiple leaks. The position and direction vector for each leak must be specified on the sce-
nario file. For each leak there must exist one file cl-file containing the time dependent
leak data. The leak number is used as identification number in the file type.
The format of the cl-file is as follows:

LEAK_CONTROL_STRING
7
TIME AREA RATE VEL RTI TLS T
data (1-7)
.......
.......
The seven parameters that constitute the time dependent leak data are chosen so that it
is possible to specify rate, velocity, turbulence and temperature for the leak. (at the noz-
zle throat) The names in the file format described above have the following meaning:
TIME = Time
AREA = Area (m2)
RATE = Mass flow (kg/s)
VEL = Velocity (m/s)
RTI = Relative turbulence intensity (-)
TLS = Turbulence length scale (m)
T = Temperature (K)
See “BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS” on page 40. Details of the calculation of turbulent

kinetic energy and its rate of dissipation from the set of parameters listed above (VEL,
RTI and TLS) are given for the WIND condition.
2-94
Line number one of the leak file contains the LEAK_CONTROL_STRING which is used
to specify the type of leak and the leak outlet. The following letters are recognized:
J = Jet leak
D = Diffuse leak
+ = Direction is now positive
- = Direction is now negative
X = Leak through control volume face perpendicular to
the x-axis
Y = Leak through control volume face perpendicular to
the y-axis
Z = Leak through control volume face perpendicular to
the z-axis
Diffuse leaks are handled by setting fixed values for the scalar quantities and introducing
a mass source equal to the specified leak rate at the leak node. The area porosity at the
leak outlet is set so that the specified area is obtained. A leak velocity that satisfies mass
conservation is obtained automatically through the flow field solution procedure.
Jet leaks are handled by setting fixed values for the scalar quantities and one or more of
the momentum components at the leak node. The area porosity is calculated so that the
specified mass flux and momentum flux is obtained. The mass conservation is not solved
for at a jet leak node during the flow field calculation.
The default leak type is diffuse (D) and the default direction is positive (+). Take care
not to specify a control volume face more than once. The following examples deal with
the LEAK_CONTROL_STRING.
Example 1: Diffuse leak in positive x-direction:

'X'
Example 2: Diffuse leak in all directions:
'D+XYZ-XYZ'
Example 3: Erroneous specification:
'DJ+X+XY'
The following error messages would be issued on the log file(s) for example 3:
*** (LKINIT) ALREADY SET DIFFUSE
*** (LKINIT) ALREADY SET +X
2-95
Note that the simulation does not stop unless severe errors occur. In example 3 the leak
specification would be taken as:
'D+XY'.
Note that the LEAK_CONTROL_STRING must be enclosed in apostrophes ('...') and
may contain blanks. The maximum length is 16 characters.
Line number two contains the number of data values to be found in each of the next lines.
Line number three contains the names of the variables. The sequence of the variables is
predefined and may not be changed. The time will always be the first value on a line con-
taining data values.
Line number four and onward contain values for each variable. As the simulation pro-
ceeds the file will be scanned for new data values when old values expire. Intermediate
values are calculated by linear interpolation or time integral (as appropriate) between old
time and new time.
A leak is started when the first time on its leak file is reached and is stopped when the
last time on the file is reached.
In the case of a jet leak the nozzle density, DENS, and pressure, PRES, are calcu-
lated as follows:
DENS = RATE / (VEL*AREA)
PRES = DENS * R * T
Where R is the specific ideal gas constant.
If the nozzle pressure is higher than the ambient pressure an analytic jet expansion will
be calculated.
Note that the gas composition for each leak is taken to be the one specified by the equiv-
alence ratio for rich gas, ER0, and volume fractions given on the scenario file.
2-96
The leak position and direction vector is given on the scenario file. Note that the direc-
tion vector does not need to be of unit length. FLACS will calculate the direction cosines
by dividing each component in the direction vector by the length of the vector. The di-
rection cosines are used to modify the flow velocity and the area for the X-, Y- and Z-
direction independently. This may be used to simulate jet leaks that are not parallel to
the main axes. It is noted that this option should be used with care in cases where the grid
resolution is coarse due to the fact that numerical diffusion tends to smear out the jet.
Example 4: Jet at 45.0 degrees:

'J+XY'
Direction vector given as 1.0 1.0 0.0
Example 5: Jet at 0.0 degrees:
'J+X'
Direction vector given as 1.0 0.0 0.0
2-97
2.14 Scalar-time output file

File name template = "r1______.dat_".
For briefness this file may be called the r1-file or scalar-time output file hereafter. The
values of selected variables for scalar-time output at selected locations (monitor points)
are written to the r1-file at a given iteration interval.
In the case of a simulation restart the r1-file will by default be deleted (i.e. old results are
lost) when using the 2.X file format (but it is kept when using the 1.2 file format). If
you want to keep the old results at restart you must set KEEP_OUTPUT=.TRUE.using
a job file. During a LOAD an existing r1-file will be scanned up to the time recorded on
the specified dump file before any new results are written. It is usually wise to make a
copy of the original r1-file before a load/rerun is performed.
The r1-files generally require modest amounts of disk space. The number of bytes in one
data record can be calculated from the following expression (the 1.2 and 2.X file for-
mats have approximately the same record size):
RecordSize = 4*(2+SUM)
Where SUM is the total number of references made to monitor points and panels.
See also:
”MONITOR_POINTS” on page 46
”SINGLE_FIELD_SCALAR_TIME_OUTPUT” on page 47
2-98
2.15 Field output file

File name template = "r3______.dat_".
For briefness this file may be called the r3-file or field output file hereafter. The whole
matrix of each selected variable for field output is written to the r3-file, when triggered
by one or more events (or signals). Simulation start and stop will trigger output as will
the event of passing certain fuel levels and time values. Runtime specified events may
also trigger output. A message is issued on the log file(s) for each event that triggers out-
put. Several events may happen to trigger output simultaneously, this will generate just
one instance of output.
In the case of a simulation restart the r3-file will by default be deleted (i.e. old results are
lost) when using the 2.X file format (but it is kept when using the 1.2 file format). If
you want to keep the old results at restart you must set KEEP_OUTPUT=.TRUE.using
a job file. During a LOAD an existing r3-file will be scanned up to the time recorded on
the specified dump file before any new results are written. It is usually wise to make a
copy of the original r3-file before a load/rerun is performed.
The r3-files generally require large amounts of disk space. The number of bytes in one
data record can be calculated from the following expression (the 1.2 and 2.X file for-
mats have approximately the same record size):
RecordSize = 4*(2+NX*NY*NZ)*NVAR
NVAR = number of variables specified
NX,NY,NZ = matrix dimensions
See also:
”SINGLE_FIELD_3D_OUTPUT” on page 47
2-99
2.16 Simulation log files

File name template = "rt______.dat_"
For briefness this file may be called the rt-file or log file hereafter. It contains a log of
the messages issued during a simulation. It is wise to check if any error messages have
been issued. Error messages are identified by "***" at the beginning of the message,
plain messages are introduced by a space ( ) or a number sign (#).
The message "*** MASS RESIDUAL =..." indicates that there are problems to achieve
a converged solution. If the mass residual is not too large (should be smaller than order
of 1/10) or it does not last for many iterations it may be ignored. The built in limit for
the mass residual is rather strict to enable an accurate solution over long time, a short
lasting violation of the limit does not necessarily lead to a suspect result.
In the case of a simulation restart the rt-file will be deleted. It is usually wise to make a
copy of the original rt-file before a load/rerun is performed.
The information on the log file is also written to a connected terminal (standard output)
during the simulation.
File name template = "rt______.*" (new specific log files, see below).
Several log files will be generated when using FLACS-98, they are all text files and may
be printed as time series using common graphical tools (such as gnuplot on X-windows
or Excel on Windows). The contents of each file is explained at the start of the file, be-
low you will only find a brief explanation of the new log files:
File name template Contents of file

rt______.CFL CFL-numbers and time step log file
rt______.EQSOL Equation solver (residual) log file
rt______.FUEL Amount of fuel log file
rt______.MASS Total mass log file
rt______.P Pressure log file
rt______.dat_ The usual simulation log file
2-100
Note that some of the files listed above may not appear for a given installation, this is
because they are intended for debugging and testing purposes only. The most relevant
file for a regular FLACS user is the "rt______.FUEL" file, where the amount of fuel in
the simulation volume (total amount and combustible amount) is logged.
2-101
2.17 Simulation dump files

File name template = "rd______.n___".
For briefness this file may be called the rd-file or dump file hereafter. It contains the in-
formation necessary to restart a simulation from a given time required that the initial in-
put data have not been changed drastically. There may be more than one rd-file.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
If you want to append new data to existing result files, do not change the output specifi-
cation or the grid or the geometry when using a dump file!
See also:
2-102
2.18 Simulation save files

File name template = "rx______.n___".
For briefness this file may be called the rx-file or save file hereafter. It is a temporary
file that FLACS uses to store intermediate data for output. There may be more than one
rx-file. These files are needed when time integrals of whole matrices are to be calculated.
It avoids using large amounts of core memory but accessing large files is slow compared
to memory access. Note that the simulation save files are only written if you have spec-
ified field output of variables that need temporary file storage. These files are deleted
when the simulation terminates normally. In cases when the simulation is not allowed to
terminate normally these files will exist after programme stop, they must then be deleted
manually. Existing temporary files may confuse the programme at start-up. Below is
presented a list of the variables that require temporary file storage when specified for
field output:
NPIMP Pressure impulse

UDIMP Drag-impulse component x-direction
NVDIMP Drag-impulse component y-direction
NWDIMP Drag-impulse component z-direction
NDIMP Drag-impulse value
NRESID Mass residual in continuity equation
It is advised that the above listed variables are not specified for field output. The file han-
dling will increase the execution time for the programme drastically!
2-103
2-104
FLACS V8 User’s Guide GUIDANCE
Chapter 3 GUIDANCE
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• About using FLACS

• About the grid
• About the initial conditions
• About the boundary conditions
• About the obstacles (congestion, confinement and vents)
• About the panels
• About the multiblock option
• About the blast simulation facility
• About the leakages (and gas dispersion)
• About the watersprays (and mitigation)
• About the gas mixture
• About the ignition
• About the monitor points (and output)
In this chapter topics like these are dealt with:
• Hints: what to do & how to do

• Trouble shooting
• Checklists
• Pitfalls
• Common errors
• Applicability
• Limitations
3-1
3.1 About using FLACS

In this section a sequence of tasks, from preparing input data via simulation to present-
ing results, is outlined. Following this sequence reduces the possibility for inconsisten-
cies in the input data and partitions the work into manageable tasks. It is important that
written documentation (text and graphics) is produced following each task and before
starting the next one. Below is presented the mentioned sequence:
1) State your problem

2) Define sensitivities, (parameter variation)
3) Define and verify the geometry
4) Define and verify the grid
5) Define and verify the scenario
6) Check for inconsistencies from the previous tasks (1-5)
7) Calculate and verify the porosities
8) Run the simulation
9) Check the simulation log file for errors
10) Present the results
11) Store all data on tape for later use
If FLACS produces unexpected results it may be that some of the input data are incor-
rect or inconsistent. Below is presented a checklist for fallpits:
• Avoid large Courant numbers

• Locate ignition in an unblocked volume
• Locate monitors in unblocked volumes
• Define realistic leakage parameters
• Make sure venting areas are correct
• Make sure gas composition is correct
• Avoid strong transient wind buildup
• Check disk space and access rights
It may be an advantage to prepare several simulations for running overnight if your com-
puter is fast enough. Make sure that all input is available and correct for all the simula-
3-2
tions before you start a series of simulations. The following files should be available be-
fore you start FLACS (gops):
• Grid file
• Obstruction file (keep this for result presentation, not used by FLACS)
• Porosity file
• Scenario file
You will find more detailed information on how to run the FLACS executable pro-
gramme in the REFERENCE chapter, here the runflacs command will be used without
any further explanation. The figure below shows a script file for running several simu-
lations in serial:
# File "my_run_file" to run simulations 000001 - 000004 in

serial
runflacs 000001
runflacs 000002
runflacs 000003
runflacs 000004
To start the file you should type source my_run_file >& my_list_file &,
this will execute the script file in the background thus freeing the window for further in-
put. Any messages from the main process will be stored in the file called
my_list_file. After you have started the process you should check that everything
proceeds all right (use ps to list processes, use tail on the log-file for the first simu-
lation etc.). It is advised to run the simulations in serial and not in parallel. Running
many simulations in parallel may exhaust your computer memory and actually increase
the total computation time for the simulations. If you by any chance want to stop a run-
ning process you may use the kill command, the ps command will tell you the process
id of all running processes.
3-3
HINTS:
If you are not quite sure how to use a specific unix command, remember that man will
help you.
On many systems there will be a top command available to list the top CPU processes.
To alter the priority of running processes, use the renice command.
To monitor the progress of a simulation, use tail -f on the log-file (tt-file or rt-file).
The supplied scripts cprun and mvrun helps you to create similar simulation files.
3-4
3.2 About the grid

Below is a figure showing the location of the grid nodes relative to the grid lines:
GRID LINES
INTERNAL NODES (CONTROL VOLUMES)
BOUNDARY NODES
Figure 3.1. Section of a grid showing internal and boundary nodes
If one considers each direction separately the following may be noted:
• Number of nodes n
• Number of grid lines n GL = n – 1
• Number control volumes n CV = n – 2
If one considers a full 3-dimensional grid the following may be noted:
• Total number of nodes N = nx ny nz
• Total number of control volumes N CV = ( n x – 2 ) ( n y – 2 ) ( n z – 2 )
3-5
The largest total number of control volumes which may be used mainly depends on how
much memory your computer has. For the current version of FLACS the following pa-
rameters may be applied to calculate the memory requirements (1k = 1024):
Data bytes per node kbytes per 1,000 nodes

Block type
(all 3D arrays) (e.g. nx=ny=nz = 10)
FLACS 724 707
BLAST 176 172
In addition to the dynamic data size, FLACS requires about 1400 kbytes for static data
and program code. An explosion simulation involving a total of 100,000 nodes in a sin-
gle block will require (724*100000)/1024 + 1400 kbytes = 72103 kbytes (approximately
70 Mbytes). This figure may be slightly underestimated because the 1D and 2D dynamic
arrays and the panel buffers have not been accounted for. However, it is the size of the
3D dynamic arrays which is the dominant here. When equipping your computer with
memory you should also bear in mind that only about 90% of the total memory will be
user available, the rest is needed by the computer for memory management. One may
also note that a BLAST block require a factor of 4 less memory than the FLACS block.
Also the computation speed and the disk storage capacity may pose limits to how large
problems you may run on your computer. Disks are quite cheap nowadays, so storing
large data files will in most cases be no problem. With todays fast workstations it is pos-
sible to complete an explosion simulation involving 100,000 nodes in about 1-2 hours
time. For dispersion simulations the computation time could be in the order of 10 to
10,000 times larger than for an equally sized explosion simulation. This directly depends
on the desired duration of the dispersion scenario (which normally is in the order of 10
to 10,000 times larger than the 1 second an explosion typically takes).
The grid defines the spatial resolution as well as the extents of the simulation volume.
In order to represent obstacles and detailed flow properties properly it is important to
have a fine enough grid, and in order to avoid too strong influence from open boundaries
the grid must extend quite a large distance from the area of interest. The grid does not
need to be uniform (i.e. equally spaced grid lines), nor does it have to be isotropic (i.e.
equal grids in all three directions). However, it is advised that the grid is uniform and
3-6
isotropic in the area of interest and that stretching of the grid should only be applied to
extend the grid beyond the area of interest. This is illustrated in the figure below:
Figure 3.2 Stretched grid (extending the outer boundaries)
When stretching the grid to extend the outer boundaries far away from the region of in-
terest it is advised that an adjustment of the CFL numbers is made to keep the normal
time step (not if you use strict timestepping). CFL numbers are dimensionless factors
named after their originators (Courant, Friedrich, Levy), these numbers express certain
propagation distances compared to the control volume size. In FLACS there are two
propagation distances of interest: 1) that of pressure waves (speed of sound) and 2) that
of fluid particles (flow velocity).
3-7
The time step used in FLACS is basically calculated as follows:
• Time step
Δt = MIN ( CFL c ⁄ c ref, CFL v ⁄ v ref )l ref
• CFL number for c CFL c
• CFL number for v CFL v
• Reference speed of sound c ref = c mean
• Reference flow velocity v ref = v max
• Reference length l ref = MIN ( δ x, δ y, δ z )
• Average control volume size δ = L ⁄ n CV
• Size of simulation volume L = ( L x, L y, L z )
• Number of control volumes n CV = ( n CVx, n CVy, n CVz )
If you stretch the grid to extend the outer boundaries far away from the region of interest,
the time step will increase because the reference length for the calculation of the time
step increases. To keep the normal time step (as calculated for the uniform and isotropic
grid) you must adjust the CFL numbers by a factor which is expressed below:
• Adjustment of the CFL numbers CFL new = CFL old ( δ old ⁄ δ new )
Note that both CFLc and CFLv should be adjusted by the same factor.
Note that for strict timestepping the local conditions at each control volume are used to
calculate local time steps. Then the global time step is taken as the smallest of the local
time steps.
3-8
3.3 About the initial conditions

Various initial conditions may be specified for a FLACS job, but normally the default
values should be applied. The parameters which are available are listed below:
UP-DIRECTION
GRAVITY_CONSTANT
CHARACTERISTIC_VELOCITY
TEMPERATURE
These parameters may be set to modify the effect of buoyancy, to change the initial tur-
bulence or to alter the initial temperature. The changes take place uniformly over the
whole simulation volume. In gas explosion simulations it is advised to use the default
values. In gas dispersion simulations, where buoyancy effects may become more impor-
tant, make sure that the UP-DIRECTION is correct (default is that +Z is upwards) and
set a suitable value for the TEMPERATURE (°C).
3-9
3.4 About the boundary conditions

A subject which has received much attention by the CFD researchers is the modelling of
the flow conditions at the outer boundaries of the numerical domain. This is known to
be a problem area, especially for subsonic flows where local disturbances of the flow
field are felt everywhere in the domain. Special care must be taken to ensure physically
correct results and to obtain a good convergence rate. The best choice of locating the
boundary may be in regions where little is happening. Limitations of memory and com-
puting speed will restrict the size of the problem, and in most cases one is forced to com-
promise between quality and cost.
SYMMETRY PLANE BOUNDARY

The easiest boundary condition to model is perhaps the symmetry plane. A zero gradient
perpendicular to the boundary is set for all variables, and there is no flow through the
symmetry plane. In complex 3D scenarios the symmetry plane is not useful, but when
simulating simple experimental scenarios it may be applied (e.g. 1D and 2D channel
flows).
SOLID WALL BOUNDARY

Also the solid wall boundary condition is easily modelled. At a solid wall there will be
zero velocities, both in the tangential and the perpendicular directions. And a zero gra-
dient perpendicular to the boundary or a fixed value may be used for the scalar variables.
Also the utilisation of so-called wall-functions may improve the modelling of the flow
in near-wall regions (both at the outer boundaries and in the interior space).
OPEN BOUNDARY
At an open boundary or in a vent opening at a solid wall boundary the flow condition
(pressure, density and velocities) is calculated based on the usual governing equations
for the flow. At an open boundary this involves making guesses about the flow condi-
tions outside the boundary. In order to avoid a strong influence of the approximate mod-
elling of the boundary flow it is advised that the open boundary is placed at a distance
away from the area of interest.
A special problem in the simulation of compressible flows is the artificial reflection of

pressure waves from open boundaries. When the pressure outside the boundary is as-
sumed to be constant (at the ambient value, as in most of the boundary conditions in
FLACS), a pressure wave hitting the boundary will be reflected with negative amplitude
back into the domain. If the area of open boundaries is small compared to the area of
3-10
closed boundaries, and in the situation of high outflow velocities these reflections will
not affect the pressure level inside the domain very much. In cases where most of the
outer boundaries are open one must pay special attention to the boundaries. It is advised
to stretch the grid outside the area of interest and to apply the PLANE_WAVE condition.
The PLANE_WAVE condition detects pressure waves and gives far less reflections, but
the pressure is no longer grounded to the ambient pressure (the pressure may never come
back to ambient level). If the total simulation volume is much larger than the gas cloud
this negative effect will be rather small. In order to keep this pressure elevation low one
should use a total volume which are about 100 times larger than the initial gas cloud vol-
ume (i.e. nearly a factor of 5 between side length of the simulation volume and side
length of the initial gas volume).
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES
In cases where there are obstacles outside the vent openings of a semi-confined volume
they should be included in the total simulation volume, because they may have an effect
on the explosion. One effect may be that the total venting is reduced due to the external
obstacles, especially if they are large and are placed close to the vents. Since the vent
flow is changed, also the internal flow past obstacles is modified and the explosion be-
comes different (higher or lower pressure results). An effect which also may be impor-
tant is the appearance of an external explosion which will start when the flame reaches
any unburnt gas which may have escaped through the vent openings. The pressure waves
from the external explosion will propagate back into the semi-confined volume and give
rise to higher pressures there. The strength of the external explosion will depend on the
local turbulence in the external space, this again depends on the properties of the vent
openings and on any obstacles which may be positioned in the external space.
WIND BOUNDARY
To be able to simulate the influence of an external wind field the WIND boundary con-
dition may be applied. This is modelled by setting a fixed velocity at the boundary, thus
it may not be used in simulations where a generated internal flow can have a strong feed-
back effect on the boundary flow (e.g. a gas explosion). The WIND condition in FLACS
is applicable to gas dispersion scenarios where the wind speed and direction at the one
or more boundaries is known. The wind direction can be at an angle, pointing either into
or out of the simulation volume. In the case of outflow it is only necessary to set the wind
speed and angle, for inflow also some turbulence quantities must be given. A more de-
tailed description of the various wind parameters are given in the REFERENCE chapter,
only a brief treatment is given here. In real scenarios the wind speed may be taken from
measurements or simply by your choice (a variation around a guessed value may be use-
3-11
ful). The choice of TLS (turbulence length scale) and RTI (relative turbulence intensity)
is in most cases quite uncertain. One may find suitable values given in tables for differ-
ent atmospheric stability classes and type of terrain in various data books. The parameter
values may vary both with geographic location and temporal conditions (night, day, win-
ter, summer).
IMPORTANT:
Note that the local velocity at the boundary is set equal to the given WIND_SPEED mul-
tiplied by the local area porosity at the boundary. This must be considered when you
want to establish a given mass or volume flux at a porous boundary. The following re-
lations are given:
ui = u0 βi Given velocity is multiplied with local area porosity

• u i is the local velocity
• u 0 is the user specified velocity
• β i is the local area porosity
F i = u i A i β i = u 0 A i β i2 Local volumetric flow at the boundary (each control

volume may have a different flow)
F tot = ∑u A β i i i = u0 ∑A β2
i i Total volumetric flow at the boundary (sum over all
control volumes at the boundary)
For example if you specify 2.0 m/s and the boundary has an area porosity of 0.5 the local
velocity at the boundary becomes 2.0 m/s * 0.5 = 1.0 m/s. Note also that for any closed
parts of the boundary (area porosity equals zero) the velocity becomes zero. In the first
case the volumetric flow is 0.5 m3/s per square meter, but you may have wanted 1.0 m3/
s. You must either increase the specified wind speed from 2.0 m/s to 4.0 m/s or increase
the area porosity from 0.5 to 1.0 in order to have a volumetric flow of 1.0 m3/s per square
meter. The area porosity may be set to 1.0 if you move the inflow boundary upstream.
Add 5 or more control volumes upstream and create a channel for the wind by using pan-
els on the sides, the top and the bottom.
3-12
PARALLEL BOUNDARY FLOW

Problems may occur when a dominating flow parallel to an open or porous boundary is
generated, bad convergence and even divergence of the entire solution may be the result.
Oscillating inflow/outflow at the boundary may be generated as a result of inadequate
boundary modelling. The problem may be avoided by extending the boundary or by
closing the boundary with a wall or a panel. The NOZZLE condition may also be less
sensitive to this problem than the EULER condition.
3-13
3.5 About the obstacles (congestion, confinement

and vents)
In order to have a good representation of the effect of obstacles it is important that they
are well represented geometrically by the chosen grid. In most practical situations it will
not be possible to represent the smaller obstacles on the grid, these should still be includ-
ed since they may be treated by proper sub-grid models. Larger obstacles like the floor
(or the ground), the ceiling, the walls and larger equipment will be resolved on-grid. This
means that they will be adjusted to match the grid lines.
The worst geometry to represent properly is repeated obstacles of the same size and
spacing as the chosen grid resolution, in such cases one should consider to change the
grid to achieve a better representation. If this type of geometry is dominant it is of vital
importance for the accuracy of the result that the representation is good enough. In cases
where such a geometry is not dominant one may pay less attention to how it is represent-
ed. For normal offshore modules there will be a range of subgrid sized obstacles which
are more or less randomly distributed in space.
In many experimental setups one will find repeated obstacles of the same size. The basic
research on gas explosions past many years now has focused on the effect of obstacle
arrays, perhaps to a greater extent than on the effect of more realistic geometries. Both
categories are important in order to be able to validate tools like FLACS.
It is important to represent the vent openings of a semi-confined geometry properly. If

obstacles close to the outer boundaries are adjusted to match the grid, the effective vent
area may be affected. In order to verify that the representation of the vent openings is as
good as possible you should check the porosity fields (using CASD or FLOWVIS).
3-14
3.6 About the panels

Panels are special planar elements inside the simulation volume which are used to model
the effect of explosion relief panels and yielding walls. They are specified as boxes
where one, and only one, of the three side lengths must be zero. In addition several pa-
rameters such as the yield pressures, area porosities and drag factor may be specified.
A panel may be active or passive. An active panel will initially modify the porosity in
the region it covers, and again when the pressure difference over the panel exceeds the
given limit. If the initial porosity is set to 0 and the final porosity is set to 1 the panel will
start as being closed and end up as being open. This is how the behaviour of a real yield-
ing panel is imitated. A passive panel will never modify the porosity, but it may be used
to monitor the same data as an active panel. There are 5 different panel types (active pan-
els):
UNSPECIFIED Panel with linear displacement, full parameter set

POPOUT Panel with a linear displacement, limited parameter set
HINGED Panel with a rotational displacement, limited parameter set
PLASTIC Simulates the presence of plastic sheets (commonly used in experi-
ments)
OVERLAY Panel properties are ‘blended’ with existing equipment
Note that the PLASTIC and OVERLAY panels are still on the experimental stage and can
not be chosen in CASD. It is possible to edit the scenario file manually to use these panel
types, by initially creating an UNSPECIFIED panel and change it to the desired type. It
is advised that only experts attempt to do this.
3-15
The edges of a panel must coincide with the grid lines, or more correctly the edges of a
panel will be automatically adjusted to the closest grid line. It is advised that you only
specify panels which match the grid, either by adjusting the grid or modifying the panel.
NO! YES
GRID LINES
PANEL EDGES
3-16
If a large area in reality is covered with many smaller panels, and each panel is the same
type, you should define them as one large panel covering the total panel area.
NO! YES
GRID LINES
PANEL EDGES
Of course if the panels have different properties one may consider to model them sepa-
rately, but this is seldom the case.
One topic which needs special attention is the presence of solid structures close to the
panel area. For example structural beams may constitute quite large blockages which
must be accounted for, especially since they also occur at the vent openings of typical
offshore modules. In such cases the panel area must be defined using several panels with
solid beams in between. Smaller beams, often an integral part of the support frame of the
3-17
pressure relief panels, may be accounted for by adjusting the final panel porosity for the
panel itself.
NO! YES
GRID LINES
SOLID BEAMS
PANEL EDGES
3-18
3.7 About the multiblock option

With FLACS-94 and newer it has become possible to extend the domain in wanted di-
rections by the use of the multiblock option. Added blocks could reduce the influence of
the external boundaries of the domain, particularly for scenarios with a low degree of
confinement. To become able to perform simulations predicting far field pressures effi-
ciently is the main reason for using this multiblock version of FLACS. In the figure be-
low an example of a block configuration is shown:
Figure 3.3 The grids and geometry from a multiblock simulation
To use the multiblock option in FLACS you must prepare a job file which shall contain
the required information about the job numbers to be included, then type the following
command:
runflacs job_file >& log_file &
Output from the simulation is here put into a log file. The names of the job file and the
log file are according to your choice. The process is put in the background so that you
3-19
can use the window for further commands (e.g. you may want to check the log file to see
that everything is all right).
The format of the job file is shown below (see also the REFERENCE chapter):
VERSION 0.0
$JOBSPEC
BLOCKS =
"000001" "FLACS"
"000002" "BLAST"
... 5 lines are ommitted here (5 BLAST blocks)
"000008" "BLAST"
IGNITION =
"000001"
$END
SETTING UP A JOB
As seen in the job file example above, each block has a job number, and each block will
need its own grid file, scenario file and porosity file. A block can be either a FLACS-
block or a BLAST-block. For explosion simulations at least one FLACS-block is
required, in which the ignition takes place. It is also possible to use more than one
FLACS block, but the important part of the explosion region should be included in only
one block (The FLACS code will give different results if the main explosion area is
divided into different blocks). Currently a maximum number of 10 blocks is allowed.
FLACS BLOCK OR BLAST BLOCK?

The calculations in the BLAST blocks are faster and require less memory, in addition to
giving sharper fronts. This type of block is therefore to prefer outside the explosion
area. But FUEL and PROD flow should not reach a BLAST block, as pressure differ-
ences across the block boundary then will appear. Thus extra FLACS blocks might
sometimes be added if the block boundaries are too close to the explosion area.
GRIDS
The grid resolution in the explosion block should be reasonably good, but it might be
necessary to use a coarser grid than generally used in explosion simulations. Blocks
located in the directions of interest (to the right and upwards in the above figure) should
3-20
optimally have the same grid resolution as the explosion block. Blocks should also be
added outside the explosion block in other directions, to ensure a good boundary condi-
tion, the grid resolution of these blocks can be much coarser (these blocks will increase
the simulation volume and thus reduce the danger of strange results in connection to the
PLANE_WAVE boundary condition). The ratio between control volume lengths in adja-
cent blocks does not have to be an integer number (like in the above example). The
block faces must, however, fit perfectly to their neighbours (in the previous figure,
eight different blocks are shown, not five).
The geometry should be as simple as possible at the block boundaries, if not the poros-
ity pattern might become different on the two sides of the boundary, and strange results
might occur.
In BLAST blocks the porosity is either 0 or 1.
SCENARIO PARAMETERS
Panels and water sprays should presently be used only in one block.
For stability, the CFLC-number should be 0.5 in the BLAST blocks, and also in FLACS
blocks due to the explicit coupling between the blocks.
In BLAST blocks the PLANE_WAVE boundary condition should be used (if not SYM-
METRY). This PLANE_WAVE condition should also be used in the FLACS blocks to
minimize the influence of the boundaries (notice the dangers connected to it).
To override the standard stop criterion in the FLACS blocks the TMAX should be set
(how to estimate TMAX in blast simulations, see the next section). This is also necessary
in the BLAST blocks. It is possible to set different TMAX in different blocks, and thus
detach blocks, when they are no longer important. If the explosion block is detached
(with a high average speed of sound), this might give a longer time step in the remain-
ing blocks, and a smearing of the pressure pulse. If so, the CFLC number in the remain-
ing blocks could be decreased (e.g. 0.2)
Both monitor point output and field output (r1- and r3-files) can be generated from a
multiblock simulation. Both for 2D field plots and line plots several blocks can be
shown in one plot in Flowvis, for volume plots only one block can be shown for each
plot. To generate a plot of the whole geometry in Flowvis, a very coarse dummy grid
covering the whole region could be generated (no porosity calculation necessary, only a
cg-, co- and a cs-file), and the geometry visualized in a one block volume plot.
3-21
When specifying output, it can be practical to have the same monitor point list in all
scenario files. One must then remember that only the monitor points physically located
inside a block, give reasonable output. Field output can be specified in different ways,
either through DTPLOT, NPLOT or in a cc-file. As default, an output specified in one
block will trigger a simultaneous output in the other blocks, and the amount of data
may be large. It is often advisable to specify output at one cc-file only, with the job
number of the main block. For how to specify the output on a cc-file, see the next sec-
tion and the section about cc-files.
When using BLAST blocks one must keep in mind that only a selection of the variables
of the FLACS blocks exists. Variables like PROD and FUEL should not be specified for
output in BLAST blocks.
FINALLY
Multiblock blast simulations might be time consuming due to a great number of control
volumes, a small time step and a relatively long duration compared to explosion simu-
lations. It is therefore important to learn how to obtain good results by first attempt.
Some of this comes through experience and by following the above guidelines thor-
oughly. In the beginning it is also advisable to check the job initially through
FLOWVIS (specify an early output), see that everything works all right, and that the
output specifications are correct. For effective generation of files see next section.
3-22
3.8 About the blast simulation facility

Calculation of pressure wave propagation at distances far from the centre of an explosion
may be of interest to many. This section will be a guidance on how to perform predic-
tions of the far field effects in an effective way with the FLACS multiblock option (see
previous section).
HOW TO GENERATE NECESSARY FILES EFFICIENTLY

First co-file and cs-file of the main block should be specified using CASD, with gas
cloud, ignition, boundary condition, CFLC-number=0.5 and a full output specification.
By the use of the cprun-script, these files of the main block are copied into the job-
numbers of the second block. Remember to remove panels, waterspray specification,
and unused variables (BLAST-blocks) in the second block cs-file. Then the files of the
second block can be copied into the job numbers of the rest of the blocks. Fuel specifi-
cation (unless fuel region inside the actual block and it is a FLACS block), ignition etc.
will be ignored in all blocks but the block of ignition specified on the job file.
Now the different grids can be defined in CASD (use a new project with no geometry).
The different cg-files generated are then copied into their block numbers. Finally a
porosity calculation for all blocks in sequence will be performed.
HOW TO PERFORM THE SIMULATIONS TO OBTAIN THE OPTIMAL

RESULTS
If this is not already done, an ordinary FLACS simulation should be performed in the
explosion region to find out what explosion loads that can be expected. In this simula-
tion standard guidelines for FLACS simulations should be followed (choosing a proper
grid size etc., using CFLC=5). This simulation will act as a reference for the coming
blast simulations in order to achieve a reasonable explosion load. Of different reasons
(coarser grid, changed CFLC-number, changed boundary conditions etc.) the pressure
in a blast simulation might sometimes differ from that in the previous explosion simula-
tion. To predict the blast loads optimally, it is then recommended to adjust the reactivity
of the fuel (change the ER to decrease the pressure, or replace some methane with pro-
pane to increase the pressure). The procedure is described below:
3-23
Figure 3.4 A grid with normal grid resolution
a) Perform an ordinary simulation on a normal grid using CFLC=5 and EULER bound-
ary conditions (if a relatively confined geometry). An example of such a grid is
shown above. Make a note of the typical pressure level from the simulation.
Figure 3.5 A grid with coarse grid resolution
3-24
b) Perform a new simulation on the same domain with the grid resolution that will be
used in the multiblock blast simulation (generally a coarser grid, see figure above),
with CFLC=0.5 and still with EULER boundary conditions. If the pressure level de-
viates much from that of the simulation in case a, adjust the gas mixture (like de-
scribed above) and perform the simulation again. When the result is satisfactory, use
this gas mixture in the explosion block of the blast simulation. Both the pressures
seen in this simulation and the time of the pressure peak will be the same in the multi-
block blast simulation (except for unconfined situations and ignition near open
boundaries).
c) Now the final multiblock blast simulation can be prepared. Be sure to extend the grid
of the explosion block sufficiently far away from the explosion to avoid unburnt fuel
or combustion products to reach the boundary (eventually FLACS blocks can be add-
ed in directions where this might happen). Then add blocks in all directions (optimal-
ly). The grid resolution of the blocks in the important directions should be the same
as in the main block, while the other blocks acting as good boundary conditions
could have a much coarser grid (see figure in multiblock section).
A cc-file with the same job number as the main block should be created for the multi-
block simulation, and the desired outputs should be specified (e.g. at certain fuel
amounts or time instants). Remember that the time of maximum pressure was found in
the simulations in case b. The time it takes for the blast waves to reach other installa-
tions can be calculated based on the distance and the speed of sound. Set TMAX to finish
the simulations (remember to include some safety margin in the estimates)
TIMEdistance = TIMEmaxpressure + DISTANCE / Csound)

Note that the BLAST blocks will not automatically be terminated when the FLACS
block stops, you should always remember to set the TMAX parameter in the scenario
files.
3-25
Figure 3.6 A pressure plot from a multiblock simulation
The figure above shows a sample result from a multiblock blast simulation. The grids
are shown in the previous section. In this case there are no visible disturbances of the
pressure field at the block boundaries. In some cases where fuel or combustion prod-
ucts reaches the boundary of a blast block some disturbances in the pressure field may
be occurring.
3-26
3.9 About the leakages (and gas dispersion)

Gas leaks occur quite frequently in many offshore and onshore installations and else-
where, either during production, processing or transport of the gas. Hydrocarbons and
many other types of highly flammable gases are present all over the industry and may be
a source for potentially dangerous gas explosions. Also spills of flammable liquids may
cause accumulation of explosive gas clouds under certain conditions. Experiments have
clearly shown that even small amounts of gas mixed with air at the right concentration
can result in very strong explosions. By using the dispersion and explosion simulation
capabilities of FLACS it is possible to analyse quite realistic scenarios, where the effect
of a single gas leakage developing into an explosive gas cloud and finally resulting in
several possible gas explosion scenarios may be studied. One primary interest may be to
vary the leakage itself, changing the flow rate, location and duration. Other sensitivities
may also be studied such as modifying the ventilation and wind conditions for a given
geometrical layout. Finally the variation of ignition time and location may be made dur-
ing the explosion studies.
The release model for leaks in FLACS ensures that the desired mass flow or velocity of
gas is set at the control volume where the leak is located. Also other properties such as
3-27
the temperature and relative turbulence intensity and length scale must be specified. The
figure below shows how a jet is represented on the grid:
JET
GRID LINES
OPEN FACE
CLOSED FACES
LEAKAGE POINT LOCATION
The area porosity of the open control volume face is adjusted to ensure that the flow rate
is correct. If the grid resolution is coarse compared to the size of jet orifice, a good rep-
resentation of the detailed flow in the near-orifice region is not possible. This may lead
to excessive smearing of the gradients of the flow. In such cases (which may be the nor-
mal practical case) one must realize that the simulated gas concentration is locally un-
derestimated, although the total amount is correct. The grid resolution may be especially
important for jets impinging on nearby walls and jets with a strong cross-wind influence.
3-28
3.10 About the watersprays (and mitigation)

Water deluge systems can in some situations (in others not) be an effective way to mit-
igate the consequences of gas explosions. The phenomena related to the interaction be-
tween water sprays and an accelerated flow field and the flame are quite complex. From
each nozzle water is sprayed out in different directions. Each spray has a droplet distri-
bution (size, number and velocity) and the droplets might interact with each other, with
geometry, with droplets from other sprays. When the explosion starts the flow is accel-
erated, and so are the droplets. The acceleration depends on the local flow conditions,
and the droplet size. When certain forces act on the droplets they break up (again de-
pendent on the droplet size). When break-up occurs, the droplets might quench or reduce
the burning rate due to dilution (by evaporation) and cooling of the flame. Before break-
up of droplets, they tend to accelerate eventual flames mainly due to an increased turbu-
lence level.
The problem when modelling water sprays is how to represent all this on a coarse sim-
ulation grid. It was necessary to do simplifications, and also to use experiments per-
formed for tuning of the models. Two distinct effects were identified.
a) The acceleration of the flames due to turbulence from the sprays and the presence of
the droplets.
b) The reduction of burning rate experienced in certain situations because of the water
sprays.
For each of the nozzles an acceleration factor, denoted F1, is determined. F1 is used to
increase the burning rate if any watersprays are present. A quenching factor, denoted F2,
is also determined. F2 is used to reduce the burning rate if the conditions for droplet
break-up are present. Next some guidance on how to use the model will be given.
WHERE TO INSERT THE WATER SPRAY REGIONS:

As the model simplifications are quite coarse, there is no need for an accurate position-
ing of the sprays. In regions where sprays of the same type will overlap, define one water
spray region for the whole system. If more than one waterspray region is to be defined,
make sure they do not overlap, as FLACS will then stop. In FLACS-98 the droplets will
not be transported with the flow, only given a velocity. Regions where it is obvious that
a lot of droplets will be transported ahead of the flames (for instance directly outside vent
openings), should be included in the spray region.
3-29
WHICH PARAMETERS TO USE:

The water volume fraction should be greater than 0.01 (units of [per thousand]), as the
sprays will be considered inactive if not.
The acceleration factor, F1, varies from 0 (no water spray) to about 10 (high velocity
sprays). F2 is the quenching factor, and ranges from 1 (no water spray) to 0 (total
quenching). Please see the Guidance chapter for a detailed description on how to esti-
mate these factors.
FINALLY:
The models are validated in stoichiometric gas concentrations in a 180 m3 vented box,
with various obstruction levels, in a 50 m3 model of an offshore module, and also in full-
scale experiments. It is reason to believe that the models represent mechanisms in con-
nection to water mitigation well.
3-30
3.11 About the gas mixture

There are 11 gas components available in FLACS, in the table below is presented a se-
lection of their combustion properties (see the THEORETICAL PART for further de-
tails):
Gas Slam LFL TOP UFL a

METHANE 0.45 0.50 1.10 1.60 2.0
ETHANE 0.47 0.49 1.13 3.03 3.5
PROPANE 0.46 0.50 1.10 2.00 5.0
BUTANE 0.45 0.50 1.10 1.60 6.5
PROPYLENE 0.51 0.47 1.15 2.96 4.5
ACETYLENE 1.55 0.29 1.36 10.00 2.5
ETHYLENE 0.74 0.40 1.10 6.70 3.0
HYDROGEN 3.25 0.35 1.80 7.45 0.5
CO 0.52 0.5
H2S 0.41 1.5
CO2 0 0.0
For a mixture of two or more gas components, the combustion properties are calculated
as a sort of average of all the selected components, taking into account the mole (vol-
ume) fraction and the relative consumption of O2 (parameter a in the table above). This
has shown to give the proper blending of the component properties into mixture proper-
ties.
The laminar burning velocity of a gas mixture in FLACS depends on the concentration
of the fuel relative to the concentration of oxygen as well as on the type of fuel. A widely
used measure for the relative fuel-oxygen concentration is the Equivalence ratio (ER)
which is defined as follows:
( mass of fuel ⁄ mass of oxygen ) actual

ER = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
( mass of fuel ⁄ mass of oxygen ) stoichiometric
Now, the dependency of the laminar burning velocity (Slam) is illustrated for methane in
the figure below. The factor, ERfac, which is a function of ER and ranges from 0 to 1 is
3-31
multiplied with the tabular value of the laminar burning velocity for the gas component,
thus a relation between Slam and ER is established.
The curves below are only examples and they apply specifically to FLACS-94, but sim-
ilar curves apply to newer versions of FLACS. It may be noted that FLACS-94 uses only
3 points to approximate each curve whereas newer versions of FLACS uses a larger
number of points (with 2nd order spline interpolation).
Each gas component has its own ERfac curve in FLACS. The next figure shows the lam-
inar burning velocity curve as function of ER for all the gas components separately. Note
3-32
that hydrogen, acetylene and propylene have the three highest laminar burning veloci-
ties, and notably also the widest range of flammability.
For a gas mixture the resulting curve is based on the blended properties of the compo-
nents as have been described initially in this section.
3-33
3.12 About the ignition

Ignition in FLACS is usually set to occur in just one control volume. It is possible to de-
fine a larger region for the ignition, but this is not advised. The time of the ignition may
also be specified, this is useful for igniting gas clouds which are generated during gas
dispersion simulations. In a normal gas explosion simulation the time of ignition should
be set to zero.
IMPORTANT:
A node is selected for ignition if the ignition point is inside its control volume. Avoid to
put the ignition point exactly on a grid line, the safest position is at the control volume
centre. Usually it is best to enter the ignition point according to the grid, not according
to the geometry. E.g. if the ignition point is placed on one side close to a solid wall they
it may not necessarily ignite at that side of the wall. During the porosity calculation the
wall will be adjusted to the nearest control volume face (grid line) and might therefore
move to the wrong side of a ignition point! It may also be a good idea to ensure that the
ignition point is not inside a fully blocked control volume.
NO! YES
GRID LINES
WALLS
IGNITION POINT LOCATIONS
If the ignition point is inside a partially blocked control volume, the flame might quench.
It is not recommended to ignite inside a partially blocked control volume. But if you still
choose to do so, and if there are any problems to obtain a proper ignition and flame prop-
agation, you could try to increase the DIMENSION_OF_IGNITION_REGION side
lengths up to about 0.05 to 0.10 m.
3-34
3.13 About the monitor points (and output)

Monitor points are user defined locations in the simulation domain where one or more
variables are to be monitored during the simulation. FLACS selects the corresponding
grid node numbers (centre of control volume) and writes the node values of the speci-
fied variables to the scalar-time output file. A maximum of 100 monitor points may be
defined in the current release of FLACS.
IMPORTANT:
A node is selected to be monitored if the monitor point is inside its control volume.
Avoid to put monitor points exactly on a grid line, the safest position is at the control
volume centre. Usually it is best to enter monitor points according to the grid, not
according to the geometry. E.g. if monitor points are placed on each side close to a solid
wall they may not necessarily be in two different control volumes (as was the inten-
tion). During the porosity calculation the wall will be adjusted to the nearest control
volume face (grid line) and might therefore move to the wrong side of a monitor point!
It may also be a good idea to ensure that none of the monitor points are inside fully
blocked control volumes.
NO! YES
GRID LINES
WALLS
MONITOR POINT LOCATIONS
3-35
3-36
FLACS V8 User’s Guide THEORY
Chapter 4 THEORY
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• Gas properties
• Combustion
• Mathematical model (fluid flow equations)
• Numerical solution procedure
• Nomenclature
In this chapter you will find some of the theoretical fundamentals on which FLACS has
been based. Some parts of the material are just definitions of parameters and relations,
other parts give more thorough explanations of the theory. The objective is to give the
interested user information on how FLACS works.
∂ ( β ρu ) + ∂ ( β ρu u ) = – β ∂p + ∂ ( β σ ) + R + R + ( ρ – ρ ) g
∂ t v i ∂ xj j j i v ∂ x ∂ x j ij i W 0 i
i j
4-1
4.1 Gas properties

In this section you will find some of the theoretical fundamentals on which FLACS has
been based. Some parts of the material are just definitions of parameters and relations,
other parts give more thorough explanations of the theory. The objective is to help you
in the use of FLACS and not to obscure the picture with elaborate mathematical deriva-
tions.
Mixing of ideal gases

Some useful definitions for mixing of gases:
• Mole weights: W i, i = 1, N
• Number of moles of species: n i = m i ⁄ W i, i = 1, N
• Mass of species: m i = n i W i, i = 1, N
Mole fractions: X i ≡ n i ⁄ ⎛ ∑ n i⎞ = p i ⁄ p
N
•
⎝ i=1 ⎠
Mass fractions: Y i ≡ m i ⁄ ⎛ ∑ m i⎞
N
•
⎝ i=1 ⎠
• Fuel-Oxidant ratio: F/O ≡ m fuel ⁄ m oxidant
• Equivalence Ratio: ER ≡ ( F/O ) ⁄ ( F/O ) stoichiometric
Mixing of two gases:

• Mole→Mass fraction: Y 1 = ( X 1 W 1 ) ⁄ ( X 1 W 1 + X 2 W 2 )
• Mass→Mole fraction: X 1 = ( Y 1 ⁄ W 1 ) ⁄ ( Y 1 ⁄ W 1 + Y 2 ⁄ W 2 )
• Mixture fraction: f 1 = ( φ mix – φ 2 ) ⁄ ( φ 1 – φ 2 ) , f 2 = 1 – f 1
Mixing of several gases:

Mole→Mass fraction: Y i = ( X i W i ) ⁄ ⎛ ∑ X i W i⎞
N
•
⎝ i=1 ⎠
Mass→Mole fraction: X i = (Y ⁄ W ) ⁄ ⎛∑ Y i ⁄ W i⎞
N
• i i⎝ i=1 ⎠
4-2
The table below may be of help when converting between mole and mass fractions:
Mole Mass Partial Mole Partial

Gas (i) weight fraction mass fraction volume
Wi Yi Xi Wi Xi Yi ⁄ Wi
METHANE 16.0
ETHANE 30.1
PROPANE 44.1
BUTANE 58.1
PROPYLENE 42.1
ACETYLENE 26.0
ETHYLENE 28.1
HYDROGEN 2.0
SUM - =1 =1
Isentropic ideal gas relations

Some useful relations for isentropic flow of a perfect gas:
• Isentropic ratio: γ = c p ⁄ c v
2
• Speed of sound: c = γp ⁄ ρ = γRT
• Mach number: M ≡ u ⁄ c
ρ γ γ ⁄ (γ – 1) γ – 1 2 –γ ⁄ ( γ – 1 )
• Pressure-density-temperature: ⎛⎝ -----
p-⎞
= ⎛ ------⎞ = ⎛ ------⎞
T
= ⎛ 1 + ----------- M ⎞
p 0⎠ ⎝ρ ⎠
0
⎝T ⎠
0
⎝ 2 ⎠
Calculation of jet sources

In order to simulate the conditions of a pressurized reservoir which is gradually emptied
through a nozzle a simple procedure may be utilized which calculates the sonic flow rate
through the nozzle. Analytic expansion of the sonic flow can be made assuming
isenthalpic expansion and further air entrainment can be accounted for using simplifying
assumptions. Finally the calculated mass flow can be mixed in a well-stirred reactor with
a constant volume and a constant ventilation rate. Additional values for the turbulence
quantities must be calculated in order to use the data in FLACS.
4-3
Calculation of 5 stage analytic dispersion:
0) Reservoir (stagnation)
1) Nozzle (sonic)
2) Jet (outlet)
3) Air entrainment
4) Well-stirred reactor
Let Φ = ( u, h, T, p, ρ, A ) be a vector describing the necessary leakage parameters,
then Φ a refers to the ambient condition, Φ 2 refers to the outlet condition, Φ 1 refers to
the nozzle condition and Φ 0 refers to the stagnation condition.
Initial reservoir conditions:
• Pressure: p 0 = specified
• Temperature: T 0 = specified
• Volume: V 0 = specified
• Density: ρ 0 = p 0 ⁄ ( RT 0 )
• Total mass: m 0 = ρ 0 V 0
• Heat exchange coefficient: k wall = specified
Reservoir conditions at time t + Δt :
• Total mass: m 0, t + Δt = m 0 – m· 1 Δt
• Temperature: T 0, t + Δt = T 0 – ( Q· 0 + m· 1 h 1 ) Δt
• Wall heat flux: Q· = k ( T – T )
wall 0 wall
• Density: ρ 0 = m 0 ⁄ V 0
• Pressure: p 0 = ρ 0 RT 0
Nozzle (sonic) conditions:
• Effective nozzle area: A 1 = specified

• Temperature: T 1 = T 0 ( 2 ⁄ ( γ + 1 ) )
4-4
γ ⁄ (γ – 1)
• Pressure: p 1 = p 0 ( T 1 ⁄ T 0 )
• Density: ρ 1 = p 1 ⁄ ( RT 1 )
• Sound speed: c 1 = γRT 1

• Velocity: u 1 = c 1
• Enthalpy: h 1 = c p T 1
• Mass flow: m· 1 = ρ 1 u 1 A 1
Jet (outlet) conditions:
• Velocity: u 2 = u 1 – ( p 1 – p a ) ⁄ ( ρ 1 u 1 )
2 2
• Enthalpy: h 2 = h 1 + 0,5 ( u 1 – u 2 )
2 2
• Temperature: T 2 = T 1 + 0,5 ( u 1 – u 2 ) ⁄ c p
• Pressure: p 2 = p a
• Density: ρ 2 = p 2 ⁄ ( RT 2 )
• Effective outlet area: A 2 = A 1 ( ρ 1 u 1 ) ⁄ ( ρ 2 u 2 )
• Mass flow: m· 1 = ρ 1 u 1 A 1
Air entrainment condition:
• Pressure: p 3 = p a
• Temperature: T 3 = T a
• Density: ρ 3 = p 3 ⁄ ( RT 3 )
• Velocity: u 3 = u 2 ( f 2 ⁄ f 3 )
• Effective area: A 3 = A 2 ( ρ 2 u 2 ) ⁄ ( ρ 3 u 3 )
• Mass flow: m· 3 = ρ 3 u 3 A 3
Well-stirred reactor condition:
• Volume: V 4 = specified
• Ventilation rate: V· = specified
air
4-5
• Incremented fuel mass: m fuel = m fuel + m· fuel Δt

• Incremented air mass: m air = m air + m· air Δt
• Incremented mixture mass: m mix = m fuel + m air
• Density: ρ 4 = m mix ⁄ ( V 4 + ( V· fuel + V· air )Δt )
• Total mass inside volume: m 4 = V 4 ρ 4
• Fuel mass: m fuel, t + Δt = m 4 ( m fuel ⁄ m tot )
• Air mass: m air, t + Δt = m 4 ( m air ⁄ m tot )
4-6
4.2 Combustion
Stoichiometric reaction, book-keeping of atoms
A stoichiometric reaction is a reaction where there is no residual of neither oxidant nor
oxidiser after the reaction is completed. For reactions involving the elements carbon, hy-
drogen, oxygen and fluor a general reaction may be expressed as follows:
CncHnhOnoFnf + [a]O2 -> [nc]CO2 + [b]H2O + [nf]HF

=>
a = nc + (nh-nf+2*no)/4
b = (nh-nf)/2
Where
a = O2/FUEL stoichiometric mole ratio

b = H2O/FUEL stoichiometric mole ratio
The combustion products procuced in the reaction are as follows (fluor is not present in
any of the fuel components available in FLACS):
Water vapour (H2O)

Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Hydrogen fluoride (HF)
Some relations for mixing fuel with air are listed below, the volume (mole) fraction of
O2 in air is set to be 20.95% which corresponds to a mass fraction of 23.2%:
AI = a*(WO2/WFUEL)
AIRAI = (1+YN2/YO2)*AI, Normal air gives AIRAI = (1+0.768/
0.232)*AI
ER = FO/FOstoichiometric
Fuel_mass_fraction = ER/(ER+AIRAI)
Stoichiometric_fuel_mass_fraction = 1/(1+AIRAI)
4-7
In the following sub-sections various parameter definitions and data used in FLACS are
listed.
Gas components in FLACS

Table 4.1: Elements
Mole
Name Symbol Description
weight
HYDROGEN H 1.008
CARBON C 12.000
NITROGEN N 14.000
OXYGEN O 16.000
Table 4.2: Di-atomic and tri-atomic gases (and water vapour)
Mole
Name Formula Description
weight
HYDROGEN H2 2.0
NITROGEN N2 28.0
OXYGEN O2 32.0
WATER VAPOUR H2O 18.0
CARBON DIOXIDE CO2 44.0
Table 4.3: Saturated hydrocarbons (CnH2(n+1))
Mole
weight
METHANE CH4 16.0
ETHANE C2H6 30.0
PROPANE C3H8 44.1
BUTANE C4H10 58.1
4-8
Table 4.4: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (CnH2(n-1), CnH2n)
Mole
weight
ACETYLENE C2H2 26.0
ETYLENE C2H4 28.1
PROPYLENE C3H6 42.1
Laminar burning properties in FLACS
Table 4.5: Burning properties of gas components in FLACS
Mole
Gas Slam LFL TOP UFL a C H
weight
METHANE 16.0 0.448 0.4 1.08 2.00 2.0 1.0 2.0
ETHANE 30.1 0.4776 0.39 1.14 2.40 3.5 2.0 3.0
PROPANE 44.1 0.464 0.39 1.06 2.50 5.0 3.0 4.0
BUTANE 58.1 0.449 0.39 1.03 2.50 6.5 4.0 5.0
PROPYLENE 42.1 0.512 0.39 1.00 2.10 4.5 3.0 3.0
ACETYLENE 26.0 1.55 0.19 1.24 6.00 2.5 2.0 1.0
ETHYLENE 28.1 0.735 0.29 1.13 3.50 3.0 2.0 2.0
HYDROGEN 2.0 3.25 0.29 1.80 9.00 0.5 0.0 1.0
Table 4.6: Fuel concentration variables
Name & formula Description

F Fuel mass fraction
O Oxygen mass fraction
FO Fuel / Oxygen mass ratio
= F/O
a Stoichiometric mole ratio n_O2 / n_Fuel
r Mole weight ratio w_O2 / w_Fuel
Fmix Fuel mixture fraction (two-stream mixing)
4-9
Table 4.6: Fuel concentration variables
Name & formula Description

Fmix Valid for mixing of pure Fuel and Air
=F
ER Equivalence Ratio
= FO/FO_stoichiometric
= FO*a*r
ERLFL ER % of LFL
= 100 * ER/ERmin
ERNFL Normalized flammable range, based on ER
= (ER-ERmin)/(ERmax-ERmin)
EQ Equivalence Ratio, finite bounded
= ER/(ER+1) = 1/(1+1/ER)
EQLFL EQ % of LFL
= 100 * EQ/EQmin
EQNFL Normalized flammable range, based on EQ
= (EQ-EQmin)/(EQmin-EQmax)
Table 4.7: Sample gas data
Fuel LFL UFL LFL UFL

a
Name Formula ERmin ERmax EQmin EQmax
Methane C1H4 2 0.5 1.6 0.33 0.62
Propane C3H8 5 0.5 2.0 0.33 0.67
Table 4.8: Properties of propane in air
Variable 0% Fuel LFL STOICH UFL 100% Fuel

F 0 0.031 0.060 0.113 1
ER 0 0.5 1 2.0 Inf
ERLFL % 0 100.0 200.0 400.0 Inf
ERNFL -0.33 0 0.33 1 Inf
EQ 0 0.33 1/2 0.67 1
EQLFL % 0 100.0 152.0 200.0 300.0
EQNFL -1.0 0 0.52 1 2.0
4-10
4.3 Mathematical model (fluid flow equations)

During the last years the development of computers has had a large impact on the feasi-
bility of using CFD at large scales. Previously many of the applications of CFD have
been for research and scientific use only, but now this technology is being used on prac-
tical problems in the industry. However, still there are limitations on the computational
resources which put severe restrictions on spatial and temporal resolution for realistic
scenarios, the increase of computational power cannot alone bring todays CFD into in-
dustrial practise. The FLACS code has built-in models which account for details which
cannot be resolved on the numerical grid.
This section describes the mathematical model for compressible fluid flow used in
FLACS. Conservation principles have been applied to the following quantities in order
to derive the conservation equations:
• Mass
• Momentum
• Enthalpy
• Chemical species
• Turbulent kinetic energy
• Dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy
In the following sub-sections further details will be presented.
Governing equations
Below we summarize the governing equations used in FLACS.
Conservation of mass:
∂ ∂
(β ρ) + ( β ρu ) = m· ⁄ V (3.1)
∂t v ∂ xj j j
Conservation of momentum:
∂ ∂ ∂p ∂
( β v ρu i ) + ( β j ρu j u i ) = – β v + ( β σ ) + Ri + RW + ( ρ – ρ0 ) gi , (3.2)
∂t ∂ xj ∂ x i ∂ x j j ij
where Ri represents distributed resistance in x -direction due to subgrid obstruction,
i
4-11
1–β
R i = – f i A i ρ u i u i, A i = -------------i, (3.3)
Δx i
where f i is a non-dimensional constant depending on type and orientation of the obstruc-
tion.Conservation of enthalpy:
∂ ∂ ∂ ⎛ μ eff ∂h ⎞ Dp ·
( β v ρh ) + ( β j ρu j h ) = β j -------
- + β v ------- + Q (3.4)
∂t ∂ xj ∂ xj ⎝ σ h ∂ x j
⎠ Dt
Conservation of mass fraction of a chemical specie:
∂ ∂ ∂ ⎛ μ eff ∂m
( β v ρm ) + ( β j ρu j m ) = β -------- ⎞ + R m (3.5)
∂t ∂ xj ∂ x j ⎝ j σ m ∂ x j⎠
Conservation of turbulent kinetic energy
∂ ( β ρk ) + ∂ ( β ρu k ) = ∂ ⎛ β μ eff ∂k ⎞
-------
- + P k – β v ρε (3.6)
∂t v ∂ xj j j ∂ x j ⎝ j σ k ∂ x j⎠
Conservation of dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy:
∂ ⎛β μ
2
∂ ( β ρε ) + ∂ ( β ρu ε ) eff ∂ε ⎞ ε
= j -------- + P ε – C 2 β v ρ ---- (3.7)
∂t v
∂ xj j j
∂ xj ⎝ σ ε ∂ x j
⎠ k
where the turbulence production is either ongrid or subgrid. Ongrid production is
Pk = GS + GW + GB (3.8)
ε
P ε = C 1 -- P k (3.9)
k
In the above equations the stress tensor is given by:
⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂u ⎞
σ ij = μ eff ⎜ i + j⎟ – --- δ ij ⎜ ρk + μ eff k⎟ (3.10)
⎝ ∂ x j ∂ x i⎠ 3 ⎝ ∂ x k⎠
the effective viscosity
4-12
C μ∞ ρk 2
μ eff = μ l + ------------------
- (3.11)
ε
Ongrid production rate of turbulent kinetic energy is given by the k-ε model as:
∂u i
G S = β v σ ij due to shear stresses (3.12)
∂ xj
To secure a rapid buildup of the transient turbulence field, an extra term have been added
G S = max ( G S, G T ) (3.13)
3
⎛ ∂u ⎞
G T ≈ C T ⎜ i Δx j2 / 3⎟ , (3.14)
⎝ ∂ xj ⎠
where C t is a non-dimensional constant.
Production due to buoyant forces.
1 μ eff ∂
G B = --- ⎛ --------⎞ ( ρg i ) (3.15)
ρ ⎝ σt ⎠ ∂ xi
The turbulence generation due to subgrid obstructions is represented by
∑ ⎛⎝ u T ⎛⎝ -------
- + ---- β ⎞ ⎞
a b 2
P k, R = 3 (3.16)
Δx d ⎠ ⎠
i i
i i
v
i=1
3
⎛ bu
4
i Ti ⎛ β 2
- 1 + -----v⎞ ⎞
P ε, R =
∑ -------------
⎝ Δx i d i ⎝ a ⎠⎠
(3.17)
i=1
where T i is a non-dimensional constant depending on type, blockage and orientation of
the obstruction, d i is the smallest of the two obstacle dimensions perpendicular to the
4-13
flow direction, a and b are constants. This model secure a turbulence field with repre-
sentative velocity fluctuations and length scale.
The k-e model is not intended for reacting flow with expansion due to heat release, such
as in gas explosions. A modification of the turbulence production for such flows is need-
ed, to avoid non-physical turbulence production.The ongrid turbulence productions due
to shear stresses and buoyancy, is a function of velocity and density gradients. Velocity
and density gradients through the flame have therefore been excluded in the present tur-
bulence model.
Turbulence production near walls, wall functions

Boundary layers are regions in the flow field close to walls and obstructions where vis-
cous forces dominate inertial effects. The application of so-called wall-functions is such
that one relates surface boundary conditions to points in the fluid away from the bound-
aries and thereby avoids the problem of modelling the direct influence of viscosity, i.e.
one does not need to resolve the boundary layer by a dense grid. The validity of the
scheme is restricted to situations in which the Reynolds number is sufficiently high.
Wall-functions are implemented in FLACS (since FLACS-89), and have been tested on
high Reynolds number benchmark cases. Good agreement between the published bench-
mark results and the simulations with FLACS are obtained.
Turbulence production from walls P W can either be handled by wall functions (in the
scenario file WALLF 1 or 2) or by the subgrid model for turbulence production on walls
(WALLF 0). The turbulent kinetic energy generated at walls is in general nearly inde-
pendent of the model used.
The option WALLF = 2 give a fixed length scale around 20% of the control volume size
at all walls. The option WALLF = 1 give a fixed length scale which is an order of mag-
nitude smaller. Wall functions are recommended for simple flows, like Couette and Poi-
seuille flows, where some of the grid points can be located in the boundary layer, and
features like heat transfer between fluid and wall may be important.
For more complex flows, where the geometry is represented on a coarse grid or subgrid,
like in normal gas explosion calculations, it is recommended to choose WALLF=1.
Leaks
Leaks will be described in a later revision.
4-14
Model summary
This section contains a summary of the various models in the FLACS98 simulator code.
Expressions for Γφ , SΦ etc. are listed below:
Table 4.9: Components of the general equation for compressible flow
Conservation of φ Γφ Sφ
Mass 1 0 m· ⁄ V (mass sources, e.g. leakages)
Momentum ui μ eff ∂u k⎞ ⎞ ⎞
∂ ⎛ β μ ⎛ ∂u j – 2--- δ ⎛ ρk + μ ∂p
⎜ ⎜ ⎜
∂ x j ⎝ j eff ⎝ ∂ x i 3 ij ⎝ eff ∂ x ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠ ⎟⎠ – β v ∂ x + R i + ( ρ – ρ 0 )g i
k i
Enthalpy h μ eff ⁄ σ h
Dp
β v ------- + Q·
Dt
Mass fraction m μ eff ⁄ σ m Rm
Turbulent kinetic k μ eff ⁄ σ k G – β v ρε

energy
Dissipation of k ε μ eff ⁄ σ ε
-ε- ( C G – C β ρε )
k 1 2 v
4-15
4.4 Numerical solution procedure

Equation solver
The differential equation for a general variable φ may be expressed as follows using
standard symbols:
∂ ∂ ∂ ⎛ ∂
( ρφ ) + ( ρu i φ ) – ρΓ ( φ )⎞ = S φ (3.18)
∂t ∂ xj ∂ xj ⎝ φ ∂ xj ⎠
Where φ denotes a general variable, ρ is the gas mixture density, x i is the coordinate
in i-direction, u i is the velocity component in i-direction, Γ φ is the effective (turbulent)
diffusion coefficient and S φ is a source term. Note that the area porosities β i and the
volume porosity β v used in FLACS have been ommitted here in order to avoid complex-
ity at this stage in the description.
The partial differential equation presented above is integrated over a control volume us-
ing the Gauss theorem.
The integrated equation may then be written as follows:
Δ ( ρVφ ) ⁄ Δt +
∑ ( ρu A φ )
i i face –
∑ ( Γ A δφ ⁄ δx )
φ i i face = Sφ V (3.19)
faces faces
When the linearized source term ( S φ = S C + S P φ ) is large enough to dominate the so-
lution it is easy to see how to obtain a desired value for the dependent variable ( φ ). If all
other terms in the original equation are small compared to S φ one can set S C + S P φ ≈ 0
which leads to the expression φ = – S C ⁄ S P . Setting S C = Lφ desired and S P = – L ,
where L is a number which is large enough to make S φ the dominant term, yields
φ = φ desired .
The equation of state is that of an ideal gas:
pW = ρℜT (3.20)
4-16
where p is the pressure W is the molar weight of the gas mixture, ℜ is the universal
gas coefficient, and T is the absolute temperature.
Numerical discretization schemes

Numerical discretization schemes will be described in a later revision.
Pressure velocity coupling

The solution algorithm used in FLACS is the well known SIMPLE algorithm.
Initial and boundary conditions

Initial and boundary conditions will be described in a later revision.
4-17
4.5 Nomenclature
Below is a list of symbols used in this chapter:
φ general variable
Γφ diffusion coefficient for variable φ
βi area porosity in i-direction
βv volume porosity
xi coordinate in i-direction
ui velocity component in i-direction
p pressure
ρ density
T absolute temperature
ℜ universal gas constant
W mole weight of gas mixture
R specific gas constant R = ℜ ⁄ W
ni number of moles of specie i
mi mass of specie i
Wi mole weight of specie i
Xi mole fraction of specie i
Yi mass fraction of specie i
F/O fuel / oxidant ratio
ER equivalence ratio
4-18
f mixture fraction
γ isentropic expansion ratio

c speed of sound
M Mach number
cp specific heat at constant pressure
cv specific heat at constant volume
4-19
4-20
FLACS-99r2 User’s Guide EXAMPLES
Chapter 5 EXAMPLES
CHAPTER CONTENTS
• Geometry definition
• Grid definition and porosity calculation
• Explosion simulations - scenario definition
• Dispersion simulations - scenario definition
• Dispersion and explosion simulations
• Results
• Simulations in the GexCon / Module-A geometry
Here you will find specific details on how various geometrical elements of real offshore
platforms are treated by GexCon. Useful hints based on many years of experience using
FLACS are given throughout the chapter and procedures for quality assurance as per-
formed by GexCon are included as well.
The three example simulations at the end of this chapter are performed in the Gexcon /
Module-A geometry shown below:
Here you will see a gas explosion simulation, a gas dispersion simulation and finally a
combined gas dispersion/explosion simulation. The geometry is fictitious and was cre-
ated for demonstration purposes only.
5-1
5.1 Introduction
This chapter was originally intended to contain a complete working example from a typ-
ical CMR/GexCon study, showing you which commands to use and what the result was.
As the writing process went on, it changed to be a combination between a working ex-
ample and hints on “how to do” and "what to do". The chapter does not contain any de-
tailed description of the CASD, FLACS or FLOWVIS programmes, but descriptions on
how typical explosion or dispersion or combined dispersion/explosion studies are per-
formed are given. Further details of the various programmes can be found in the CASD
and FLOWVIS user’s guides and in chapters 1 and 2 of this volume. The module that
will be described is fictitious and was created for demonstration purposes only. All the
various files which are necessary to build this module, to run the simulations and to look
at the simulation results are distributed along with the FLACS-98 user’s guide. To get a
copy of the geometry into your database is easily done by using the macro facility in
CASD. Please note that by doing this your job files will get a different job number than
the files sent to you. On CMR’s computer the GexCon / Module-A is project number 53
and geometry number 1. The two or three examples are scenario numbers 51 and 52.
Figure 5.1 gives you an overview of the GexCon / Module-A looking in from south-
west. The full geometry is 50m long, 25m wide and 8m high (including the walkways
on the outside). The net size of the module is 40m x 20m x 8m. It is covered with explo-
sion relief panels at the west, east and south faces with 5m walkways outside the panels.
Due to very high explosion overpressure in the first simulation attempts, the explosion
relief panels had to be removed! In Figure 5.1 the roof has been blanked in order to vis-
ualize the interior of the module. Further details of the geometry and the chosen scenario
parameters will be given in the text. A summary describing it can be found in section 5.8.
5-2
NORTH
Figure 5.1. The GexCon / Module-A geometry
5-3
5.2 Geometry definition

Most of the time needed to generate the required input for a FLACS-simulation is usu-
ally spent on the definition of the geometry. There may be many reasons why this task
is so time consuming. One factor is the vast amount of details and equipment inside an
offshore module or in an industrial plant onshore. However, perhaps the most important
reason is that the drawings and documentation of changes and updates in many cases are
of poor quality, especially for old installations.
Before you start

The definition of the geometry in CASD requires that you have access to full 3D data
about all the important obstacles inside the simulation volume. Normally one will in-
clude all larger obstacles and also a majority of the smaller obstacles down to a certain
size limit.
GEOMETRY DRAWINGS
To be able to input a typical offshore module geometry into the CASD database, the fol-
lowing information have to be available:
• plot plan of the module

• sectional drawings
• piping plan/section
• HVAC layout/section
• cable trays layout/section
• framing plans
• cladding
• deck plan
If this is a module in the design phase some of this drawings might be missing. If it is a
rather old module most of the information is there, but very often the quality of the draw-
ings is very poor.
FILE STRUCTURE
If you do not work in a well structured manner, running FLACS-simulations may be a
perfect way to fill up your disk space very quickly, and also to make a complete mess of
your file structure. Each simulation results in 10-15 different files and it is therefore im-
portant that one try to keep the directories structured. As described in the CASD user’s
5-4
guide, the database is organized into a project level and a geometry level, and the same
structure should be kept on the disk.
In CASD you may for example have a project called PLATFORM-MARE, with several
geometries like MODULE-1, MODULE-2 and MODULE-3. The file structure should be
the same. At top level create a directory called PLATFORM-MARE and below there sev-
eral sub-directories called MODULE-1, MODULE-2 and MODULE-3. The files that are
connected with each of the three geometries should then be stored in these subdirecto-
ries.
ORIENTATING THE GEOMETRY

It is recommended that you choose one of the axes to be standard west-east, one standard
south-north and one standard upwards and that you always stick to that standard. At
CMR/GexCon we have chosen:
west-east along the +x-axis,

south-north along the +y-axis
upwards along the +z-axis
I.e the origin (0,0,0) is always in the lower south-west corner of the module. Your com-
pany may choose a different standard, but it is recommended that you choose a stand-
ard and that everybody is using it.
MATERIALS
As described in the CASD user’s guide, each object made is defined with a MATERIAL.
The selected MATERIAL can correspond to a colour, like blue, or a material like steel,
where steel is defined to be drawn in one specific colour defined by it’s hue (range 0-
360° in the colour circle). The three base colours have the following hues:
red 0
green 120
blue 240
At CMR/GexCon we use the colours to be able to distinguish between various types of

objects and a certain set of rules has been defined. It is strongly recommended to define
a standard for your company and make sure that everybody is using the same material
5-5
definition. This will ease the transfer of geometries (and new personnel can easily
adapt). The following standard is used at CMR/GexCon:
solid walls and decks red 0

grated decks and louvred panels yellow 60
explosion relief panels orange 30
piping blue 240
structure purple 300
equipment blue-green & 180
greenish-blue 210
cable trays blue-purple 270
By defining a standard it will be easy to pick up a several years old geometry and easily
see how the various walls and decks have been simulated.
MODULE SIZE
In FLACS, some of the geometrical entities in the scenario will always be located in the
centre of the control volumes (e.g monitor points, ignition point). Other will be
adjusted to the grid lines (e.g. panels, gas clouds, walls, decks). In many cases it is rec-
ommended that the positions of the monitor points and panels are defined in the correct
position from the start to make sure that no unintentional movement take place. At
CMR/GexCon we therefore adjust the geometry to the closest meter and thereby ease
the positioning of the grid lines and control volumes, i.e. instead of 24.85m we make
the module 25 m. The grid lines, if using 1 m3 control volumes will then be at an easily
calculated position, and the same will be the case for the centre of the control volumes.
This increase in the size will not make any significant change to the results.
What to input
As stated before the definition of the geometry in CASD requires that you have access
to full 3D data about all the important obstacles inside the simulation volume. Nor-
mally one will include all larger obstacles and also a majority of the smaller obstacles
down to a certain size limit. The key question is now what value to choose for the size
limit.
GENERAL RULE
In modules in the design phase, all/most of the available information should be input-
ted, in existing modules all large equipment and piping down to 6-8” size should be
5-6
inputted. Piping smaller than 6” should be inputted if there are more than 2-3 of them in
the same region/area.
EQUIPMENT
The layout of the various equipment should be modelled as close to the actual layout as
possible, but in many cases the available time and also input data make it necessary to
do some adjustments. On should try to get the correct size of the blockage of the equip-
ment and also whether it mainly consists of box-shaped or cylinder-shaped details. In
the GexCon / Module-A example there are three compressors and two separators mod-
elled. The separators are close to real life except for the ends. One thing of importance
is to try to get the fundament of the separators correct. Is it placed on a solid fundament
or does it have legs? The compressors is built up of boxes and cylinders. Normally a
compressor contains a large amount of small piping which will have to be disregarded.
The GexCon / Module-A example should be considered to contain an absolute mini-
mum level of details.
PIPING
Large piping should be placed in the exact position and elevation (not on mm level but
on 10 cm level of accuracy), smaller piping should be placed in a position as close to
the exact position as possible, but small changes in position can be disregarded.
20"
0.5 m
4"
Figure 5.2 Example: Simplification of piping
5-7
The diameter of large piping can be adjusted to the closest 5 cm, i.e d=0.75 m instead of
0.762 m which would be the exact size in m for a 30” pipe. Valves on larger pipes
should be modelled to a certain degree.
HINTS:
In a lot of equipment drawings each pipe has a specific no. within one module, often
starting in one end of the module and ending at the other end. In the
OBJECT_LIBRARY one should input the entire piping from start position to end posi-
tion in the module, and the object should have a name corresponding to the pipe
number on the drawing. In that way, combined with colour pencils to mark off already
modelled pipe-lines, it is easy to keep track of the large amount of piping that has to be
modelled in an area. The ADD_CYLINDER facility in CASD that by default suggests
the end position of the previous cylinder as starting position for a new cylinder is very
useful in this case. Only single pipelines with no connecting pipes should be modelled
as local objects.
Figure 5.3 Example: PIPE-16-1613A
STRUCTURE
The most commonly used beams are either box-beams or I-beams, going either hori-
zontally, vertically or diagonally. In CASD only the horizontal or vertical beams are
allowed. All structural elements are adjusted to be either horizontal or vertical, where in
5-8
most cases the important parameter is the blockage of any potential vent area. The size
of the vertical beam representing a diagonal beam is slightly increased to incorporate
the total blockage area of the diagonal beam.
A = width*length width = A/length
Figure 5.4 Example: Representation of a sloping beam
Box-beams are normally represented with their given width*depth*length. I-beams are
represented as three boxes with zero thickness, put together in an I-shape. The impor-
tant parameter is the area blockage that this beam contributes to, the volume blockage
is insignificant (but it may be quite time consuming to account for in the porosity calcu-
lations).
Figure 5.5 Example: Representation of I-beams
5-9
In the GexCon / Module-A example the main structure of the module has been mod-
elled, along with the structure of some grated mezzanine decks in the module. As a gen-
eral rule the structure below the module deck does not have to be modelled because
there is normally a solid deck there and the simulation volume is limited by the solid
deck. If there are large openings in the deck, the blockage of the deck-beams in the
open areas should be modelled. All major internal structure and structure in the module
roof and along the walls should be modelled. It is especially important that structure
placed in the vent area is represented as detailed as possibly because this can make a
significant contribution to the explosion overpressure.
WALLS AND DECKS

All walls and decks should normally be represented with zero thickness. The important
contribution from a wall or deck is the area blockage. Even walls made of concrete
should be modelled as having zero thickness.
Grated decks on the boundaries of the simulation volume and inside the simulation vol-
ume are also to be modelled with zero thickness, but with a certain porosity in the
direction with zero thickness. Normally all grated decks are defined to be 50% open or
more, but that can differ dependent on the type of grating used in the actual area. In the
GexCon / Module-A there are small grated decks inside the module and grated roof on
three sides outside the module, all of them with porosity in the z-direction = 0.5.
There are several different ways to model walls. Solid, unyielding walls are normally
defined in the database. This is also the case for louvred panels that are assumed to
remain in place during the explosion. Louvred panels are in most cases defined to have
50% porosity in the direction where zero thickness is defined. In the GexCon / Module-
A the deck, the roof and the north wall are solid and unyielding.
Explosion relief panels are normally defined in the SCENARIO_DEFINITION only

and are not stored in the database. This makes it necessary to define the various panels
only once, but it increases the need of a well documented project where both the data-
base and the details of the scenario files are stored.
Details of the various parameters to be inputted for the explosion relief panels are found
in the Guidance chapter.
It is strongly recommended that some effort is put in obtaining the correct opening
pressure of the panels. Simulations at CMR/GexCon have shown that a relatively small
change in the opening pressure can result in significant changes in the simulation result.
5-10
In the GexCon / Module-A example, explosion relief panels were originally placed at
the west, east and south faces of the module. These panels resulted in very high explo-
sion overpressure and were therefore removed. They were set to open up at 75 mbar
overpressure, with a final porosity of 0.8, they were of type UNSPECIFIED and had
zero weight. In the latest version of CASD/FLACS there are additional panel types
which can be used if desired. The UNSPECIFIED panels matches the explosion relief
panels in previous versions of FLACS.
HINTS:
All panels will be adjusted to the nearest grid line. When defining the panels, put them
in the correct position from the start. Walls and decks defined in the database will also
be moved and resized. To make sure that you get the correct area porosity place the
walls and deck so that they match the grid lines.
5-11
5.3 Grid and porosity

Simulations at CMR/GexCon are performed with 1 m3 control volumes inside the mod-
ule volume. The simulation volume is also extended outside the module volume, very
often with a stretched grid.
For the simulations in the Module-A geometry the simulation volume is only covering
the module volume and the walkways outside. This is no longer typical for projects per-
formed at CMR, but makes the demonstration of other things more easy.
Detailed studies on grid dependency have been performed as part of the GSP93-96 and
it is referred to a published report about the main findings [7].
Grid definition
In almost every project/simulation, CMR/GexCon uses a uniform grid, with 1 m3 con-
trol volumes. In most cases this will give a sufficient number of control volumes in
each direction. Studies in the GSP93-96 have shown that the number of control vol-
umes in one direction should not be less than 5, preferably 8-10. If this is not the case,
the size of the control volumes should be decreased in all three directions in order to
increase the number of control volumes in one direction and at the same time keep the
shape of the control volumes as close to cubical a possible.
HINTS:
Before you start modelling the geometry, make up your mind about the grid and grid
lines positions and keep it in mind while modelling. The geometry details such as walls
and decks should be adjusted to the closest grid line when inputted. Thereby the user
keeps track of the positioning instead of having the geometry moved in the “wrong”
direction by the porosity calculation programme.
Porosity calculation
When the geometry has been defined and a grid is defined and saved (resulting in a cg-
file) the porosity calculations can be started, either with CASD with the
CALCULATE_POROSITIES menu or outside CASD with the PORCALC programme.
Before the porosity calculation programme can be started outside CASD, the co-file
and the cg-file must exist. To save time it is sometimes useful to run the porosity calcu-
lations on a faster computer than where the geometry is modelled. At CMR/GexCon
the geometry and grid are defined on a Sun machine but the porosities are calculated on
5-12
a faster HP machine. If you do this, remember to set the DISPLAY environment varia-
ble correctly on your new machine. When the porosity calculation programme is fin-
ished a new cp-file has been written to your directory.
Verify porosities
When defining very detailed geometry it very easily gets hard to verify that the geome-
try has been properly inputted. The VERIFY_POROSITIES facility is a very useful
tool in that respect and is recommended to use frequently. The easiest way to do it is to
select the lowest Z-plane and step upwards to verify the various walls and equipment.
Afterwards it is recommended to select two or three X-planes and Y-planes to verify
the various decks and height of equipment. Use the VALUE facility to verify that the
correct porosity has been defined for grated decks and louvred panels.
5-13
5.4 Explosion simulations - scenario definition

In the following, the most common input parameters to an explosion simulation will be
described. Detailed information of all the various parameters can be found in the Refer-
ence and Guidance chapters.
Important parameters
In the SCENARIO_DEFINITION facility in CASD2.0 the following menu is found:
EXIT
VIEW
COPY
BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS
INITIAL_CONDITIONS
LEAKS
IGNITION
MONITOR_POINTS
SCALAR_TIME_OUTPUT_SPECIFICATION
FIELD_OUTPUT_SPECIFICATION
VISIBILITY_SWITCHES
OPTIONAL_FEATURES
In CASD4 the menu differs slightly, but the use of the parameters described here is still
valid.
Only the menu choices written in bold type in the listing above are described here. All
the other parameters such as BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS and
SIMULATION_AND_OUTPUT_CONTROL are important parameters as well, with
respect to the simulation results. But, in a typical gas explosion simulations the default
values defined by the system would normally be suitable.
In the PRESSURE_RELIEF_PANELS menu there are two different categories of pan-
els that can be defined. Active panels which will respond actively on the explosion
5-14
pressure and passive panels which only monitor the state of certain variables close to
the panel surface:
ACTIVE PANELS
PASSIVE PANELS
The various types of active panels are described in the Guidance section, and will not
be discussed further here. The GexCon / Module-A used to have explosion relief panels
on the west, east and south faces, but due to high explosion overpressure they had to be
removed. Please note that it is very important to get an as accurate description of the
panel as possible, because the behaviour of the opening panel can play a significant role
in the explosion development. Also, to verify the behaviour of the explosion relief pan-
els, the PP (panel average pressure) and the PPOR (panel average porosity) should
always be defined as scalar-time output for all the panels that have been defined. By
checking the PP vs. PPOR for each panel one can see if the panels were properly
defined. At last, keep in mind that (active) explosion relief panels of type HINGED and
POP-OUT should not cover large structural elements (i.e. be placed on top of each
other in the same grid line). When the panels open up, the blockage of the structural
element will be included in the opening as well. Explosion relief panels defined as
HINGED or POP-OUT should therefore be placed in between large structural elements
as shown in the example.
5-15
Panel no. 1 Panel no. 2
Figure 5.6 Example: Combination of panels and large beams
The passive panel is very useful when measuring average wall pressure on module
walls and decks, and the facility is used in all CMR/GexCon projects. In the GexCon /
Module-A run number 51 there is one panel at the deck, one at the solid north wall and
one at the roof. This resulted in very large panels and an alternative way to do this is to
divide the walls and decks in several measuring panels. The dividing of the panels
could either be based on structural information about the wall, i.e. what is the size of
each wall element or a more common approach is to make the panel square shaped, as
shown in the example below.
5-16
panel no. 1 panel no. 2 panel no. 3 8m
24 m
Figure 5.7 Example: Several panels on a large wall
The passive panels do not influence the explosion process at all, and can therefore be
placed wherever wanted. After defining the panel, use the
SCALAR_TIME_OUTPUT_SPECIFICATION to select PP (panel pressure) as an out-
put variable.
HINTS:
Both the active and the passive panels will be adjusted to the closest grid line. There-
fore it is wise to do that from the start and thereby keep track of the exact positioning of
the panels.
The rtjobno.dat3 will always contain a listing of the panels defined, including informa-
tion about the grid line indices matching the panel edges. The listing is written out prior
to ignition and should be checked immediately after starting the simulations to verify
the positioning, size and other parameters for the panels.
As a default, the gas composition is defined to be a stoichiometric mixture of methane
in air with the gas cloud filling the entire simulation volume. The gas volume is always
assumed to be exactly filling the control volumes, and the positioning and size of the
gas volume will therefore be shifted to the closest grid line. Keep this in mind when
defining the gas volume. Also, the gas volume will always be a rectangular box. In
some cases this may lead to gas filling areas outside the reach of the flame. These areas
5-17
should be blocked out by solid boxed as shown in the example below.
To avoid getting fuel in this area, insert a solid box
Figure 5.8 Example: Avoiding fuel in a region where the flame cannot reach
This change will not have any influence on the explosion, but will remove the possibil-
ity of having FLACS calculate for a very long period. FLACS will not stop until case
1: 90% of all fuel has been consumed (i.e. burnt or expelled), or case 2: more than 50%
has been consumed and the mean pressure is close to zero. In the GexCon / Module-A
example, the gas volume is filling the entire module but not the entire simulation vol-
ume. This is due to the fact that there used to be explosion relief panels placed on the
west, east and south faces. The panels were later removed, but the gas volume was kept
unchanged in order to only change one parameter at the time.
IGNITION
Normally we use point ignition in the CMR/GexCon projects, i.e. dimension of ignition
is 0.0.0., which is the initial value, and only the ignition position has to be defined. The
ignition point is always adjusted to the centre of the control volume, and we therefore
recommend that the exact position of the ignition point is done by the user. To verify that
the ignition point is not placed in blocked off control volumes, use the
VERIFY_POROSITIES program and check out the porosity values for the control vol-
5-18
ume where you are placing the ignition point. In GexCon / Module-A, the ignition point
is placed on the assumed worst case ignition point, i.e. centrally on the back wall.
MONITOR_POINTS
As for the ignition point, the monitor points are moved to the centre of the control vol-
ume. Use the VERIFY_POROSITIES program to check out the blockage of the control
volume where you are placing your monitor point, and put it in the centre of the control
volume from the start.
In typical CMR/GexCon projects we normally have 3-5 monitor points evenly distribut-
ed on each of the walls and decks, where P (pressure) and PIMP (pressure impulse) are
measured. If there are vital equipment and/or piping placed in or close to vent openings,
monitor points are normally placed in that area as well, where DRAG (drag forces) are
measured.
Our experience is that the number of monitor points and output variables very easily get
far too high, and that no-one ever will be able to digest the enormous amount of infor-
mation we can give them from a FLACS simulation.
The GexCon / Module-A example, run number 51, shows the most common results
from FLACS simulations:
P local pressure
PIMP pressure impulse
PP average panel pressure
DRAG drag = dynamic pressure
PPOR panel average porosity, if active panels are in use
5-19
In the example from GexCon / Module-A run number 51, the field output is:
P pressure
PROD combustion products
FUEL fuel concentration
VVEC velocity vector
U velocity component in x-direction
V velocity component in y-direction
W velocity component in z-direction
If the default number of field plots to be produced is specified (NPLOT=5), a total

number of 7 field plots will be written in the explosion simulation. The field plots are
written to file at:
first simulation start (usually this is also the ignition time)

1 fuel level = 90%
2 fuel level = 70%
3 fuel level = 50%
4 fuel level = 30%
5 fuel level = 10%
last simulation finish
Quality assurance
To make sure that the scenario parameters have been properly defined, the csjobno.dat3
should be printed out and yellow-line checked. Also, when the simulation is started the
rtjobno.dat3 should be checked. When the simulation is finished the rtjobno.dat3
should be printed out and both printouts should be kept as documentation.
HINTS:
To get a header on the printout; make an alias in your .cshrc file as follows:
alias print2 ’ expand -3 "\!*" | enscript -2r -G -b"\!*" ’
Later on when the command print2 file_name is given, the files will be printed
out with two columns on each page and with the file name and date and time of printing
as header.
5-20
If you have used explosion relief panels, check in the rt-file that the panels actually
opened up at the correct pressure level. In some cases the Pmax in the rt-file is higher
than the opening pressure of the panel. This could mean that the panel is incorrectly
defined, but in most cases it is only due to the fact that Pmax is Pmax somewhere in the
module, and that it could be located far away from the panel. If there is a mismatch
between the opening pressure and Pmax use the Flowvis program and print PP and
PPOR for the panel at the same page. By comparing the time of the opening with the
panel pressure at that time, the opening pressure of that particular panel can be verified.
5-21
5.5 Dispersion simulations - scenario definition

Since the beginning of 1994, CMR/GexCon has used the dispersion facility in FLACS
in several projects. In the example files for GexCon / Module-A, run number 52 which
may be found under the DISPERSION/ directory is a dispersion simulation that later
on was followed by an explosion simulation (see under the COMBINED/ directory).
There are several ways to combine dispersion and explosion simulations. Section 4.6
will give a brief description of that. In the following, the most important scenario
parameters for a dispersion simulation will be given. Details of the various input
parameters can be found in the Guidance chapter. The dispersion simulation in GexCon
/ Module-A is stored under the DISPERSION/ directory.
Important parameters
In the SCENARIO_DEFINITION facility in CASD2.0 the following menu is found:
EXIT
VIEW
COPY
BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS
INITIAL_CONDITIONS
LEAKS
IGNITION
MONITOR_POINTS
VISIBILITY_SWITCHES
OPTIONAL_FEATURES
In CASD4 the menu differs slightly, but the use of the parameters described here is still
valid.
The menu choices written in bold type deals with important parameters that normally
have to be changed in dispersion simulations and in the following only parameters nor-
mally changed will be discussed.
5-22
MODD - instead of writing out the scalar-time information every time step which is most
common in explosion simulations, it is wise to reduce this to every MODD time step to
limit the size of the rt-file. MODD=10 is a typical value used.
NPLOT - should be set to 0 in dispersion simulations.
DTPLOT - defines that field plots should be written to file every DTPLOT s. In typical
projects CMR/GexCon uses DTPLOT=10. This gives you a field plot every 10 s. In the
beginning of the simulations it could be wise to use the cc-file to produce field plots a
bit more often, and thereby check that the simulation has been started properly. The cc-
file facility will be described later.
CFLC and CFLV are sometimes changed. To speed up the simulation, the GexCon /
Module-A run number 52 was run with CFLC=10 and CFLV=1.
TMAX - to be used if the length of the simulation is known. It is recommended to use

TSTOP in the cc-file instead.
BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS
The WIND boundary condition is used to define the wind conditions at the boundaries.
In the GexCon / Module-A a 2 m/s wind from south-west was defined, i.e. applying
WIND on the XLO and YLO boundaries.
Position and dimension of fuel region should be set to zero (no fuel present initially). If
it is pure gas that leaks, remember to define the equivalence ratio for the fuel rich
region (ER0) to a large number, i.e. 1e30. If not, it will be a stoichiometric mixture that
is leaking (ER0=1 is default).
LEAKS
To define the leak is not a simple task, even though great improvements have been
made compared to the FLACS89 version.
In the GexCon / Module-A a large leak from a small hole pointing to the north is used.
This gave very high velocities.
5-23
In order to keep the velocities to a level which can be handled by FLACS, the area of
the hole was increased.
IGNITION
Time of ignition should be defined to be 99999 to avoid any unintentional ignition to
occur.
MONITOR_POINTS
It is referred to section 4.4.1 for details about the monitor points. The positioning of the
monitor points should be equal to the positioning of gas detectors if possible.
On the rt-file information about the flammability limits for your gas composition can be
obtained, such as the Equivalence Ratio (ER) at LFL, TOP and UFL concentrations. For
monitor output the following variables are of interest:
FUEL fuel concentration, mass fraction

ERLFL fuel concentration, %LEL based on equivalence ratio
Typical variables to be printed out during a dispersion simulation are shown below:
FUEL fuel concentration, mass fraction

VVEC velocity vector
U velocity component in x-direction
V velocity component in y-direction
W velocity component in z-direction
ERLFL fuel concentration, %LEL based on equivalence ratio
Control file
As can be seen in the DISPERSION/ example and the COMBINED/ example cc-files
have been used to obtain additional simulation results, to dump the simulation at a cer-
tain time and also to stop and restart the simulation at a certain time.
In the dispersion simulation the TOUTF was used to get field plots the first 2, 4, 6, 8
seconds of the simulation. The rest of the field plots were produced every 10 second
according to the DTPLOT in the scenario file.
5-24
As will be described in the next section there are several ways to run a combined dis-
persion/explosion simulation. In the GexCon / Module-A example we have used the
DUMP facility to dump the dispersion simulation at selected times and thereby be able
to restart and continue the simulation, now as an explosion simulation.
The NDUMP and TDUMP are used to dump the simulation. In the example this has been
done twice, after 40 seconds of dispersion (dump number 1) and then after 65 seconds
(dump number 2), when the dispersion simulations were stopped using the TSTOP
command.
Quality assurance
As described in section 4.4.2 the cs-file should be printed out (e.g. by using the
print2 alias), and checked and stored as documentation.
5-25
5.6 Dispersion and explosion simulations

There are at least three different ways to perform a combined dispersion/explosion sim-
ulation:
a) Run a dispersion simulation where ignition time and position are set before you start
the simulation. If the fuel concentration at the ignition time and position is outside
the flammable region there will be no explosion. With this approach it is not possible
to use the WIND condition because it enforces a fixed velocity, which is not applica-
ble in the explosion.
b) Run a dispersion simulation, look at the results and decide where and when to have
the ignition, rerun the dispersion simulation with ignition time and position set. Since
you have selected a proper ignition time and position there will be an explosion, but
you have spent a lot of extra time to rerun the complete dispersion simulation. With
this approach it is not possible to use the WIND condition because it enforces a fixed
velocity, which is not applicable in the explosion.
c) Run a dispersion simulation, create simulation dump files at selected time instants,
look at the results and restart the simulation from the dump file with time closest to
the desired time of ignition. This gives you the flexibility to select several ignition
positions without having to rerun the dispersion simulations. You can monitor the
progress of the dispersion and decide to create dump files also after the simulation
has been started (use the cc-file). With this approach it is possible to use the WIND
condition during the dispersion simulation and to switch it off (change to EULER)
for the explosion simulation.
In the GexCon / Module-A example, the DISPERSION/cc530152.dat3 file
shows that the simulations were dumped twice, at time = 40 seconds and at time = 65
seconds, where the simulation also was stopped. This resulted in two dump files
(rd530152.n001 and rd530152.n002). The first dump file was deleted. The sec-
ond one was copied over to the COMBINED/ directory along with the cs-, cp-, cg-, co-,
cl- and fo-files. The cc530152.dat3 was then changed and it now shows that the
job was restarted with NLOAD 2 (dump file no. 2). The scenario-file was changed, and
is now more or less equal to the scenario file for the explosion simulation, except that
the leak is there and that ignition time now is 65.1 seconds. By doing it this way,
instead of running the dispersion simulation once more, a lot of time is saved. If the
exact time and position of ignition are known apriori it could be done as in case a, but
normally that type and detail of information cannot be obtained easily.
5-26
EXAMPLES:
If you put DTPLOT=10 you get a good picture of the dispersion, but nothing of the
explosion. If you make DTPLOT smaller, the output from the explosion will be suffi-
cient, but the output from the dispersion could easily get huge. It is advised to use a cc-
file to trigger the output instead.
By doing it as described in case c, remember to store the dispersion data on a separate

directory or by changing the file names (e.g. change the job number) to prevent the
explosion simulation from deleting the dispersion results when you are using the same
job number.
If the disk space is limited, it is only the cs-file, the r1-file and the r3-file that have to be
stored away. Later on, if you want to look at the results once more, use the cp-, cg- and
co-file from your COMBINED/ directory.
HINTS:
When editing the copy of the scenario file used in the dispersion simulation, remember
to change and verify the following:
insert the monitoring panels
insert the correct scalar-time variables
insert the correct field plot variables
change CFLC and CFLV (if they are different from 5.0 and 0.5)
change MODD back to 1
change NPLOT back to 5
change DTPLOT back to 99999
insert ignition position and time, allow a few milliseconds from the simulation is
restarted before the ignition takes place. In the example the simulation starts at 65 sec-
onds, ignition takes place at 65.1 seconds.
5-27
5.7 Results
The simulation results that are presented in the example are representative for the type
of information that normally is produced in CMR/GexCon projects, except the number
of panels and monitor points is less than what is normally used.
For the explosion simulation it is the local pressure on the deck, the wall and the roof,
the average panel pressure on the same locations and field plots of FUEL, PROD, P and
VVEC.
Plots of the simulation results are attached in section 4.8. The FLOWVIS presentation
files are sent on the tape, placed in its respective directories.
For the dispersion simulations it is called fuel.pres, for the explosion case and the
combined case it is called trykk.pres.
5-28
5.8 Simulations in the GexCon / Module-A geometry

This section contains plots of simulated data for the GEXCON / Module-A geometry.
Several simulations have been performed:
•EXPLOSION simulation
•DISPERSION simulation
•COMBINED simulation (i.e. dispersion followed by explosion)
Description of the geometry:
•module size: 40 m * 20 m * 8 m
•extra 5 m walkways on the west, east and south faces
•total volume of: 50 m * 25 m * 8 m
•solid deck, roof and north wall
•open on the west, east and south sides
Explosion simulation 1 (job number 530151):
•gas volume 40 * 20 * 8 m3 covering the module interior

•stoichiometric mixture of 90% methane and 10% propane in air
•ignition centrally on north wall
•maximum local pressure in the order of 0.5 barg
Dispersion simulation (job number 530152):
•jet directed to the north, 9 kg/s

•wind from south-west, 2 m/s
•65 seconds of dispersion
•ignition after 65.1 seconds of dispersion

•ignition located in the same position as for explosion simulation 1
•the simulation is a continuation of the dispersion simulation
•maximum local pressure in the order of 0.1 barg
5-29
The results from the simulations are shown on the next pages. Together with the man-
ual you have received a tape containing the file sets for the simulations. The files may
be used to look at the results in more detail and you may also copy the files in order to
modify the simulation setup for training purposes.
5-30
NORTH
Figure 5.9 Geometry layout and details.
5-31
5.9 Explosion simulation
• module size: 40 m * 20 m * 8 m
• extra 5 m walkways on the west, east and south faces
• total volume of: 50 m * 25 m * 8 m
• solid deck, roof and north wall
• open on the west, east and south sides
• gas volume 40 * 20 * 8 m3 covering the module interior

• stoichiometric mixture of 90% methane and 10% propane in
air
• ignition centrally on north wall
• maximum local pressure in the order of 0.5 barg
Figure 5.10 Explosion scenario.
5-32
1
X (m)
45
40
35
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
0 0 0
-5
Monitor points. Job=530151.
P (barg)
0.5
P1
0.4
P2
0.3
P3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
Time (s)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Job=530151.
Figure 5.11 Maximum local pressures at the north wall.
5-33
6
X (m)
45
5 40
35
4
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
0 0 0
-5
P (barg)
0.5
P4
0.4
P5
0.3 P6
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
Time (s)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Job=530151.
Figure 5.12 Maximum local pressures at the floor.
5-34
8
7
X (m)
45
40
35
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
0 0 0
-5
P (barg)
0.5
0.4 P7
P8
0.3
P9
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
Time (s)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Job=530151.
Figure 5.13 Panel pressures at the north wall, ceiling and floor.
5-35
X (m)
45
40
35
3
2 30
Y (m)
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
1 10
5
0 0 0
-5
Pressure relief panels. Job=530151.
PP (Pa)
50000
40000
P1
30000
P2
20000 P3
10000
-10000
-20000
-30000
-40000
Time (s)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Job=530151.
Figure 5.14 Maximum local pressures at the ceiling.
5-36
Above
0.25
Y (m)
20
0.20
0.15
10
0.10
0.05
0
0.00
X (m)
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Below
Job=530151. Var.=PROD (-).

Time=1.47521 (s). IJ plane, K=4
Above
0.45
Y (m)
20 0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
10
0.20
0.15
0.10
0
0.05
0.00
X (m)
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Below
Job=530151. Var.=P (barg).

Figure 5.15 Combustion products and pressure field at a horizontal cut plane.
5-37
5.10 Dispersion simulation
Dispersion simulation (job number 530152):
• jet directed to the north, 9 kg/s

• wind from south-west, 2 m/s
• 65 seconds of dispersion
Figure 5.16 Dispersion scenario.
5-38
Above
300
250
200
150
100
Below
Job=530152. Var.=ERLFL (-).

Job=530152. Var.=ERLFL (-).

Time=65.0019 (s). I=1-50, J=1-25, K=1-8.
Figure 5.17 Combustible gas cloud (%LEL > 100) at time 65 seconds.
5-39
1
X (m)
45
40
35
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
0 0 0
-5
ERLFL (-)
160
P1
140
P2
120
P3
100
80
60
40
20
Time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Job=530152.
Figure 5.18 Monitoring of gas concentrations (%LEL) at the north wall.
5-40
6
X (m)
45
5 40
35
4
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
0 0 0
-5
ERLFL (-)
140
P4
120
P5
P6
100
80
60
40
20
Time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Job=530152.
Figure 5.19 Monitoring of gas concentrations (%LEL) at the floor.
5-41
8
7
X (m)
45
40
35
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
0 0 0
-5
ERLFL (-)
160
P7
140
P8
120
P9
100
80
60
40
20
Time (s)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Job=530152.
Figure 5.20 Monitoring of gas concentrations (%LEL) at the ceiling.
5-42
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Job=530152. Var.=VVEC (m/s).

Above
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
Below
Job=530152. Var.=FUEL (-).

Figure 5.21 Velocity and fuel fields at time 65 seconds.
5-43
5.11 COMBINED simulation
• ignition after 65.1 seconds of dispersion

• ignition located in the same position as for explosion simu-
lation 1
• the simulation is a continuation of the dispersion simula-
tion
• maximum local pressure in the order of 0.1 barg
Figure 5.22 COMBINED scenario.
5-44
1
X (m)
45
40
35
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
-0 0 0
-5
P (barg)
0.10
P1
P2
P3
0.05
0.00
-0.05
Time (s)
65.2 65.3 65.4 65.5 65.6 65.7 65.8 65.9 66.0 66.1 66.2
Job=530152.
Figure 5.23 Maximum local pressures at the north wall.
5-45
6
X (m)
45
5 40
35
4
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
-0 0 0
-5
P (barg)
0.10
P4
0.08
P5
0.06
P6
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
Time (s)
65.2 65.3 65.4 65.5 65.6 65.7 65.8 65.9 66.0 66.1 66.2
Job=530152.
Figure 5.24 Maximum local pressures at the floor.
5-46
8
7
X (m)
45
40
35
Y (m) 30
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
10
5
-0 0 0
-5
P (barg)
0.12
0.10
P7
0.08
P8
0.06 P9
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
Time (s)
65.2 65.3 65.4 65.5 65.6 65.7 65.8 65.9 66.0 66.1 66.2
Job=530152.
Figure 5.25 Maximum local pressures at the ceiling.
5-47
X (m)
45
40
35
3
2 30
Y (m)
20 Z (m) 25
20
5 15
10
1 10
5
-0 0 0
-5
Pressure relief panels. Job=530152.
PP (Pa)
10000
P1
P2
5000 P3
-5000
Time (s)
65.2 65.3 65.4 65.5 65.6 65.7 65.8 65.9 66.0 66.1 66.2
Job=530152.
Figure 5.26 Panel pressures at the north wall, ceiling and floor.
5-48
Above
0.25
Y (m)
20
0.20
0.15
10
0.10
0.05
-0
0.00
X (m)
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Below
Job=530152. Var.=PROD (-).

Above
0.10
Y (m)
20
0.08
0.06
10
0.04
0.02
-0
-0.00
X (m)
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Below
Job=530152. Var.=P (barg).

Figure 5.27 Combustion products and pressure field at a horizontal cut plane.
5-49
5-50
FLACS V8 User’s Guide Cloud interface module
Chapter 6 Cloud interface module
6.1 Introduction
The CLOUD INTERFACE module has been installed in the FLACS98 simulator:
~flacs/FLACS98/bin/*/flacs2.2
The ignition model has been updated in order to handle non homogeneous clouds better.
This may cause differences in results compared to the original ignition model. For ho-
mogeneous gas clouds given as a cloud box in the scenario file the modified ignition
model is nearly identical to the original one. For clouds generated by leaks or imported
by the cloud interface module the modified ignition model is more correct.
Additional executables and scripts are necessary to run the module when scattered data
points are given (e.g. FLUENT-UNS profile file):
~flacs/FLACS98/bin/*/hull1.0
~flacs/FLACS98/bin/run_hull
The "hull" software is used to establish nearest neighbour connectivity of the scattered
data points.
Author:
Ken Clarkson,
clarkson@research.bell-labs.com,
http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/clarkson.
The cloud interface module will automatically be invoked when FLACS finds a file
named cs??????.CLOUD in the working directory, ?????? is the 6 digit simulation job
number used by FLACS. A description of the format of the cs??????.CLOUD file is
found in "Section 6.2".
6-1
6.2 File formats

The cloud interface module will currently recognise ASCII data files of a certain format,
in particular the FLUENT-UNS profile file format. The basis for the file reader is KEY-
WORDS, PARAMETERS and DATA, the keywords are all capitals and start in column
1, the parameters (if any) follow on the same line as the keyword, the data follows on
the next lines. A list of valid keywords is given below:
General
VERSION v: file format version identification
INPUT file_name: input data from another file
! ...: comment line, first character on line = "!","#"," "
Data objects
POINT: the next lines contain points :N*(x,y,z,f)
TETRAHEDRON: the next lines contain points :4*(x,y,z,f)
HEXAHEDRON: the next lines contain points :8*(x,y,z,f)
ARRAY: the next lines contain points :NI*NJ*NK*(x,y,z,f)
FLUENT-UNS: the next lines contain FLUENT-UNS profile data
(( : the start of FLUENT-UNS profile data
Geometrical transformations
INIT
TRANSLATE tx,ty,tz
SCALE tx,ty,tz,scale
ROTATE tx,ty,tz,ax,ay,az,revolution,angle
CLIP xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax,zmin,zmax
Filters
ER_FLAT a b
6-2
Accuracy control
CV_SIZE s
CV_RESOLUTION r
See "Chapter 3. KEYWORD and PARAMETER descriptions" for more details.
FLUENT-UNS profile file
The cloud interface module recognises the FLUENT-UNS profile file format, no extra
blank lines or spaces should be entered in the file. The sequence of data fields is assumed
to be x,y,z,f:
x = x-coordinate
y = y-coordinate
z = z-coordinate
f = fuel mass fraction
Below is an example of how a FLUENT-UNS profile file may look (between ---):
---
((name point #points)
(x
...
)
(y
...
)
(z
...
)
(f
...
)
)
---
6-3
Error handling
The cloud interface module has been constructed to be robust, but it is still a young com-
ponent of FLACS so it has not been exposed to wide use. Error messages will be given
in case errors are detected, and there is at least a minimum level of error detection. Future
experience will probably add to the list of errors that can be detected.
List of error messages:
*** ERROR: Unknown keyword "%"

*** ERROR: Illegal grid dimensions % % %
*** ERROR: Illegal grid type %
*** ERROR: Illegal grid x-coordinates
*** ERROR: Illegal grid y-coordinates
*** ERROR: Illegal grid z-coordinates
*** ERROR: Too many levels of recursion
*** ERROR: Empty input
*** ERROR: Illegal input "%"
*** ERROR: Blank file name
*** ERROR: File in use "%"
*** ERROR: Opening file "%"
*** ERROR: Reading file "%"
*** ERROR: Illegal job number %
6-4
6.3 KEYWORD and PARAMETER descriptions

VERSION 1.0
Version identification for future compatibility checking. Not used in the current version,
enter 1.0 to be consistent with future interpretation.
INPUT file_name
Input data from another file, enter the file name. Files may be nested down to 10 levels.
POINT
Enter point sets initiated by a line with a single colon ":".
Each point consist of 4 values (x,y,z,f).
Example of data follows below (between ---):
---
:
0001
1002
0103
0014
---
TETRAHEDRON
Enter tetrahedra sets initiated by a line with a single colon ":".
Each tetrahedron consists of 4 data points.
---
:
0001
1002
0103
6-5
0014
:
1111
2112
1213
1124
---
HEXAHEDRON
Enter hexahedra sets initiated by a line with a single colon ":".
Each hexahedron consists of 8 data points.
---
:
0001
1002
0103
1104
0015
1016
0117
1118
---
ARRAY
Enter array sets initiated by a line with a single colon ":".
Each array has given dimensions NI,NJ,NK.
Each array consists of NI*NJ*NK data points.
The array indices (I,J,K) loop in sequence I,J,K (Fortran sequence).
6-6
---
:
222
0001
1002
0103
1104
0015
1016
0117
1118
---
FLUENT-UNS or ((
Enter FLUENT-UNS profile file.
---
FLUENT-UNS (this line may be skipped)
((test point 4)
(x
0
1
0
0
)
(y
0
0
1
0
)
(z
6-7
0
0
0
1
)
(f
1
2
3
4
)
)
---
Geometrical transformation to align the FLUENT coordinate system with the one used
in FLACS are available. The transformation matrix is inherited if a new INPUT state-
ment is executed, at the end of the new file the original matrix is restored. Initially an
identity transfomation matrix is stored (no change of coordinate system).
INIT
Initialise the transformation matrix
TRANSLATE tx,ty,tz
Translate (tx,ty,tz).
SCALE tx,ty,tz,scale
Scale with base point (tx,ty,tz), enter scale.
ROTATE tx,ty,tz,ax,ay,az,revolution,angle
Rotate with base point (tx,ty,tz) around vector (ax,ay,ax), enter revolution (typically
360) and angle.
CLIP xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax,zmin,zmax
Specify clipping bounding box (xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax,zmin,zmax).
Not implemented in the current version, all data points are processed.
6-8
ER_FLAT a b
Filter the f-field, cutoff value (a) and insert value (b).
Always done:
if (ERf<ER9) ERf=ER9; else if (ERf>ER0) ERf=ER0
If ER_FLAT a b is given:
if (ERf<a) then ERf=ER9; else ERf=b, ER9<b<ER0
CV_SIZE s
Change the control volume reference size.

Default value is the mean control volume size (m), normally it is not
required to change this.
CPU effort is of order CV_SIZE**3.
For stretched grids, CV_SIZE may be set to the typical control volume size in the region
of main interrest.
CV_RESOLUTION r
Change the per control volume resolution.
Default value is 3, normally it is not required to change this.
CPU effort is of order CV_RESOLUTION**3.
Well shaped tetrahedra are handled well with default CV_RESOLUTION.
Very flat tetraherda may not be handled well, increase CV_RESOLUTION.
6-9
6.4 Examples
See the example files in examples/CLOUD in the FLACS98 catalog which shows how
the setup could be.
6-10
FLACS V8 User’s Guide Changes in FLACS99
Chapter 7 CHANGES IN FLACS99
7.1 New features in FLACS99r2

New leak option
Adds possibility to model forced flow through an opening, e.g. a fan. The option must
be entered manually in the cs-file or the cl-file. Specifying OPEN_FACES = +X=X for
a jet leak in the cs-file gives flow in the +X direction with suction on the -X side, the
corresponding leak control string in the cl-file is 'J+X=X'.
Better representation of time varying leak
The leak rate is now updated also during pressure correction loop, as well as in the main
time iteration loop. This gives a slightly better update of the leak rate. The effect on the
result is very small, and is only relevant for time varying leak rates.
Improved robustness of leaks
More thorough checking of validity of leak input parameters has been implemented.
Adjusted printout time
Previous versions of FLACS used the time at the end of each time step as time for the
print. This has now been changed so that the time at the middle of each time step is used
(time_print=max(0,time-dtold/2)). This is more consistent with the implicit solution
procedure in FLACS which assumes that the dependent variables have constant values
for the duration of each time step. This change has no effect on the simulation itself, but
may be noticed as a small time shift of the printed results.
Adjusted printout of FUEL change rate (kg/s):
The FUEL change rate (kg/s) printed on the tt-file has been adjusted. Previously the cur-
rent time step was used to calculate this rate, now the previous value of the time step is
used because that is consistent with how FLACS updates its variables. The expression
(rate=(FUELold-FUEL)/dt) has been changed to (rate=(FUELold-FUEL)/dtold). This
change has no effect on the simulation itself.
7-1
Corrected and additional printouts on rt.FUEL file (only for BETA3):
Some minor corrections in the header of the rt.FUEL file has been made. New columns
Q0-Q7 have been added in the rt.FUEL file. This change has no effect on the simulation
itself.
Option 'BURN=' implemented in all BETA combustion models (for testing):
This change adds functionality for testing purposes only, is must not be used for real case
studies.
POPOUT panels now use SUB_SIZES, not full size:
Previous version of FLACS used the full size of POPOUT panels, failing to use the en-
tered SUB_SIZES as was intended, this has now been corrected. This change will have
an effect on simulation results when POPOUT panels are active. Given that the
SUB_SIZES are smaller than the full sizes of a panel, the change will lead to faster open-
ing of the panel. As a result the explosion pressure will change (both increase and de-
crease is possible).
New panel option:
The possibility to prepend the panel type with a '-' (e.g. -POPOUT), which means that
the panel will not set initial porosities, has been added. In special cases this may be the
desired starting condition for a panel (e.g. when simulating a case where a wall with
many holes is represented as a pressure relief panel).
New 2nd order time scheme (BDF2) better suited for varying time step:
The 2nd order time scheme in FLACS is normally not used because it has shown to give
more unstable behaviour, giving cause to mass residual problems. The new scheme is an
attempt to improve this, but it is still experimental code, and it is not recommended that
it is used. This change has an effect on the simulation result. Ideally the new 2nd order
scheme will give better numerical accuracy of FLACS, but since FLACS has largely
been validated with 1st order time scheme (and 2nd order spatial schemes) it is not rec-
ommended to use the 2nd order time scheme.
7-2
Minor changes of printouts (cosmetics):
Some new information has been added to the tt-file. This change has no effect on the
simulation itself.
Correction of minor bug in KEY handling:
Correction of the KEY handling for reading variables when ':' is not given to delimit
"key=string:value" entry. This change corrects part of the code normally used only for
testing. KEYS are used to change internal setup of FLACS. This change has an effect
on the simulation setup.
Corrected error in coefficients for upper Z-boundary momentum:
An error in the setup for the momentum equation for Z-direction has been corrected. For-
tunately this change has shown to have little effect on the simulation result.
Corrected error in scenfile12.F for reading old scenario formats:
A minor bug in an old part of the code has been corrected. Since this old part in practise
is never used one can say that this change has no effect on the simulation result.
Corrected 'loop error' / 'subscript range error' in SIF:
A rather grave bug in the SIF part of FLACS has been corrected. This change will only
have an effect when using the SIF flame model. Since the BETA3 flame model is default
this is not important for normal operation of FLACS.
Wind profile (+Z=up):
The possibility to specify a logarithmic wind profile has been added. The input must be
entered in a setup file using a text editor. This change may have an effect on the simula-
tion result. Tests have shown that comparable logarithmic and flat wind profiles give re-
sults that do not differ very much.
7-3
Below is an example of a setup file containing a wind profile. The user must specify
wind boundary conditions in the scenario file, together with the wind profile informa-
tion.
VERSION 1.1
$WINDPROFILE
GROUND_ROUGHNESS=0.006
REFERENCE_HEIGHT=10.0
GROUND_HEIGHT=0.0
$END
The parameters specifying the logarithmic wind profile is as follows:
GROUND_ROUGHNESS: ground roughness (m), typically a small value (e.g. 1-10

mm), giving the height above the ground (m) where the velocity is zero (no slip)
REFERENCE_HEIGHT: height above the ground (m) where the velocity is set equal
to the wind speed set in the wind boundary condition (scenario file)
GROUND_HEIGHT: absolute height of the ground (m) giving the location of the
ground plane (not suitable for sloping terrain)
Increased value of lower limit for turbulence length scale:
Previous versions of FLACS have a too strict limitation on how large the turbulence
length scale could become. This has now been adjusted so that physically possible tur-
bulence length scales may appear without limitation. This change will have an effect on
the simulation result. Tests have shown that the representation of jets is improved with
this change. Explosion pressures are affected to a very small degree (results agree within
a few percent compared to FLACS98)
New 2nd order schemes to improve behaviour of impinging jet:
New 2nd order spatial schemes have been implemented in order to improve the repre-
sentation of impinging jets. This change will have an effect on the simulation result.
Tests have shown that the representation of impinging jets is improved with this change.
Explosion pressures are affected to a very small degree (results agree within a few per-
cent compared to FLACS98)
7-4
New types of monitors:
New types of monitor objects have been added in FLACS. The input must be entered in
a special file using a text editor. It is possible to specify point monitors, line monitors
and volume monitors in a cs.MON file. This change has no effect on the simulation it-
self.
Given a job number the user must create a text file cs<job_number>.MON containing
the definition of one or more monitor objects (the maximum number of monitor objects
is currently 100). See the example file below for a detailed description of the input.
Point monitors give output similar to the usual monitor points, but the output is in a text
file (rt<job_number>.MON.<name>).
Line monitors give a new type of output, in the form of a line integral of fuel mole frac-
tion, in a text file (rt<job_number>.MON.<name>).
Volume monitors give output similar to the usual gas monitor regions (rt.FUEL file), in
a text file (rt<job_number>.MON.<name>).
7-5
7-6
VERSION 1.0
!--------------------------------------------------------------------------
!
! Usage:
! cs.MON : automatically detected by flacs (cs<job_number>.MON)
! run : run flacs job_number [setup_file]
!
! Implemented features:
FLACS V8 User’s Guide
!
! VERSION : file format version, currently 1.0
! ! or # : comment line, blank lines are also allowed
! point() : point monitor object
! points() : multiple points monitor object
! line() : line monitor object
! volume() : volume monitor object
! , : parameters are separated by ','
! () : an object 'object()', no blanks before '('
! = : a keyword and value(s) 'key=value', no blanks before '='
!
! Units of measurement:
! length : m "meter"
! time : s "second"
! mass : g "gram" or kg "kilogram"
! force : N "Newton" = kg*m/s2
! density : kg/m3
! pressure : Pa "Pascal" = N/m2
! fuel : mass fraction, mole fraction, LFL fraction, ER
Changes in FLACS99
!
! Limitations:
! Maximum number of objects is 100
! Only FUEL is outputted (integral along line of FUEL*ds, or point value)
!
! Monitor object description:
!
! point() : point monitor object

! point(name="...",position=x,y,z,output="...")
!
! points() : multiple points monitor object (see details below)
! points(name="...",file="...",output="...")
! Special keys:
! *) name of file containing points:
! file="<name_of_input_file>"
!
! line() : line monitor object
! line(name="...",start=x,y,z,end=x,y,z,output="...")
! Special keys:
! *) step size or number of steps along line:
! step=<step_size>
! steps=<number_of_steps> (default 100)
!
! volume() : volume monitor object
! volume(name="...",start=x,y,z,end=x,y,z,output="...")
! Special keys:
! *) output at every given number of time steps:
! every=<output_modulus>
Changes in FLACS99
7-7
!
7-8
! General keys:
! name= name of object (name="..."),
! result is written to rt<job_number>.MON.<name>
! position= point position (position=x,y,z)
! start= start position (start=x,y,z)
! end= end position (end=x,y,z)
! output= output specification (output="..."):
! output="FUEL(details)"
! details is a comma-separated list containing one or more of:

! *) LFL[=value] output is LFL fraction [value is ER]
! *) ERLFL[=value] output is LFL fraction [value is ER]
! *) MoleLFL[=value] output is LFL fraction [value is mole fraction]
! *) MassLFL[=value] output is LFL fraction [value is mass fraction]
! *) ER output is ER
! *) MoleFraction output is mole fraction
! *) MassFraction output is mass fraction
! *) Length output is fuel*length integral (e.g. MoleLFL*m)
! default fuel output is mole fraction
!
!--------------------------------------------------------------------------
! Examples:
! output fuel mole fraction at given position

! in file rt<job_number>.MON.P1
point(name="P1",position=10,5,1,output="FUEL(MoleFraction)")
! output equivalence ratio at positions found in file "pointdata"

! in file rt<job_number>.MON.P1
Changes in FLACS99
points(name="Ps",file="pointdata",output="FUEL(ER)")
! output fuel "mole fraction * length" along a given line

! in file rt<job_number>.MON.L1
line(name="L1",start=10,5,1,end=20,25,10,output="FUEL(MoleFraction,Length)")
! output fuel "LFL * length" along a given line

line(name="L2",start=10,5,1,end=20,25,10,output="FUEL(LFL,Length)")
! output fuel "LFL * length" along a given line, specifying LFL=0.5 (ER)
line(name="L3",start=10,5,1,end=20,25,10,output="FUEL(LFL=0.5,Length)")
! alternatively specify LFL as mole fraction
! line(name="L3",start=10,5,1,end=20,25,10,output="FUEL(MoleLFL=0.049768,Length)")
! output fuel data for a given volume (similar to rt<job_number>.FUEL file)

! in file rt<job_number>.MON.V1
volume(name="V1",start=0,0,0,end=20,25,10,output="FUEL()")
!--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Changes in FLACS99
7-9
Monitor point output is interpolated spatially:
Previous versions of FLACS will output the cell centre value for each monitor point.
FLACS99 will interpolate linearly in 3 dimensions for each monitor point, also taking
the porosities into account so that interpolation does not take into account values beyond
solid planes. This change has no effect on the simulation itself, but the printout of mon-
itor point data may be slightly different.
1000 monitor points and panels:
The maximum number of monitor points and panels have been increased from 100 to
1000 in FLACS (all utilities dealing with monitor point data have been upgraded). This
change has no effect on the simulation itself.
Corrected handling of initial conditions:
Previous version of FLACS have a bug related to setting initial conditions via the cs-file,
causing the turbulence limit parameters to be changed as well as the initial turbulence
fields.. In FLACS99 this bug has been removed. This change will have an effect on the
simulation result. However, the recommendation has been to leave initial turbulence to
default values, in which case there should not be any undesired effects of the bug.
New output variables:
The possibility to output mole fractions of FUEL and GAS_COMPONENTS have been
added in FLACS99. The cs-file must be edited using a text editor in order to use this new
possibility. Output of maximum pressure and maximum pressure impulse has also been
included. Below is a list of all the new output variables in FLACS99.
The user may enter a selection of new input variables into the scanario file by using a
text editor. Alternatively the flacs administrator may edit the scenario template in the
casd_files directory to make the new variables available by default.
7-10
% insert 14 new variables
NFMOLE "FMOLE" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Fuel mole fraction"

CH4 "METHANE" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Methane"
C2H2 "ACETYLENE" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Acetylene"
C2H4 "ETHYLENE" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Ethylene"
C2H6 "ETHANE" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Ethane"
C3H6 "PROPYLENE" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Propylene"
C3H8 "PROPANE" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Propane"
C4H10 "BUTANE" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Butane"
H2 "HYDROGEN" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Hydrogen"
CO "CO" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Carbon monoxide"
H2S "H2S" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Hydrogen disulfide"
CO2 "CO2" 1 "(mol/mol)" N "Carbon dioxide"
NPMAX "PMAX" 1 "(Pa)" N "Maximum pressure"

NPIMPM "PIMPM" 1 "(Pa*s)" N "Maximum pressure impulse"
% delete 14 old variables
EXIT SINGLE_FIELD_VARIABLES
Note that it is possible to choose the unit of measurement individually for all pressure
variables, the possible choices are:
(bar), (mbar), (Pa), (hPa), (kPa), (psi)
when the above units are given FLACS will output pressures relative to the ambient
pressure, but one may enter an additional letter 'a' or 'g' to indicate absolute (a) or gauge
(g) (i.e. relative) pressure:
(barg), (mbarg), (Pag), (hPag), (kPag), (psig)
(bara), (mbara), (Paa), (hPaa), (kPaa), (psia)
NB! changing the units of measurement must be done prior to starting the simulation.
7-11
Heat model:
An interface to the already existing heat model in FLACS has been added. It is possible
to input planes and boxes with given heat fluxes or temperatures. This interface was de-
signed for testing purposes and is not yet very user friendly. The user must enter data for
the heat objects in a cs.HEAT file.
Below is a description of the preliminary format for the cs.HEAT file:
VERSION 0.0
!--------------------------------------------------------
! Using free format (20 fields separated by commas):
! 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,
!
! Field numbers and their content:
! 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
!
type,xP,yP,zP,xL,yL,zL,q,qx1,qx2,qy1,qy2,qz1,qz2,Tx1,Tx2,Ty1,Ty2,Tz1,Tz2
!
! Empty fields are allowed:
! type,xP,yP,zP,xL,yL,zL, , , , , , , ,Tx1,Tx2,Ty1,Ty2,Tz1,Tz2,
! type,xP,yP,zP,xL,yL,zL,q,qx1,qx2,qy1,qy2,qz1,qz2, , , , , , ,
!
! Object types:
! type = type of heat object
! 001 : box
! 100 : heat on all solid surfaces
! 101 : heat on all solid surfaces inside box
!
! Units of measurements:
! [xyz] = Coordinates and sizes (m)
! q = Volume heat flux (J/m3/s)
! q[xyz] = Surface heat fluxes (J/m2/s)
! T[xyz] = Surface temperatures (degrees Celsius)
! [12] = Surface side (1=lower, 2=upper)
!
! Miscellaneous:
! first line gives file format version (currently 'VERSION 0.0')
! blank lines are *not* allowed in 'VERSION 0.0'
! '#' or '!' in first column gives comment lines
7-12
!
! Examples:
! Box with constant temperature:
! 1, 0.,0.,0., 1.,1.,1., ,,,,,,, 20.,20.,20.,20.,20.,20.,
!
! Box with constant surface heat fluxes:
! 1, 0.,0.,0., 1.,1.,1., ,10.,10.,10.,10.,10.,10., ,,,,,,
!
! Box with constant volume heat flux:
! 1, 0.,0.,0., 1.,1.,1., 1.0E3, ,,,,,, ,,,,,,
!
!--------------------------------------------------------
! ENTER YOUR HEAT OBJECTS HERE
!--------------------------------------------------------
Radiation model:
An interface to a new simple radiation model in FLACS has been added. It is possible
to specify rectangular regions where a radiation heat heat loss from the gas will be ap-
plied. This interface was designed for testing purposes and is not yet very user friendly.
The user must enter data for the radiation objects in a cs.RAD file.
Below is a description of the preliminary format for the cs.RAD file:
VERSION 0.0
#
# Using free format (11 fields separated by commas):
# 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,
#
# Field numbers and their content:
# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
# type,xP,yP,zP,xL,yL,zL,A,V,T_w,k_L_e,
#
# if A,V,T_w are 0, then A=BoxArea,V=BoxVolume,T_w=T_init
# if k_L_e is 0, then k_L_e=3.5 (BOX shape)
#---
#
# Methods of calculating volume:
# 1 = fluid volume
# 2 = H2O+CO2 volume
# 3 = CV
7-13
#
# Methods of calculating volume:
# 1 = fluid volume
# 2 = H2O+CO2 volume
# 3 = CV
#
# Methods of calculating radiation, based on
# pressure, temperature and volume fractions:
# 1 = using fluid volume averages
# 2 = using H2O+CO2 volume averages
# 3 = using CV
#
# Description of 'type':
#
# type(321): using 3 digits counting from right to left
#
# type(1): which model to be applied where
# 1 = Radiation (1) applied in volume (1)
# 4 = Radiation (2) applied in volume (2), T**4 distributed
# 5 = Radiation (1) applied in volume (2), T**4 distributed
#
# type(2): dataset for calculating emission and absorption coefficients
# 0 = Simple dataset
# 1 = More advanced dataset (Sandia)
#
# type(3): how to calculate gas temperature
# 0 = T_g = SUM(vf*T)/N
# 1 = T_g = (SUM(vf*T**4))/N)**0.25
#---
#
# Examples:
! 3, 0.0 0.0 0.0, 0.52 1.52 0.457, 0 0 0, 0,
! 3, 0.52 0.0 0.0, 0.60 1.52 0.457, 0 0 0, 0,
!---------------------------------------------------------
! ENTER YOUR RADIATION OBJECTS HERE
!---------------------------------------------------------
7-14
Extended user control of high pressure region:
Several possibilities to set an initial high pressure region has been added. In FLACS98
it was possible to set a rectangular or ellipsoidal region where the user could specify the
pressure. In FLACS99 it is possible to specify several cases by entering KEYS for set-
ting pressure or temperature:
Use P_SET=Y:value to set a fixed pressure value (bara)
Use T_SET=Y:value to set a fixed temperature (degrees Celsius)
If none of P_SET or T_SET are given, FLACS will use PFAC to scale pressure (consist-
ent with previous versions of FLACS), the table below shows the 4 possible combina-
tions of using P_SET and T_SET:
# P_SET T_SET Result
1 N N scaled P and RHO, unchanged T
2 Y N given P, unchanged RHO, updated T
3 Y Y given P and T, updated RHO
4 N Y given T, unchanged P, updated RHO
Below is an example setup file specifying a 10m x 10m x 5m rectangular region with
pressure = 21.0 bara and temperature = 200.0 C.
VERSION 1.1
$PARAMETERS
PFAC = 1.0
HPPOS = 0.0, 0.0, 0.0
HPSIZ = 10.0, 10.0, 5.0
HPEXP = 2.0, 2.0, 2.0
HPTYP = 0, 0, 0
$END
$SETUP
KEYS="P_SET=Y:21.0,T_SET=Y:200.0"
$END-
7-15
7-16
FLACS V8 User’s Guide LITERATURE
LITERATURE
Below is a list of suggested reading:
[1] B. J. Arntzen
Combustion Modelling in FLACS93
CMR-93-F25043 (confidential)
[2] B. J. Arntzen
Modelling of Steady and Transient Flows in FLACS96
CMR report to be issued in 1997 (confidential)
[3] Dag Bjerketvedt, Jan Roar Bakke, Kees van Wingerden

Gas explosion handbook
CMR-93-A25034
[4] J. M. Coulsen, J. F. Richardson

Chemical Engineering
(SI ed.) Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1977-
[5] Olav R. Hansen, Idar Storvik

FLACS93 version 1.0, validation report
[6] Olav R. Hansen, Oddveig Åsheim

Simulation of explosion experiments using FLACS93 version 2.0
[7] Olav R. Hansen

Grid dependency study using FLACS
1
[8] Olav R. Hansen, Rune Teigland

A multi-block extension of FLACS for BLAST calculations
[9] Olav R. Hansen, Rune Teigland

Validation of the BLAST option in FLACS
[10] Olav R. Hansen, Kees van Wingerden

Modelling of the effects of waterspray on gas explosions, Implementation
in FLACS93
[11] Tor Langeland

FLACS INTERFACES, installation guide
CMR-95-F40003
[12] Tor Langeland

FLACS INTERFACES, file interface description
CMR-93-F40004
[13] Frank P. Lees

Loss Prevention in the Process Industries
Vol. 1, Butterworths, 1980
[14] Hans-Christen Salvesen

Modelling of Jet Release of Liquefied Gas under High Pressure
CMR-95-F20062 (Confidential)

Subgrid Modelling of Flow Through Louvres and Grating, Drag and De-
flection Forces
2

FLACS Validation Simulations of Explosion Experiments in 1:5 Scale M24
Module using New Subgrid Model for Flow Through Louvres
[17] Hans-Christen Salvesen and Idar E. Storvik

Subgrid Modelling of Drag Forces for Flow Through Louvres and Grating
[18] I. Ø. Sand, J. R. Bakke

Wall-Function Boundary Conditions in the Solution of the Navier-Stokes
and the Energy Equations
CMI No. 25110-3 (Confidential)
[19] Olav R. Hansen

Improvement of the waterspray model in FLACS
3
4
FLACS V8 User’s Guide GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
ER
Equivalence Ratio. Measure of gas concentration.
ER = ( F/O ) ⁄ ( F/O ) STOICHIOMETRIC
F/O
Fuel / Oxidant ratio. F/O = (mass of FUEL) / (mass of O2)
FLACS
FLame ACcelaration Simulator
GRID
Discrete representation of a geometrical volume
HOME
Environment variable for your home directory
1
OUTPUT VARIABLES
Name Description
FUEL Fuel mass fraction:
This is the ratio of mass (kg) of pure fuel per unit mass (1 kg) of the total
mixture of fuel, air and combustion products for each control volume.
The fuel may be composed of several elements such as hydrocarbons and
hydrogen. See section Gases for more information on fuel properties.
Plots of FUEL are useful for displaying the fuel cloud.
P Pressure:
This is the static pressure (barg). For a fluid flow one can define a total
pressure being the sum of a static pressure and a dynamic pressure. The
static pressure is isotropic, whereas the dynamic pressure, which caused
by the relative motion of the fluid, is an-isotropic. A pressure transducer
placed in a flow field will in general measure the static pressure plus a
portion of the dynamic pressure, depending on the orientation of the face
of the pressure transducer relative to the flow direction. ‘Head on’ meas-
urements give the total pressure whereas ‘side on’ measurements give the
static pressure.
PIMP Pressure impulse:
t2
This is the time integral of the pressure: I p = ∫ pdt

t1
The pressure impulse is simply the area below the pressure-time curve,
and since it is the product of pressure and time it holds information about
both the amplitude and the duration of the pressure-time curve.
PROD Combustion product mass fraction:
This is the ratio of mass (kg) of combustion products per unit mass (1 kg)
of the total mixture of fuel, air and combustion products for each control
volume. The combustion products consist of carbon-dioxide and water
vapour. See section Gases for more information on the reactions that con-
vert fuel onto combustion products. Plots of PROD are useful for display-
ing the flame (or more correctly the burnt volume).
RHO Density:
This is the fluid mass (kg) per unit volume (1 m3). The equation of state
gives the relation between pressure density and temperature. The equa-
tion of state for an ideal gas is applied in FLACS: p = ρRT , see section
Gases for more information on ideal gases.
2
Name Description
T Temperature:
This is the absolute temperature (K) of the fluid. See RHO above for a
description of the relation between pressure density and temperature. The
temperature may be increased by compression which converts mechani-
cal energy into thermal energy, and by combustion which converts chem-
ical energy into thermal energy.
VVEC Velocity vector:
This is the entity which gives the three velocity components of the time
averaged fluid flow. The energy contained in the temporal fluctuations of
the flow which are not captured using a given spatial and temporal resolu-
tion is handled by a turbulence model. VVEC consists of the three com-
ponents U, V, and W. If you are editing the cs-file manually, always
remember to include the components if you have specified VVEC for out-
put (CASD includes them automatically).
DRAG Drag value:
This is related to the dynamic pressure for the fluid flow. The expression
2
for the dynamic pressure is p dyn = ρu ⁄ 2 . An obstacle submerged in a
fluid flow will interact with the fluid, thereby a drag force results. The
drag force may be measured in experiments and if the Reynolds number
is high, the ratio ‘drag force / dynamic pressure’ is constant:
2
C D = ( F D ⁄ A ) ⁄ ( ρu ⁄ 2 ) . See section Fluid flow equations for details
about the equations governing fluid flow.
DIMP Drag-impulse value:
t2
This is the time integral of the dynamic pressure: I p dyn =

∫p dyn dt
t1
The drag-impulse value is equivalent to the pressure impulse, with the
difference that the dynamic pressure is being integrated instead of the
static pressure.
ER Equivalence ratio
This is a measure for concentration of fuel compared to the stoichiometric
concentration, i.e. ER equals 1 at stoichiometric concentration. Say that
(F/O) is the ratio of fuel to oxygen, then the equivalence ratio is defined
as follows: ER = (F/O) / (F/O)stoichiometric. For zero fuel ER equals zero
and for pure fuel ER goes to infinity.
3
Name Description
ERLF Equivalence ratio, %LFL
L This is a measure for concentration of fuel compared to the LFL concen-
LFL with gas type remains. The definition of ERLFL is as follows:
ERLFL = 100 * ER / ERLFL %
ERNF Equivalence ratio, normalized flammable range
L The flammable range is defined to be from LFL to UFL, where LFL is the
defined as follows: ERNFL = (ER-ERLFL) / (ERUFL-ERLFL). ERNFL is
EQ Equivalence ratio, finite bounded
This is a measure for concentration of fuel similar to the equivalence ratio
(see ER above). Say that (F/O) is the ratio of fuel to oxygen, then the
finite bounded equivalence ratio is defined as follows: EQ = (F/O) / [(F/
O)+(F/O)stoichiometric]. At stoichiometric concentration EQ equals 1/2.
For zero fuel EQ equals zero and for pure fuel EQ equals one.
EQLF Equivalence ratio, %LFL
L This is a measure for concentration of fuel compared to the LFL concen-
LFL with gas type remains. The definition of EQLFL is as follows:
EQLFL = 100 * EQ / EQLFL %
EQNF Equivalence ratio, normalized flammable range
L The flammable range is defined to be from LFL to UFL, where LFL is the
defined as follows: EQNFL = (EQ-EQLFL) / (EQUFL-EQLFL). EQNFL is
4
Name Description
PP Panel average pressure:
This is the average pressure (Pa) acting on the panel surface in the per-
pendicular direction. It is the sum of the directional pressure forces acting
on the panel divided by the net surface area of the panel (also accounting
for the area porosity for each control volume). The sign of PP indicates
the direction of the total force, +/- along the positive/negative direction
respectively.
PPOR Panel average porosity:
This is the average pressure porosity, it is the amount of open surface on
the panel divided by the total panel area. Output of PPOR may be used to
verify when the panel yields.
5
6
FLACS V8 User’s Guide INDEX
INDEX
A dump file 2-102

accident 1-3 duration 1-6
accidental release 1-2 dynamic response 1-29
application fields 1-2
E
B environment variables 2-7, 2-10
blast wave 1-26 EQCHAR 2-41
BLOCKS 2-13 EQUATION_SOLVER 2-15
BOUNDARY_CONDITIONS 5-23 EQUIPMENT 5-7
burning rate 1-7 EULER 2-40
evaporating pool 1-4
C event tree 1-2
cc-file 2-90
CFLC 2-35 F
CFL-numbers file 2-92 feedback 1-12
CFLV 2-35 field output file 2-99
cg-file 2-85 FIELD_OUTPUT_SPECIFICATION 5-
CHARACTERISTIC_VELOCITY 2-38 20, 5-24
cl-file 2-94 FILE STRUCTURE 5-4
cn-file 2-92 files 2-24
co-file 2-89 fire 1-3
COMBUSTION_MODEL 2-15 flame acceleration 1-7
commands 2-6 flame instabilities 1-7
congested 1-19 flame propagation 1-8
consequences 1-2 flammability limits 1-14
consequences of a gas explosion 1-8 FLUX_CONTROL 2-17
control file 2-90 fuel type 1-13
cp-file 2-88
cs-file 2-26 G
gas cloud 1-15
D gas explosion 1-3, 1-8
damage 1-3 GAS_COMPOSITION_AND_VOLUM
deflagration 1-9 E 5-17, 5-23
detonation 1-7 GASDATA_MODEL 2-16
diffusion 1-9 GEOMETRY DRAWINGS 5-4
DIFFUSION_MODEL 2-15 GRAVITY_CONSTANT 2-38
directory structure 2-3 grid file 2-85
dispersion 1-5
drag force 1-30 H
DTPLOT 2-36 HEAT_SWITCH 2-37
1
I PIPING 5-7
IGNITION 2-13, 5-18, 5-24 PLANE_WAVE 2-41
ignition 1-15 pool 1-4
impulse 1-29 porosity file 2-88
pressure impulse 1-29
J PRESSURE_RELIEF_PANELS 5-14
jet release 1-4
job file 2-12 R
job number 2-12 r1-file 2-98
JOBSPEC 2-12 r3-file 2-99
rd-file 2-102
K recirculation 1-5
KEEP_OUTPUT 2-13 RELATIVE_TURBULENCE_INTENSI
TY 2-39, 2-43
L release 1-4
laminar flame 1-9 RESET_LOAD 2-13
LAST 2-34 RESIDUAL_LIMIT 2-18
leak file 2-94 rt-file 2-100
LEAKS 5-23 runflacs 2-12
log file 2-100 rx-file 2-103
login 2-2
S
M save file 2-103
MASS_CONSERVATION 2-15 SCALAR_TIME_OUTPUT_SPECIFIC
MASS_RESIDUAL 2-17, 2-18 ATION 5-19, 5-24
MATERIALS 5-5 scalar-time output file 2-98
MAX_ITERATIONS 2-17 SCALE 2-36
MODD 2-36 scenario file 2-26
MODULE SIZE 5-6 SETUP 2-14, 2-17
MONITOR_POINTS 5-19, 5-24 SIMULATION_AND_OUTPUT_CONT
multi-block 1-28 ROL 5-23
STRUCTURE 5-8
N
SYMMETRY 2-42
NOZZLE 2-41
SYNC_OUTPUT 2-13
NPLOT 2-36
T
O
TEMPERATURE 2-39
obstruction file 2-89 TIME_STEPPING 2-15, 2-16
ORIENTATING THE GEOMETRY 5-5 TMAX 2-34
P turbulence 1-7, 1-11
password 2-2 TURBULENCE_LENGTH_SCALE 2-
physical models 1-1 39, 2-44
TURBULENCE_MODEL 2-15
2
turbulent flame 1-9

two-phase release 1-6
U
unix 2-2, 2-6
UP-DIRECTION 2-38, 2-50, 2-51, 2-
59, 2-64
V
vent area 1-17
ventilation 1-5
venting guidelines 1-12
W
WALLF 2-36
WALLS AND DECKS 5-10
water deluge 1-22
water spray 1-22
WIND 2-42
wind 1-6
WIND_DIRECTION 2-43
WIND_SPEED 2-43
workstation 2-2
Z
ZERO_APOR 2-17
ZERO_VPOR 2-17
3

Flacs 英文使用手册 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flacs 英文使用手册 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Company in the CMR Group

2.5 Introduction to the FLACS files .......................................................... 2-24

3.10 About the watersprays (and mitigation) .............................................. 3-29

Important parameters ..................................................................5-22

6 Cloud interface module

This User’s Guide uses the following typographical conventions:

If you see ... It means ...

Figure showing a single directory or a directory struc-

README examples/ src/ sys/

A logical sequence of activities when using FLACS is:

Summary of changes in FLACS 2.2 compared to FLACS 2.1

Changes in related programmes

• Application fields of FLACS

This chapter is meant to be a description of the understanding of dispersion and explo-

1.1 Application fields of FLACS

Figure 1.1 An event tree showing typical consequences of accidental releases of

1.2 Dispersion processes

• the size of the release

Figure 1.2 Jet release and evaporating pool.

1.3 Gas explosion processes

In a building or in an offshore module with process equipment as shown schematically

The consequences of a gas explosion will depend on:

Flame propagation mechanisms

1) fast flame propagation

Figure 1.8 Turbulence generation in a channel due to repeated obstacles during a

• Flame acceleration due to enhanced burning due to turbulence generated by

Figure 1.10 Comparison of explosion pressure for various stoichiometric fuel-air

Figure 1.11 Peak pressure versus fuel concentration (% vol.) in air.

Inhomogeneities in the cloud

Degree of filling by the cloud

Location of ignition point

but as you will see exceptions to this exist.

Figure 1.12 The effect of different ignition locations in a compartment.

Strength of ignition source

Size and location of explosion vent areas

Closed 2/3 2/3

Roof, Rear Wall

Roof, Rear Wall,

The results from the tests can be summarised as follows:

Location and size of structural elements and equipment

1.4 Water spray

Figure 1.18 Pressure records from deluge tests.

b) The mitigating effect is a result of evaporation of water droplets in the flame. To be

Figure 1.19 Droplet break-up due to explosion generated wind.

1.5 Blast waves

• the source, i.e. pressure and duration of the explosion

Figure 1.20 Free field blast wave.

The loading on a construction hit by a blast wave is a rather complex phenomenon.

Figure 1.22 Blast reflection off a building.

1.6 Explosion load

Figure 1.23 Pressure-time curve.

• Using a unix workstation

2.1 Using a unix workstation

• use at least 6 characters

Files and directories

bin/ lib/ users/

Adam/ Eve/ me/ you/

Private/ Project-1/ Project-2/

Figure 2.1. Directory structure.

And here are some useful c-shell tokens:

Some common environment variables are listed below:

2.2 Creating a proper setup for FLACS

FLACS95/ FLACS96/ FLACS97/ FLACS98/