.5.

' (‘RIEEP
or ML-'T»\LS ‘

665
2. Establislt the values of the subtangent
”
llowing types of loading using" at the point of ma.\'imum load for the
the arguments given on
(a) A thin»walled vessel with closed page 646.
ends subjected to internal
(b) A flat sheet subjected pressure,
(c) A thin—walled
to equal biaxial tensions,
spherical vessel subjected to internal
.«t/i.s'irc/'. (tr) pressure.
‘I 0577. (b) 2-0, (c) 0667.
3. A soft lead wire 03 in. diztnieter is
used fuse for a de:'a_ved-action grenade.
The wire is in series with :1 steel spring having as a
a spring constant of M0 lb.
total distance between supports (i.c. ftisexvirc
plus spring) is constant,
per in. The
Before the fuse is see Fig. 346.
set, the point B is held
so that there is no stress in the wire, but
when the safetypin is removed the
spring
BC immediately exerts an axial force _ —~..—J i

l00 lb.
of
on the wire. 7
l
V

As soon as the spring rela.\es . I

0-10 in. ’_' B
~——r——E
the grenade explodes. What is the
time /
I‘

FIXED LE/vam
delay ofthe grenade? ~
Assume that the creep ofthe lead wire FIG, 345
is entirely
secondary creep. having a rate given by
creep
is5 i
II
6'
A (in. in./min.)
V

: ’
"

where/t = 2-83 X l0‘5minute units, S0 l0OO

in lb./sq. in. Also = lb./sq. in.,n = 7-68 and sis the stress
assume that the lead has no elasticity.
A/Lrwer. I52 min.
4. A turbine blade has length
blade can be taken
a of6 in. and is fixed to a disk of 14 in. radius. The
of
as constant cross—section for design purposes. The material
the blade has the following characteristics of
at the operating temperature.
Young’s modulus: 25 X 105 lb./sq. in.
.5’ Creep
constants for the creep rate formula

é=/lo"
are A = 10 ><10‘2°, /1 = 3-0, being the 5'
creep rate per hour and a the stress inpounds
per sq. in. Density of the material is 025 lb.
3000 r.p.m. '
wt. per cu. in., and the rotor speed is
Starting from the equations
of equilibrium derive the stress at any point in the
blade and hence the elongation initially
and after 100,000 hours.
Answer. 000083 in.; 000549 in.
total.
5. A lowpressurejointin a pipeline is made bya lead
steel flanges. The total gasket 0-] 25 in. thick between
area ofthe interfaces between lead and steel is 3-5 sq. in. and
the flanges are bolted by 4, }—in. diameter
steel bolts.
Taking the free length ofthe bolts
as Is} in. find the time taken for the interfaeial
pressure to have reduced to half the initial value which is
calculated to be 0-286 tons‘
per sq. in. The joint is at room temperature. Young’s
lb./sq. in. and the secondary modulus for steel = 30X 106 ,
creep rate can be taken as
'
G 7'68
= 2-83x l0 _(
g
min _[
.

where o is the applied stress in lb./sq‘. in.

 666 INTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA
Distortion ofthe flanges or adjacent parts ofthe pipe may be ignored in comparison
with that ofthe gasket and the elastic stretch ofthe bolts.
Neglect the elastic and primary creep deformation of the lead.
A n.rwer. l
260 hours.

Furt/tor Remlittg.‘
I. MACGREGOR, C. W. (I940). ‘The tension test’, Proc. Amer. Soc. Text. M(Irer., 40,
508.
.
FORD, H. (1955). ‘The meclmnical properties of metals. I—~The tensile proper»
ties.‘ Cantor Lecture, Roy. Soc. Arts, 1955, I03, 471.
.
WATTS, A. B., and FORD, H. (1955). ‘On the basic yield stress curve ofa metal‘,
Pror. Inst. Illa‘/1. EIlgI'S., 169, 1141.
UNWIN, W. C. (I910). The Texting ofMaIerialx ofCon.rtructio/t,3rd ed., pp. 49—6l.
Longmans,Green.
.
BRIDGMAN, P.
W. (1952). Studies in Large Plastic Flow and Fracture. Chapter I,
‘Stress distribution at the neck of a tension specimen’, p. 9. McGraw-I-Iill.
SACHS, G. (1924). Z. MeI(IlII<u/tde, 16, 55.

.
COOK, M., and LARKE, E. C. (1945). ‘Resistance of copper and copper alloys to
homogeneous deformation in compression’, 1. Inst. McI., 71, 371.
O0

.
TABOR, D. (1951). The Hm-(Ines: ofMetal.r. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
DUGDALE, D. S. (1955). ‘Experiments with pyramidal indenters’, Parts I and II.
J. Meclt. Phys. Solids, 3, 197, 206.
10. DUGDALE, D. S. (1958). ‘Vickers hardness and compressive strength’, 1. Meclt.
P/l)’S. Solids, 6, 85.
11. MEYER, O. E. (1908), ‘Untersuchungen uber Harteprufung and Harte’, Z. Ver.
dtsclt. lng., 52 p. 645. See also SALMON, H. (1931). Materials and Structures,
Vol. I, p. 529. Longmans.
I2. BISHOP, R. F., HILL, R., and Morr, N. F. (1945). ‘The theory of indentation and
hardness tests’, Proc. pltyx. $047., 57, 147.
13. SULLY, A. H. (1949). Metallic Creep and Creep-re.ri.r!iIzg’ Alloys. Butterworths
Scientific Publications.
14. LARSON, F. R., and MILLER, T. (1952). ‘A time—temperature relationship for
rupture and creep and creep stresses’, Trans. Amer. Sac. meclt. Eng/-5., 74, 765.
I5. ROTHERHAM, L. (1951). Creep ofMetals. Institute of Physics.
16. Various authors: ‘Interpretationof tests and correlation with service’, Am. Soc.
Met., 23-27 October 1950.
17. DRAPER, J. H. M. (1956). ‘The interpretation of creep data’, Iron and Steel,
November 1956.
18. BAILEY, R. W. (1954). ‘A critical examination of the procedures used in Britain
and the United States to determine creep stresses for the design of power
plant for long life at high temperatures‘, Prov. Inst. meclz. Engrs., 168, 470.
19. ALEXANDER, J. M. (1962), Introduction to Structural Problems in Nuclear
Reactor Engineering. Chapter 9, ‘ The plasticity and creep of metals’. Perga—
mon Press.
 DATA
INTERPRETATXON or MECHANICAL rasr
654 the surface to be
212 in. long was pressed into
steel in. square section
%_~
bar independent of the
correctly surmised that such a test should be relationship to the
tested. He number would bear some
applied load and that the hardness
material.
strength properties of the Unwin’.~: hardness test corresponds to plane strain
34, dif—-
ln terms of Chapter 90° included angle (8 = 45°). The main
indentation with a tool having a ensure
had to be sutficiently deep tomaterial
that the test pieces
ficulty with the test was
field beingdeveloped, with
adequate elastic
the plastic of measure-
the full extentof indentations a more accurate tool and means
below it. For smaller
needed. Brinell’s test
ment would have been Unwin’s hardness test was superior to
On technical grounds, inevitable
the score of convenience, however, it was
which superseded it. On applied to an
that could be
that it would lose to tests indenter having a cross-
P actual component with an dimensions in all directions.
scction of roughly equal the
clear advantages from
The Brinell test had geometric
the sacrifice of
latter viewpoint, but at dimension
to surface
11

LSW” similarity. The ratio ofdepth

produced by a spherical ball of
d of the indentation 338). The
FIG. 338 D changes with the load P (Fig. although
diameter proved possible,
this problem in plasticity has not yet ended circular
solution of forward a solution for the flat
put
Eason and Shield have defined by Brinell as
hardness number was
punch. The
Load (kg)
indentation (mmz)
H3: Developed area of
.k.g.~.
(771)
P

‘ 1. “-
\/(D3 — (13)) mm2
_ 7-rDh {(.~.D)/2}{D

similarity does not

~
hold,
_d
the load and the ball diameter
material hard-
and since geometrical loads for different ranges of aluminium,
with different
have to be specified, ball: 3000 kg. for
steel, 500 kg. for
10 mm. diameter
ness (e.g.
1000 kg. for copper). load divided
the
‘
hardness number’ measured as a
The problem of relating
is then two-
basic yield stress curve of the metal under test distribution of
by an area, to the that not
dimensionally similar
and
are load)
fold. First, with impressions with the geometry (i.e.
with the
will change displaced by the indenter
the \vork-hardening elastic-plastic material, the material
second, with any indented. When this
downwards into the body being
is to a large extent forced governed by the
hardness number is mainly
probable that the Only in soft
happens it is radial expansion within the material.
cause a
pressure required tomaterial ridge.
flow upwards and form a plastic material
materials does the surfaces of equal strain in the
that
Experiments have shown from the indenter surface. If, there-
hemispherical at a little distance away between the hardness do so
number
are for a possible connection possible to
fore, we are lookingcharacteristic of the material, it may be
and the yield stress
 '
INDENTATION HARDNESS
from the radial rasrmo 655
‘X pressure required to produce
cavity (Fig. 339). Let the a radial expansion ofa spherical
radial pressure at radius be/2,,
equation, after integration, isr, then the equilibrium

strainsat radius r (dueto Bishop,

Hill and Mott).
r3
//('// \‘/_//
.,

1
r\//’’
«I, ,.

;
to obtain 3
connection between /2, and Y.
values ofr that For
are large compared with (772)
RADIUS/V
can be expanded and dilT‘rentizitcdto r,,
,'
Q
give
//
///77/ "/
K

(/5 3(/I‘ _,
M =
e
- *‘r FIG. 339
Substituting this value
4

oft/r/r into the equilibrium ;

equation gives

,1, {
= Yd(ln 5)
6 (773) ) i

fldr
l

where
6, —— —— i

0
’i r

Meyer, as early
as I908, suggested
test would best be that the results of the
represented by a power law ball indentation
diameter ofthe impression connecting the load I’ and the
(I
P = Cd"
and proposed that the hzirclness (774)
number should be defined by

II‘V = ~ Load (l<g.) -

4P
Projected area (mmz) = vrdz
.
——
( 77 5d)
'
i.C.
Ir,, — 4%/"-2
77'
(775b)
 656 lNTERPRETATlON OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA
For many materials, (774) is found to fit the results reliably. It is usual to 4:

plot logP against log d, so that the slope of the graph gives the index n, and
the intercept on the axis" of P at logd-= 0 gives the constant c. For annealed
materials, 21 is about 2-5 while for heavily work~hardened mat-frials /2
approaches 2. Equation (775b) then shows that for work—hardened materials
the hardness number should be independent of diameter ofimpression. This
is found to be approximately
true, and indicates from (774), the self~evider:t
fact that, when the yield stress becomes constant the impression increases in
area to balance the increase in applied load. For materials in the annealed
only partly hardened condition the curve of H3 against applied load has or
a
maximum value at a load corresponding roughly to the recommended
test
conditions of Brinell; for example, for mild steel, at about 3000 kg.
on a 10
mm. diameter ball. For other diameters, the fact that geometrically similar
configurations should give equivalent results
can be used to calculate the
optimum load. Thus, since the dimensions of hard-
ness number are
(load)
(length)2
the ratio P/D2 should be a constant.
In the Vickers diamond hardness test,a four—sided
Fro. 340 pyramid on a square base and with an included
angle of 136° between opposite sides is used
as the
indenter. This system provides geometric similarity, independent
ofload, and
that this holds in actuality is easily proved experimentally. However, so far
as
connecting the hardness number with yield stress is concerned, the theoretical
problem is as untractable as that for the spherical indenter of Brinell’s
test.
The Vickers hardness number is given by the load in kilograms divided by the
area ofthe sloping surfaces in square millimetres.
kg.
Hy = 1-854. E (776)
dzmmz
where dis the average diagonal length.
For a rigid-plastic body, the displaced material would be forced
sloping faces so that the indentation would have up the
concave faces in horizontal
projection (Fig. 340). Elastic-plastic materials show this effect in the
annealed
state, but when fully work-hardened approach a true square projection owing
to elastic accommodation of the displaced material. The variation of yield
stress in forming the indentation might be expected to be dependent only
the configuration of the diamond, and by analogy with the indentationupon
wide-angle die in the plane strain case, the amount of \vork—hardening ofa
should
not be large. A mean yield stress should therefore be possible. In fact, Tabor
found that the Vickers hardness number bore an almost
constant ratio to the
yield stress at a compressive strain of8
per cent reckoned from the initial state
of the test piece.
In the past, relationships between hardness number (particularly Brincll
 at
CREEP "or METALS
657
~ ber) and ultimate tensile strength have
been claimed. Since the U.T.S. is
4“; ring] stress corresponding to the point ofinstability in the tensile test, a
l

such relationship can have no physical basis; only any

which the total elongation is small
with hardened materials, in
so that the U.T.S. is approximately equal
to the true maximum stress, and
moreover occurs at a strain in the region of
4 8
per cent, would there be likely to be such a correlation.
'
Summing up, it would appear that the hardness
by an indentation hardness test, is ofa material, as indicated
a measure ofits yield stress characteristic
and also ofits elasticity, since
upon this depends the extent to which the dis-
placed material is forced downwards is
or erupted into a raised lip.

6 Creep of Metals
(A) CREEP
resr
Creep is the deformation exhibited by
a metal under constant loading over
an extended period of time. The temperature at which metal has
a measurable
creep varies with the metal, but at
room temperature most metals are not
subject to creep, in that a given stress
may cause a plastic deformation, but
equilibrium is quickly reached and there is essentially
of the stress—strain curve with time. no change in the shape
At high temperatures this is not true, and under
metal that would be stable at a constant applied load a
room temperature slowly deforms, and may
suffer very large strains although the
loading is constant.
Creep tests have been made with various
types ofloading, including tension,
compression, torsion, etc., although almost all
reference books has been obtained with simple creep
data reported in the
tensile loading. The tension
‘t piece is enclosed in
a furnace maintained at a constant temperature
1°
~(
1 C.) and loaded, usually through a lever system with a
applied stress is therefore increasing constant load. The
as the test proceeds since the area
decreases, although,
over the range of strains (say, 2—3 per cent extension) of
interest in practice the error is not large.
Creep is a temperature sensitive phenomenon. As
the temperature rises, the
creep rate increases and failure occurs in progressively shorter times.
Tempera-
ture not only causes the creep rate to increase directly, but it
siderable influence indirectly through also has a con-
metallurgical effects of prolonged
heating.
A typical creep curve is shown in Fig. 341.
It the strain (or
extension) against time for constant temperature represents
and applied load. When the
load is first applied there may be (usually is) instantaneous
an extension that is
elastic (recoverable), possibly also accompanied
by plastic (irrecoverable)
extension followed by :1 region of‘primary’
or ‘transient’ creep in which the
creep rate decreases. During this stage the rate ofstrain hardening exceeds
the
rate ofthermal softening. ln the ‘secondary’ ‘steady
balance is reached between the strain hardeningor state‘ creep stage, a
and thermal softening mechan-
isms and a more—0r-less
constant creep rate results.
Most creep curves ofenginecring materials
are plotted in terms ofparticular
 658 lNTERPRl3TATlON OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA

>STRAIN

TERTIARY 0,? RUPTI/RE

ACCEL ERA TED CR EEP

SECONDARY DR STEADY
STATE CREEP

/
PRIMARY M
NSIEN 7
nuCREEP

msmvmvsous
EXTENSION
>J
/
JI
T
'
" ””"_

FIG. 34]

stresses, although in fact they are carried out under constant load conditions.
This in part explains the ‘tertiary’ or ‘accelerating’ creep region, since the
area of the test piece, as in the tensile test, is decreasing so that the creep is
occurring under increasing stress. The shape of the curve cannot be entirely
explained on this basis however, and it has to be concluded that intercrystalline
cracking and other metallurgical changes are involved in this part of the
deformation.
The tertiary stage ends in rupture. The secondary stage is usually very long
compared with primary or tertiary stages for most creep resistant materials,
and creep curves are frequently plotted on a log (time) basis.
In engineering design, we are mainly concerned to achieve a criterion for the
stresses that can be applied to a material, at the operating temperature and
under specified conditions, without excessive deformations. The definition of
allowable deformations depends upon the application. For example, the
following table gives typical figures.

Rate of creep Time Maximum permissible

Application (in./in./hour) (hours) strain (in./in.)

Steam turbine rotor lO‘9 100,000 0-0001

Steam piping, boilertubes l0‘7 100,000 0-003
Superheater tubes 10”‘ 20,000 0-02

The life of a plant is determined by economic considerations—an aircraft

gas turbine may be required to give a life ofonly a few hundred hours whereas a
steam turbine for a land generating station would be expected to have a life of
at least 100,000 hours, or even 200,000 hours. Herein lies much ofthe difficulty
in creep testing because it is not practically possible to run tests ofthis duration
and extrapolation from much shorter tests is necessary.
 s,a‘4
CREEP '05 METALS 659
ln most cases, ‘failure’ under creep conditions is related to limitations of
'“n.ensional changes rather than rupture but in some, (e.g. gas turbine parts,
.. ‘zerheater tubes) failure implies rupture. ln such
cases, design is often based
on a percentage ofthe time to rupture. Each application has to be taken on its
merits and no hard and fast rules can be laid down.
Creep data can be presented in various ways. Curves of strain for various

2Q
E
"’
S
0I

..U)
<
i‘
3
E
/O
.»,»~_
.
I

e ..t]__
—-—-1/MEILUG SCALE)
(B)DER1VED FROM A.
FIG. 342A, B

stress levels against log (time) all at a constant temperature (usually the work-
ing temperature) can be plotted (Fig. 342).
From graphs ofthis kind (Fig. 342A) the time to produce a given strain 5 at
the various stress levels can be read oil‘ and second graph (Fig. 3423) of the
21

stress to produce this strain can be plotted against time. The same procedure
‘n be used for strains up to rupture, and a family ofsuch curves constructed
'

~_.. various strain levels.

A second method is to hold the stress
constant for a series oftests at diflerent
temperatures , 0, 02, 63,
etc., the stress being usually in the region ofthe expected
working stress (Fig. 343).

54

M:
R
83 ‘”
'—“_."
,
u
CURVEFUR
snu/Nc
E 5

94
3 63 $92
"‘I
‘
E
2;
E ' '‘'“
5 :

Q “'
f

:;
3
E
5I:""‘-”""".' '
I

I
f

5
E
1

-
* *
' ' ' “.
‘

:|
.
'
4

9; [//_
4 . t

5}:/_
. .

.g_ , .;_ .__, ._f__

IIME HUG SCALE}

(8) DERWED FROM A.
l"I<;. 3-13-x, ll
660 INTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA

Yet a third possibility is to plot temperature against log (time) at three or

log (time) at several tempera-
more stress levels or alternatively, stress against
tures (Fig. 344).
As already mentioned, creep tests taken to rupture can be treated in the same
Fig. 342!) prepared for various
way and graphs for time to rupture such as
against log
temperature levels; ailternatively the corresponding tcmperzitu-.re
(time) curves plotted for various stress levels. Time—to—rupture curves are
sometimes taken as the main basis for design, but there is evidence to show that
directly and both kinds
rupture data and strain data are not necessarily related
ofdata should be considered in making a decision.
Extrapolation of the curves for tests of, say, up to 1000 hours, to normally
and
expected lives for engineering components requires considerable care
‘
CURVES OF 5TRAIN('
IN TIME
/

IEMPERAIURE

TIMEILDG
seas) t 3,
9 6,
TEMPERATURE
(A) TEMPERATUREV LOG TIME V TEMPERATURE
CURVES FOR DIFFERENT (B) STRESS
STRESSES FOR A CERTAIN FOR DIFFERENT TIMES I
FOR A CERTAIN STRAIN é
STRAIN 5
FIG. 344A, B

experience ifreliable results are to be obtained. There is still much controversy

method will
about the most reliable method of extrapolating and the best test 10,000
hour
not be evolved until much more information available.
is Even a
expected 100,000 hour
test—a long test in normal practice—is only a tenth ofan
life and is inadequate in View of the metallurgical effects of prolonged heating.
Testing at or about the working stress and accelerating the test periods by
increasing the temperature appears to be the most reliable method at present,
especially as the law connecting time and temperature is of the same type for
creep as for metallurgical changes.
(13) CREEP EQUATIONS
the
Many attempts have been made to fit a theoretical background to
relationships described above. There is some fundamental basis for a rate
steady phase in the form
process theory for the secondary or state
E
5' Ae-Q-W’ (777)
= =
—

5‘
(E Et

in which = =
 5;‘,
CREEP
or Meurs 661
If steady state creep, and
A
= a constant, for a given stress,
/Q activation energy for the
:
.
creep process at given stress,
R
= Boltzmann’s constant,
T absolute temperature,
I :
= the time to reach any strain 6.
One typical approach is
to rc\vrite this equation as

:
T(lnA—lne+ In!)

-r
= T(B+ln
1)
R I7
(778)
he sufiix indicating that the activation
/2

tress levelp. Bis a constant for given energy required depends upon the
a
.arsen~Miller parameter, has been
strain The term T(B+ logr), called the
shown to predict experimental results
wide range of times over
and temperatures for many steels, high
lloys and aluminium alloys. temperature
Also it is often found that straight—linc relation-
hips are obtained when
log (stress) is plotted against the Larsen—Miller
-arameter and a general relationship
ofthe form
In]; /\',+/c1T(B—2—lnt)
ppliesi = (779)
It can be shown, from (777) (779)
to that this is equivalent to
= Cp"e""T
5'
(780)
'
re Cand n
are constants for a given material. A relationship
“ah”
be used to solve ofthis kind
some problems if the primary creep can be ignored by
xtrapolating the secondary
creep line back
0 the strain ordinate for
uming it can be considered
zero time, and as-
as entirely an
nstantaneous elastic strain.

(c) srmsss RELAXATION

Components are often loaded in
such a
tvay that the strain remains
Lhan the stress, constant rather
so that the stress is dimin-
ished or reiaxed
as creep proceeds. One of
the most frequently
encountered examples
is the bolting in pipe flanges
;usings at high or turbine
tcniperaturc (Fig. 345). The
oolts are tightened
up to :1 certain stress. .l’i<;. 3-3:?
and as creep occurs the
elastic strain in the
bolt is replaced byplastic
(creep) strain so relaxiiig the stress. ln :1
the design and the choice tlzmgedjoint
of material must be such that the
stress does not
 662 -

INTERPRETATION MIECHANICAL
or TEST DATA
fall below a certain value in specified time, since
a otherwise the joint will
leak.
«._

In steam turbine practice, the specified time

between overhauls. The initial strain in tightening
may be 10,000 to 30,000 hours ‘-
steam bolting is about
0-15 per cent. The problem to be solved might
therefore be to determine the
time taken for an initial stress /70 to drop to
some lower permitted limit/2,. We
shall assume that the temperature is constant. and that, although
the Young’s
modulus varies with temperature we shall its value
E
assume known at the
operating temperature.
We shall further assume that the flanges
——and are sutficientlylarge that the stresses
consequently the elastic strains—in them are negligible.
Let so = initial elastic strain, which becomes the total
constant strain in the
bolt,
e5 = residual elastic strain remaining
at any time,
5
= the creep or plastic strain.
Hooke’s law requires that, if po is the initial
stress corresponding to the
strain 60 andp is the stress remaining at any time,

"_€=£
50 [70

Also, 60
=e5+ 6, and substituting for e,; we get
. __
: '7,
\
6-I-6(—--1):
P
0
,3’: : B 0
g

P0 '
la‘
.
' 5dl eodp
pod! _
O
\
‘./\
.
LC.
dp dc )9,
C_ C
d—t
_ -53 - _
(731)

But de/dr
= = Cp" by (780) at constant temperature.
e’

Invert and integrate,

I
P

far: 1:
1
—E—Cfp"'dp,
from (731)
0
In

(D) CREEP UNDER

compusx STRESS
Recent research work shows that, within certain limits, the laws
apply to secondary creep and this allows the of plasticity
behaviour of components under
 I

METAILS '
V

66.:
-v

' ' CREEP 01-‘

-
complex stress states to be predicted to some extent. We use the Von Mises
vield criterion and the Le'vy—Mises flow rule.
/I The equations are:
(0) (In—p:)’+(172-1I3)2+(/5-/>1)‘ = 2Y2 = 253 (534)
X
(/1)
3 (2/’1”I’2#I’3)
6}

: X
(339)
.
52 30/’2‘l’3—1’t) -1
: X
53 §(2l’.=’l’1—l’z)
=
(c) é,+é2+c'3 = 0 (537)
for constancy of volume.

(:1) Let the equivalent creep rate be

€
_é
= A0" (783)
_
= -1

where 6 is to be interpreted as the equivalent stress in the usual way, and

E
=
lftte. —e2)1+<ea~é3>2+(e.~e3>2}‘” (558)

The procedure is therefore to find 6 from (534) in terms of the stresses

(assumed known) and then to find E from (783). Using the relations (539) the
fitrain rates 6,, etc., can be found in terms of)( by inserting the values of the
r..stresses. These values are used in (558) to give 3 in terms of X also, so that
equating to (783) gives the value ofX. The strain rates e',, 2'2, etc., can then be
calculated from (539).
In most practical problems the total plastic strains resulting from creep are
small and it will be sufiiciently accurate to find the strains simply by multiplying
the strain rates by the time interval. Otherwise a series of time intervals will
have to be chosen and the process repeated for different stress levels.
The case of a thin~\\'allcd superheater tube can be used to illustrate the
method. We suppose the tube, mean diameter :1’, thickness I to be subjected to
internal pressure P and sufiiciently thin to allow the stresses to be taken as
constant through the thickness.

Then Pd {Dd
0
pg #
-
_-)4
, I’: —
-— l7r 1’
...l

From (:7), (534),

3 1

\/2'1 +(~—=0J+(°~2e,—)}
3'1”
{
_.
1
12/ M Pd Pal ’
\./3/u1
« _
‘ 4:
—
:
664 ENTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA

From (17), (539), .4).

Xzpd Pd _XPd vfl

,_rt‘
‘9
77;“ - :17

“A[.[2Pd_I;1_ O
_
,

'
S‘
_E 4t—
2t
x\'Pzi
“i°"27‘Izi
Pc! Pd
,_t. — _
— 41‘

w‘<2 5 13’ x Pd
{<1+1)-+(1>Z+(1)2}‘”
,
= from (:1), (558)
4 t 727,
X
Pd (d), (783)
= A0 , from
_n .
E7 \/2A.(‘/T) Pd "-'
This gives
A.
=
3 "
(7)
_
./M(vTT)
3Pd -
and .. = z -
We can proceed as before to find the strain in any given time.

Examples to Chapter 40
(elastic strains ignored),
The results of a tensile te st are given in the table below
1.
of the neck and the
together with measurements made of the minimum diamete r 1

radius of curvature at the minimum diameter.

strain (logarith-
Using Bridgman’s analysis plot a curve of true stress again st true
length 500 in.
mic). The test piece was 0500 in. initial diameter and the gauge

Load (tons) Diameter, 20 (in.) Radius, R (in.)

Extension (in.)
0-1 5-43 0-500
0-2 5-85
0-3 6-14
0-5 6-57
0-7 6-86
0-9 7-12
1-1 7-28
1-25 7-36 Maximum load
1-35 7-34 0-432 l-69
0-431 1-26
1-39 7-33
7-07 0-420 0-94
1-56
6-86 0-410 0-77
1-64
6-37 0-390 0-55
1-79
0-370 0-41
1-88 5-88
Fracture 5-48
 CHAPTER 40

I/zl'e/‘L/Jrefafio/2
of Meclzanical Test Data
I Introduction
It was pointed out in Chapter 24 that although engineering design is based ..-,_t

almost entirely on stresses that

are confined to the elastic range, the suitability
......_»—.

ofmaterials forany given purpose is assessed by conventional

large plastic deformations. The tensile tests that involve
test, bend tests, hardness tests, impact
tests and the like are all e.\'amples ofthis. It is only when
materials are examined
in the plastic range that their ability stiller
to abuse for the unpredictable loads
and conditions met \\ ith in service is manifest. In
the past, both the consistenc_v
and reliability ofthe materials themselves.
as well as the engineer's knowledge
of stress analysis were in doubt; while
great strides in both aspects have been
made in recent years. it is nevertheless reassuring
to know that a considerable
reservoir of strength and toughness exists for
the inevitable overloading at
points ofstress concentration, the
occurrence and severity of which may still
be not entirely foreseen.
Metallic materials are subjected to wide
a variety of loading conditions in
service, and it is not surprising that they
react in diflerent ways depending upon
these varying circumstances. The increasing
complexity in design, and the need
to use materials more economically under higher working
stresses, has led to a
realisation that the characteristics displayed by
materials when subjected to
conventional testing techniques are onl_v a manifestation oftlteir basic,
mechanical properties. In this chapter
inherent
we shall examine some of the
tional tests with a view to interpreting conven-
them against the background of :1
generalised stress—str:tin curve such
as that postulated in the we-rk—hardening
theory of plasticity.
Generally, engineering design we
in
are concerned with limiting the deforma-
tions. elastic and plastic, certain agreed
to amounts or with avoiding fracture.
The latter may be a
cottseqttcnce ofrepeated cycles ofstress or strain (fatigue)
or from an inlierent brittleness in the n‘.:tterial under
loading. It is not (lDt'tl'Opt‘l.ilC
steady or single impact
to discuss fracture here, since. fracture is not
directly related to Pl;15tl&‘ dr-formation.

2 The Tensile Test

The tensile test is a .\[1tllLitli'LllSCtl, st_\ lised
test that by long custom the engineer
and metallurgist h:t\t- learnt interpret in terms of the behaviour of
to a
material in service under
corditions far different from those occurring in the
{MM /’lW[,f,,w_g,L Mwéaflaeg MA¢m%/
/-
L.~7«.-w~, GMZTQE.
/.,e.,Z.we_, "
,,. I703
 .\”a' o‘V
xv) ‘ ‘>5
_

5° *5v :53‘
(*0 «>0 "i
"
5s-:3‘ \\:‘ '\°’
‘t~

\° e\\$\\\-\00%95 -

3
.
"\\\V.
- “ 0°
644 INTERPRETATION or MECHANICAL TEST DATA
‘ V
4 --e 69
\~ ¢>\‘ , £313

\i'AK; 0¢_¢§“:<
Q25‘
Q? a
gs‘

the material, and

test. It consists in extending a definite gauge length of " oQ'é§,<>°§»-
usual
measuring the force necessary to keep the test piece in equilibrium. The \¢§‘g§\
,
metallic '
presentation is in the form ofa load-extension graph (Fig. 332A). Most ‘P
H0ol<e‘s law holds,
materials exhibit a more-or—less elastic region in which
*\

followed by an clastic—plasticzone where the permanent and elastic strains are

The stress at
of the same order, before establishing the plastic curve proper.
A0) and the value is
firs’: yield is defined by the (yield load)/(original area
specified permanent
usually based on the stress at a given off—set, that is, at a

FRDOF
'‘‘‘' ‘‘ ' ‘ ‘
'“
”
smsss

MAXIMUM
(A) LOAD

FRACTURE

ELASTIC PLASTIC

:7,
FIRST YIELD
E
UNLOADINE :3
3
4
V\
ELASTIC

LOCAL
EXTENSION
I
I.
UNIFOR/[W EL 0 NGA TI0 N—— STRAIN
-<:—
ELONGA TION

Fro. 332A and [3

stress—strain curve a line i

strain (Fig. 33213), determined by drawing on the
parallel to the elastic line at the appropriate strain.
the material
Further extension leads to an increasing plastic extension, hardening)
(strain
almost invariably showing a rising load-extension curve
becomes horizontal
until a point is reached where the load-extension curve cross—sectiona1
(maximum load). Constancy of volume requires a diminishing
the load extension curve up to
area as elongation proceeds, so that the slope of Ywith a decreasing
this stage is the combined result of an increasing yield stress
A Y. So long as the extension Alis
area A, such that the current load P equals x cross—sectional
uniform through the gauge length, the current area
A010 A» __,A=>_.
A_Ao10_ \.\-G_
._——!——IO_*fi”'_ mawo
elastic co ntraction
from constancy of volume, with a negligible error for the
points.
where = initial gauge length, I= the current length between gauge
10

At the point of maximum load, the test length starts to deform

locally at the 4-
rapidly than
weakest section and the cross-sectional area decreases here more
the load-
elsewhere so that a ‘neck’ forms in the test piece and the rest of
extension curve is the result of non-uniform deformations and stresses.
 THE TENSILE TEST 645
The load must be progressively reduced if equilibrium is to be maintained.
The uniform extension up to the maximum load is proportional
to
length, while the local extension beyond the maximum load is confined gauge
neck region and is independent of
to the
gauge length. The local extension depends
upon the physical dimensions of the cross—section of the test piece and in
sp'ei:ifying the min!
percentage elongation, it is necessary to state the gauge
V

length. In general testing work, the tensile properties

are characterised as
follows:
!79—;~——ad
first
yield?
Yield stress -——-

Original area
.
Ultimate .
tensile Maximum load
strength =
——_—.j—
Original area
Percentage elongation Total extension to fracture
= X 100
Original
, _
length
Percentage reduction of area
Original area— Final area of neck at fracture
_g Original area X100
Some materials have characteristic load-extension
curves: for example,
many steels show a sudden yielding without increase in load at first yield (the
‘
yield point’)'and an extension of as much 4
as per cent of the gauge length may
occur before a state of equilibrium is again obtained as shown by the rising
load-extension curve. This is a non-uniform deformation
ageing phenomena. Some non—ferrous materials (particularly process, related to
magnesium alloys of aluminium in certain heat treated states) also copper and
show the
same kind of behaviour.
The conventional tensile ‘properties’
are not in fact physical properties of
the material and for reliable specification
by its (true stress)—(true strain)
a material should be characterised
curve. Ifit assumed that the test piece remains
is
uniform in cross—section over its gauge length (this depends
with which it is made to a large extent) then the (true stress)—(trueupon the accuracy
strain)
curve can be drawn from the results ofa tensile test up to the point ofnecking.
Thus, if P is the current tensile load and is the corresponding
e engineers
strain, we have true stress
P P] P
—— = Ao(I+e)
= A— = A0/0 — 7 8
(6)
The true strain
= e = ln(l+e) (I20)
Alternatively, we can plot a curve of equivalent
stress 6 against equivalent
strain, defined by (560) and (558), 420 and 417. For the tensile test, the
pp.
equivalent stress 6 = Y, and the equivalent strain
f?l;”=li1é—1(—::
2": (559)
1‘
Usually in the form ofa proofstrcss: that is,
a test piece must be able to sustain a given
stress (or load in the testing machine) without the
loading exceeding a certain agreed permanent extension on release of the
amount.

A
 INTERPRET.-\TlON OF MECHANICAL TEST DATA
i__

'\
A curve ofthis kind can be considered as representing a physical property of ‘

the material except of course, for the possible development of anisotropy. —

_Beyond the point of maximum load, however, the true stress Ycan
no longer
be simply related to the applied load P by (768), because the state ofstress is no
longer uniform nor uniaxial, and the strain is no longer definable by the general r’
elongation.
The point of maximum load is easily determined from the following con«
sideration. With continued plastic strain the yield stress increases (strain-
hardening) but the rate ofhardening slows up and the area supporting the load
decreases. The strain-hardening rate is
‘D’ "('14)
de _ dc

and since A
=
1+e
n'Y PzI(l+e) l+_c’zi/f+V1:
dc _g Ade A0 (/2 _
T A0 r/(2 A0

(1
.
When Pis a maximum if = 0 and = £
N
P 1:’
A Y
W
f:
AA0 = (l+e)
.
A0

so that the proportional rate ofstrain hardening is

The proportional change in area is

1__g(/_1
1_d{Ao/(1+e)} 1

A de = A de =
_/1o
(1 +e)Z
7 ’;1
_ +e
1

Therefore the maximum load is reached when

I :1 Y 1 a’A (£169)

Y de T Z :1;
Alternatively, differentiating (120) gives

de_
I

de_ 1+e’
ldY_ 1dY.ds
“'h'l
” —__~__.
Yde Yde de
Hence, from the above, \ve have that at the maximum load, t1Y/de = Y.
The point of maximum load can therefore be determined from the true
stress/true strain curve, by finding the point on the curve having a subtangent
of unity (Fig. 333).
 647
THE TENSILE TEST
ma:\'imum load therefor 3 depends
The extent ofthe uniform elongation up to
capacity ofthe material. The greater the slope ofthe
\.
gon the strain hardening
strcss—strain curve, the greater is (1/Y)(d}',’z!e), and the
smaller the area A
before the equality is established.
The conclusion to be drawn from
X i

/
‘

Slggis
this is that the uniform extension is Y 5'1 =Y
rms Pomr
4

of greatervalue in assessing material

AT

dz
properties than the total elongation,
4

//
'!

both as regards the real ductility and 1

reservoir
as a means of deciding the
of strength represented by the
difT—
,._____ W0-fl tl __ ._}.___. rm-'5 smuu

crenee in yield stress between first L» 1,

FiI_‘,_ 333
5

yield and maximum load.

We must now consider the load-
E

Inevitably one section of

. -

extension curve beyond the point of maximum load.

the gauge lengthis weakerthan all others,and at the
maximum load, this section t
plastic flow occurs more
will have a smaller value of (l/A).(dA/de), so that

‘ill?

Fig. 334

formati on. Further deformation

l

rapidly here than elsewhere, leading to neck shoulders of the’

is confined to this region, and is not uniform within .The
it
straint to the material
vneck (Fig. 334) being less heavily stressed, act as a re
V

‘radial component of stress.

within the neekiand
giye rise to
an outward
 648 INTI-IRl’RETA"l'l0;‘~‘
or MECHANICAL TEST DATA
Bridgman has put forward a theory
ofthe stress distribution in the neck. He
assumes first that, on the minimum section, the strain is
\.

section. Then from constancy of volume, a: constant across the

ifu radial displacement =
du u
—+—+e_.
_
ld(ur)
(Ir ' = , LC. ————
= 0'1’ —e_.
r
and —:5r2+C
ur :—

Where r = O, u
= 0, so that 2: —e,r/2. Hence

E9 8,
: 9;
and
= = — :2".
pr:/)3
from the Lévy-Mises flow rule.
Again, the yield criterion requires that
;;,—p, = Y or ,7, = p,+ Y
Thus, whatever the distribution ofp,,
p, differs from it (and from jig) by an
amount Y, at all points ofthe cross—section.
With certain assumptions and
approximations Bridgman arrives at the
result that at the minimum cross—section
Z

Y I Dia +2aR—1)=
.2
‘P. = ZHR fie ( 7708)

,{ a2+2aR—r2'}
_ )
p,.— ll+ln ) ( 77Gb )
2aR
a and R being defined in Fig. 334.
The stress p_. is connected with the load by ’

P= I
0
27rp_.rdr
= 71Y(a2+2aR)ln
(14,211?)
(770c)

Thus, the ‘average’ tensile yield

stress in the neck, P/(12112), requires a
tion factor of correc-
l
(I + 2R/a) ln (1 a/ZR)
+
to give the true yield stress Y.
The stress—strain curve can therefore be
extended by making simultaneous
measurements ofthe diameter ofthe minimum section, 2a,
the radius ofcurva—
ture, R, of the neck and the applied load P. There
in doing this, however, are experimental difficulties
not only because of the diflicultics in measuring R
accurately, but also because the tensile
test is inherently unstable (decreasing
cross-sectional area as the test proceeds) and
the extent to which stable measure-
mcnts can be made in the neck is limited. Moreover, ‘instruments that can
measure strains accurately beyond about 5 extehsioii
make, and there are other practical per cent are not easy to
ditficulties in making tensile tests on all
except round test pieces of reasonable diameter.;$li3f'iiative
the yield stresscurve inust therefore be ways of extending
consider‘. (I.
 PL.-\t\'E STRAIN AND SIMPLE COMPRESSION
TESTS 649
3.
"Rf 3 Experimental Methods of Determining the
Yield Stress Curve
‘The
chief objection to the tensile test does
(sometimes referred to as uniaxial
not apply in simple compression
compression) in that conditions are in-
herently stable, the cr —sectional
area ofthc test piece increasing as deforma-
tion proceeds. The di iculty in using simple
a compression test is the friction
between the ends ofthe test piece arid the
platens ofthc testing macliine. The
friction gives rise to a tangential
component ofstress directed radially inwards,
because, as the cross sectional
area increases, relative motion is inevitable and
the friction supeniinposes
a non—hontogeneous distribution of stress and
therefore ofstrain on the simple unia:<ial
compression (‘barrelling’ is a mani-
festation). Consequently neither the
stress system nor the deformation pattern
are such that they can be defined in terms of the applied load
reduction in height. Coupled with these difficulties is and the overall
sively increasing stressed
the elTect of the
progres-
area, necessitating accurate load measurements over
a wide range ofload iflarge deformations
desired.
The extrapolation method first proposedare
by Sachs and examined by Cook
and Larke overcomes some ofthe difficulties,
and will be described in the next
section.
Torsion ofthin—walled tube has also been used
basic yield stress curve, and in Chapter 28, as a means ofdetcrminingthe
the theory of plastic torsion was
outlined. This test, while it can be made
specially prepared test pieces ofgrcat
to give accurate results, requires
sufiiciently thick to allow
accuracy and can be used only on material
test pieces of reasonably large diameter to be cut
out. The deformation attainable is apparently limited by
lions. stability considera-
Plane strain compression has been
proposed as an alternative, and avoids
many ofthe practical difficulties ofthe more conventional
the test was given in Chapter 34.- tests. The theory of
Summarising the requirements for
a test method for obtaining a stress-
,
t-1'

strain curve for large strains, the following ..~_t,.tt_4g,.;.-.,..g;»,,.r

can be stated:
(I) Plastic strains uniform
(2) The
over a definable gauge length are required.
strain must be capable of being accurately
measured over the whole
range ofdeformation. .<._

(3) The stress

must be definable in terms of external loads. ~,n-rwvmn’-aw

(4) All these conditions

must hold over an extensive strain range.
(5) For practical
reasons the test should be easily performed
readily available forms. on material in
(6) Since anisotropy will \
inevitably intrude at the anisotropy
developed by the test should be assessable, some stage,
preferably by the test itself.

4 Plane Strain and Simple Compression

Tests
The simple compression test is
usually made on a cylindrical test piece with
height to diameter ratio a
ofabout 2. In its most elementary form the test piece
2l'
 650 lNTERPl{ETATION
or MECHANICALrrzsr DATA
is mounted‘between the platenslofa subpress (which is itself
between the con
prcssion heads ofa testing machine), which is
on mounted some form of mien’
meter or Vernier scale. The results not
difficulties in allowing for elastic are very accurate owing to frictioi
deformations ofthe subpress, and the rapiu
barrelling of the test piece. Many of the problems
in
studied by Sachs and by Cook and Larke. If, in are overcome the
lTlCtl‘lOt
addition, instead of the con
tinuous loading method, the further refinement
of incremental loading am
relubrication between each increment is used
as described in Chapter 34, p. 554
for the plane strain compression
test, good results are obtained.
In the original method of Cook very
and Larke, cylinders of equal diameter
(usually about g in.) but of varying heights,
were compressed in a subpress,
values ofload and compression being
measured simultaneously to large com-
pressive strains
(: 70 per cent). Typical height/diameter
The mean stress is calculated from the load
ratios are 2, l, 1}, 31;.
and the current cross—sectional area

/*:40°/.

/ 30“l..

V
SWESS,

!
YIELD YIELD STRESS CURVE

10 20 30 40
REDUCTION “In
r
FIG. 335

on the assumption of uniform diameter and with constant volume. A

graph of
apparent yield stress against the ratio do//20 is plotted for various
reductions (lzo——/1)//zox 100. percentage
r= In this expression do and /10 are the original
diameter and height respectively while /1 is
the current height. Extrapolation to
zero do//10 ratio (i.e. to infinite height) is used to give the
Fig. 335 shows this method true yield stress.
of deriving the results. The calculation and
plotting of the several stress against strain
curves is somewhat lengthy and the
extrapolation is not always easy to make. It
was found simpler and more
accurate to extrapolate on the basis of equal load instead
reductions. Ifcylinders ofdifferent heights, but of equal percentage
all subjected to the same load in succession,
ofthe same initial diameter are
then the taller the cylinder the more
it will deform fora given load, because
ofthe smaller interference from friction
at the ends. In addition the incremental loading technique
can be used, the
test piece being removed from the testing machine
so that the height can be
measured accurately without having to allow forelastic
strains in the apparatus.
 ___..__ a_

TESTS 651
PLANE STRAIN AND SIMPLE COMPRESSION
All four
Friction is reduced by relubricating between each load increment.
cylinders are successively subjected to the same load, and the percentage
against
reduction in height calculated. Extrapolation of percentage reduction
with an
:10‘.-’.’1o
ratio gives the percentage reduction that would have occurred
infinitely long test piece (Fig. 336).
For any gauge length
/10
in the infinitely‘ long test piece the ideal currc-nt
LOADS .-
YIcLD STRESS ct/.N‘>’E
~»~
T T2 T3 TA T5
'

-“":;‘“r"‘3
\
r '7 ...-..-.2
l
§'f—;fg‘é‘s’‘g’s‘”

STRESS
2%;
‘Th\...‘-....\._-..

YIELD

EXTRAPULATED '
POINTS REDUCTION PER CENT

FIG. 336

cross—sectional area,
height /2 can be found, and consequently the ideal current
and the true stress.
shown
The tension and compression curves for high conductivity copper are
in Fig. 337. The tensile results were obtained by measuring the minimum

warm 3
i

<(|'I1 H5
E
~
t
H0 .

,30
“
_
5
;
1
05 ‘

2’ i OMPRESSION» _a»——4
tooPLANEI

{
5 _ _ _ _

-J
§ EDMPRESSION t3_

g»~
Q;
\’‘/i 5
SIMPLE
‘

c 0 MP RE 5 so/v
I

lu :8
‘
SIMPLE COMPRESSION
CONVERTED
E
Z swpur rsivs/my

J
I

E
.. O
so 70 80 0A
10 20 30 40 so
FIG. 337
(From \V:Ius and Ford, 1955)

compressive
diameter of the neck, and the elongation strain converted to
strain, on the basis of equivalence of logarithmic strain (percentage compres-
sion is more convenient than logarithmic strain as an abscissa since it does not
extend the curve so much at higher values). The compression curve slightly
is

above the tensile at low strains, but is sensibly belowit at strains above about
20 per cent. This is more likely to be owing to uncertainties in assessing the
anything else, although the
true stress in the neck ofthe tensile test piece than
anisotropy developed by the two tests will be difTerent.
 DATA
652 XNTERPRETATION or MECH.—\.\’lCAL TEST
compression test on strip material
In Chapter 34, Section 4, the plane strain
close agreement with the true yield
was described, and it was shown that very variables xxithin certain lirnits.
stress can be obtained by holding the important 551.
To keep the friction to a
The principle of the test is shown in Fig. 275, p.
with relubrication between
minimum the load is applied in small increments,
oil was used, the graphite
each increment. A mixture of graphite and mineral
pencil. This method is clean
being applied by rubbing the strip with a graphite
parallel to the strip surface.
and simple and ensures that the flakes are smeared
graphite. The ratio of
A very thin layer of oil or grease is then spread over the
oil to graphite is critical ; excess oil is squeezed out under
load, carrying graphite
friction and tends to become
with it while graphite alone does not give such low
lubricant is present as a
embedded in the metal surface. In the ideal case, the
film covering the contact area after deformation.
dies acts as a restraint to
The non—deforming material on each side of the
elongating the material
lateral spread ofthe strip, all the deformation going into
widtli),/(die breadth) ratio is above about
between the dies, so long as the (strip thickness) ratio. It was
12. Another important factor is the (die breadth)/(strip
between the dies is
shown in Chapter 34 that although the deformation pattern is
thickness over 2: l, the
complex, when the ratio of die breadth to strip
two planes at 45° to the die
deformation approaches closely to pure shear on the
yield stress (measured by the die load divided by
axes, in which case the yield stress is simple tension or com-
contact area) is exactly Z/\/3 times the
pression.
far because friction
We cannot increase the (breadth)/(thickness) ratio too
will again intrude, even with incremental loading
and lubrication; but it is
deformation is main-
found that if the ratio is kept between 2:1 and 4:1 the
distinct advantages
tained very closely to plane compression. This method has material on
the eflect of the overhanging
over simple compression owing to deform according to a
each side of the dies which forces the plastic zone to
frictional restraint.
certain flow pattern rather than according to the
obtained in this way,
Fig. 337 shows curves for high conductivity copper
indentation but relubricating
making progressive load increments in the same
(die breadth)/(strip thick-
each time and changing the die breadth so that the
ness) ratio was kept between 2 and 4.
related to the simple
This basic stress~strain curve should be capable ofbeing diflier by the factor
compression curve: the stress ordinate should merely
1-155, while the strains occurring in the two cases can
be related through the
plotted as percentage
appropriate expressions for equivalent strain and
reduction in plane strain.
in Fig. 336, while B is
The lowest curve in Fig. 337 is simple compression, as
equivalent strain as plane com-
the same curve converted to the same basis of is shown as curve A and
pression (i.e. using (558), p. 417). Plane compression the
obtained as described above. The uppermost stress curve indicates
was is equal to the initial strip
correction that has to be made if the die breadth
279 in Chapter 34.
thickness, and compares, of course, with Fig.
is be remarked that this curve,
At the top, the ratio A/B is plotted. It to
 INDENTATION HARDNESS TESTING 653
ewtrapolated back to zero reduction, cuts the ordinate exactly at 1-155
( 2/\/3), but falls steadily with increasing deformation to value of about
a
1-08 at 80 per cent compression.
Herein lies one ofthe main difficulties in obtaining a basic yield stress
curve;
although by changing over to compression we can extend the total uniform
strain about twenty times compared with that in the tensile test, another factor
it enters in that metallic materials develop directional properties. For example,
the yield stress in the transverse direction (i.e. in the direction in which extension
is prevented) is about 8 to 13
per cent higher than in the longitudinal direction
in the plane strain test, and the anisotropy will develop differently under
different strain systems.
Plane strain compression is closely reached in cold rolling, and Fig. 313 in
Chapter 37 (p. 609) shows curves for mild steel obtained both by a direct plane
strain test as described above, and also on progressively cold rolled strip,
similarly tested after each pass. The difference between the
curves is the
additional (redundant) shearing in cold rolling owing to the curvature of
the rolls, which causes an additional shear not represented in the overall
reduction.
An approach to a stress-—strain curve by a predominantly tensile stress is
realised in wire—drawing (Chapter 38) in that overall strains much greater than
those in the tensile test are obtained without a neck forming in the wire. As
in cold rolling there is a non—uniform distribution of
stress and strain in the
die, so that a test carried out on a piece ofwire after each pass does not give
a basic stress—strain curve, although it may not be much in excess. But the
process at least serves to illustrate that elongations of several hundred per
cent are thus possible, compared with about 40 per cent for the most ductile
materials in simple tension, merely by suppressingthe radial tensile component
9‘
if stress.

5 Indentation Hardness Testing

Hardness is a quality ofthe surface ofa material that is assessed conventionally
in one oftwo main ways: resistance to penetration by some form ofindenting
tool, and by resistance to scratching or abrasion. Resistance to indentation
obviously bears some kind ofrelationshipto the yield stress, taken
over a range
of strain. This is much the most frequently used measure of hardness and we
shall not consider resistance to scratching abrasion except to note that they
or
are evidently far more concerned with the immediate surface layer. Scratch
hardness involves a cutting action ofone material by another, and is therefore
also question ofplasticity, at least ofa very thin layer.
In Chapter 34, we desci'ibed plane strain indentation ofu. non-worl<~hardcn—
ing solid by indenting tools of various l:intls, and showed the connection
bet e-en the applied load. the yield stress. and the coeilicient of friction for
indenting tools that provided geometrical similarity, irrespective ofthe depth
of penetration (pseudo-steady state problem).
Unwin proposed, with great insight, a liardness test in which a fully hardened