GEOGRAPHY REVISION 2017

STRUCTURE
Four Core Topics Global Interactions: 7 subtopics
Populations in transition Measuring global interactions

Disparities in wealth and Changing space - the shrinking world

development
Economic interactions and flows
Patterns in environmental Environmental change
quality and sustainability
Sociocultural exchanges
Patterns in resource
consumption Political outcomes

Global interactions at the local level

CORE - PATTERNS AND CHANGE

Overview of the key global issues of our time

Factual and conceptual introduction to the United Nations’

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

focusing on poverty reduction, gender equality, improvements

in health and education and environmental sustainability.

Developing knowledge of the likely causes and impacts of global

climate change
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
GOAL
1) ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY
AND HUNGER
2) ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY
EDUCATION
3) PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY
AND EMPOWER WOMEN
4) REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY
5) IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH
6) COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND
OTHER DISEASES
7) ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL
SUSTAINABILITY
8) DEVELOP GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP
FOR DEVELOPMENT
TARGET
Halve proportion of people living on >$1/day
Halve proportion of people suffering from hunger
Ensure all children complete a full course of primary schooling
Eliminate gender disparity in 1st and 2nd education by 2005
Ensure literacy parity between young men and women
Women’s equal representation in national parliaments
Reduce by 66% the <5y mortality rate
Universal child immunisation against measles
Reduce maternal mortality ratio by 75%
Halt and begin to reverse spread of HIV/AIDS
Halt and begin to reverse incidence of malaria
Halt and begin to reverse incidence of tuberculosis
Reverse loss of forests
Halve proportion without improved drinking water in urban/rural areas
Halve proportion without sanitation in urban/rural area
Improve lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020
Reduce youth unemployment
 Key definitions
WORD DEFINITION
CORE AND PERIPHERY The concept of a developed core surrounded by an undeveloped periphery.

ECOLOGICAL The theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to
FOOTPRINT produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology.

The changes in global patterns of rainfall and temperature, sea level, habitats and the
GLOBAL CLIMATE
incidences of droughts, floods and storms, resulting from changes in the Earth’s atmosphere,
CHANGE
believed to be mainly caused by the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Gross national income - the total value of goods and services produced within a country
GNI
together with the balance of income and payments from or to other countries.

The movement of people, involving a change of residence. Can be internal or external

MIGRATION (international) and voluntary or forced. Does not include temporary circulations such as
commuting or tourism.
REMITTANCES Transfers of money/goods by foreign workers to their home countries.
A severe reduction in the quality of soils. The term includes soil erosion, salinization and soil
SOIL DEGRADATION
exhaustion (loss of fertility).
Can be defined as:
• physical water scarcity, where water resource development is approaching or has exceeded
unsustainable levels; it relates water availability to water demand and implies that arid areas are
WATER SCARCITY
not necessarily water scarce
• economic water scarcity, where water is available locally but not accessible for human,
institutional or financial capital reasons
CORE 1 - POPULATIONS IN TRANSITION
Population change
Explain population trends and patterns in births (Crude Birth Rate), natural
increase and mortality (Crude Death Rate, infant and child mortality rates), fertility
and life expectancy in contrasting regions of the world. Analyse population
pyramids. Explain population momentum and its impact on population projections.
Responses to high and low fertility
Explain dependency and ageing ratios. Examine the impacts of youthful and ageing
populations. Evaluate examples of a pro-natalist policy and an anti-natalist policy.
Movement responses- migration
Discuss the causes of migrations, both forced and voluntary. Evaluate internal
(national) and international migrations in terms of their geographic (socio-
economic, political and environmental) impacts at their origins and destinations.
Gender and change
Examine gender inequalities in culture, status, education, birth ratios, health,
employment, empowerment, life expectancy, family size, migration, legal rights and
land tenure.
 FERTILITY
WORD MEANING

The number of live births per 1000 women aged

FERTILITY RATE
15-49 years per year.
The average number of children a woman is
TOTAL FERTILITY RATE expected to have in her lifetime. The total fertility
rate normally falls as a country develops.
 The total fertility rate needed for a country to
REPLACEMENT LEVEL
replace and maintain its population. The
FERTILITY
replacement rate is about 2.12.
The number of births per 1,000 of population
CRUDE BIRTH RATE
within a country per year.
BIRTH RATES
 BIRTH RATES
FACTORS CAUSING HIGH BIRTH RATES FACTORS CAUSING LOW BIRTH RATES
Primary based economy where children are
Availability and affordability of contraception
needed for work e.g. in farming
Women hold a more traditional role of
Education about contraception and family planning
rearing children doing the household duties
Lack of education or access to contraception Improvements in health care cause people to have fewer
and family planning children because they are less likely to die
The need for children to care for their elderly Female emancipation (females are free to get an education and
relatives work)
Status symbol of having a large family or the High cost per child – expensive pre-natal & antenatal care for
need to obtain a male heir women, educational costs.
Pro-natalist policies e.g. Singapore Anti-natalist policies e.g. China
Religious or legal practices- abortion and
Delayed marriage, decline in arranged marriages.
contraception frowned upon or illegal
Better care for the elderly- need for children to take care of
Marriage at a young age
the aged decreases
Mechanisation of primary sector and shift to secondary and
tertiary sectors.
Abortion more acceptable- possibly caused by changing
religious views and free-er values
People’s accomplishment less based on having a family
 MORTALITY
WORD MEANING

The number of deaths of infants under 1 year old

INFANT MORTALITY
per 1000 live births per year.

The number of deaths of children under 5 years

CHILD MORTALITY
old per 1000 live births per year.
The average age someone is expected to live
LIFE EXPECTANCY when they are born. Japan has the highest life
expectancy in the world.
The number of death per 1,000 of population
CRUDE DEATH RATE
within a country per year.
 Sex Occupation Age

Literacy
FACTORS AFFECTING LIFE
EXPECTANCY AND DEATH
RATES
Where you live

Accommodation

Nourishment
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL
 POPULATION PYRAMIDS

Dependency ratio: The ratio between dependents and economically active

 AGEING POPULATION

CAUSES SOLUTIONS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 AGEING POPULATION:
CASE STUDY - JAPAN
Healthy lifestyle in Japan and low birth rate has caused an ageing population

Highest proportion of elderly dependents (~23%). Lowest proportion of

young dependents (~13%) in the world.

Total fertility rate of 1.25- well below replacement level of 2.1.

In 2010 there were 3 economically active to 1 elderly person

UN predicts by 2045 there will be 3 elderly people to 4 economically active.

Japan is entering stage 5 of the demographic transition model

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioqic5TYM8k
 JAPAN CONTINUED
Disadvantages Causes Solutions
• Fewer economically • Healthy lifestlye • Pro-natalist
active- fewer people to • Huge technological policies —>
work in services. advantages paternity leave —>
Japan’s stock deprives jobs of
exchange can no • High density living- workers —>
children are
longer compete on the expensive and bad
expensive
world stage for economy
• Rural —> urban
• Number of people • Pensions reforms
migration
living in care increases • Compulsory health
- expensive • Migration of insurance
economically active
• No money to fund
out of the country
those in rural areas
 YOUTHFUL POPULATION

CAUSES SOLUTIONS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 YOUTHFUL POPULATION:
CASE STUDY - THE GAMBIA
Africa’s smallest country- on the river Gambia

Predominantly Muslim country —> polygamous marriages, fewer women’s

rights.

Men can have as many as 13 children from two wives

40/1000 people are under 15 years of age

Maternal mortality rate is high at 11%

Average life expectancy- 53 for men, 52 for women

45% young dependents, 3% elderly dependents, high dependency ratio- 92.3%

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B9vzYmAebCs
 THE GAMBIA CONTINUED
Disadvantages Causes Solutions
• More pressure on resources • Women are uneducated • Contraception
with a poor government- no and have no say in the awareness campaign is
money for infrastructure etc number of children they lowering population
• Houses are overcrowded- no bear • WHO is subsidising
running water. Few can • Religious teachers price of contraception
afford electricity discourage contraception- • NGOs and government
• Schools are overcrowded talking about sex is taboo are making social
• Schools have to adopt • Many Gambians live in rural marketing campaign for
substandard teaching e.g. areas and need children to contraception
half days help on the farms- primary • Trying to change male
sector economy attitudes to family size
• Overpopulation causes
deforestation for space and • Children are an economic and contraception
resources asset for religious, cultural
and economic reasons
• Gambians are some of the
poorest in the world
 PRO-NATALIST POLICY
CASE STUDY - SINGAPORE
Became independent in 1963

Population of 5.3 million with a population density of 7540ppl/km2

Had an anti-natalist policy from 1966-1982 which was successful and birth rate
fell below replacement level

By 1987 there was a pro-natalist policy in place to maintain replacement level,

increase work force and combat the ageing population

Singapore wants “5.5 million people to sustain Singapore’s economic growth and
provide a critical mass for development” - The Concept Plan

Policy to increase population by 40% over 40 years

New policy wants to increase population to 6.9 million by 2030

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lt52lI9HU6M
 SINGAPORE CONTINUED
Reasons for Policies Evaluation
falling population
• Women are able • Female friendly employers, • Singapore still has an ageing
to easily divorce nursing rooms, good population with 9.9% of the
and choose to maternity leave, easy to population over 65 years up
stay single or work from home from 6% in 1990 and the
have fewer • Govt has paid for 4 weeks median age increasing from 30
children maternity leave for women to 38.4
• Cost of raising —> now 16 weeks total • Actually migration has brought
children still very • Monetary incentives, tax the population up in Singapore
high incentives for the 3rd child more than efforts of the pro-
• Emigration of • Shorter work days so natalist policy
young, singles get together • Singapore have recently
economically • Encouragement of announced their plans to raise
active out of immigration of educated the population to 6.9 million by
Singapore people 2030- people are dubious as to
Singapore’s carrying capacity
 ANTI-NATALIST POLICY
CASE STUDY - CHINA’S ONE CHILD POLICY

China’s population doubled from 1949-1979 from 0.5 billion to 1 billion

China encouraged this population growth as they thought having many

workers would be the key to economic success

15 million people in Beijing

China is now trying to prevent a population crisis - One Child Policy

300 million children have not been born since 2007 due to the policy

Total fertility rate fallen from 6 to 1.7 (clearly some people have more than
one child)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D0BPWFnL_jY
 CHINA CONTINUED
China’s policy - Families are only allowed to have one child
Advantages of policy Problems with policy
• China would not have had the • Little Emperor Syndrome- comes from being an
economic growth it had only child —> spoilt
without the policy • The policy is too regulated and takes away basic
• Huge family planning network freedom of choice- some provinces sterilise law-
across the country- great care breakers
even in rural areas • The policy is rife with propaganda
• Prenatal services provided for • Female infanticide is common particularly in rural
all workers areas where they need males to work the land
• Availability of contraception • Female infanticide occurs in cities and causes an
has increased- fewer STIs abundance of young, angry males who can’t find
a partner
• Many young girls are in orphanages
• Richer parents can pay bribes for more children
 MIGRATION
WORD DEFINITION
A person who moves from one place to another in order to find work or
MIGRANT
better living conditions- does not include seasonal/temporary work
FORCED When people are forced to migrate, usually because their life is in danger
MIGRATION e.g. war or natural disaster.
Someone who has been forced to leave their home and country. People
may be refugees due to war, natural disasters e.g. floods, earthquakes and
REFUGEE
volcanoes, famine and drought, political unrest e.g. Syria, Egypt and Libya
and persecution e.g. ethnic, religious e.g. Rwanda
A person who, from fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, social
ASYLUM SEEKER group or political opinion, has crossed an international frontier into a
country in which he or she hopes to be granted refugee status.

Money sent home from family members or friends living an earning money
REMITTANCES
in a different location, normally a foreign country
MIGRATION ACCORDING TO LEE (1966)
Push and Pull Factors

Push factors: negative features that cause a person to move away from the place e.g.
unemployment, low wages, natural hazards

Pull factors: the attractions (perceived or real) that exist in another place eg better
wages, more jobs, good schools

LIMITATIONS?
 RAVENSTEIN’S PATTERNS OF MIGRATION
Findings Explanation
Most migrants proceed over a Due to limited technology and transport and poor
short distance communications people know more about local opportunities
than international ones

Migration occurs in a series of
steps or stages
As well as movement to large
cities, there is movement away
from them (dispersal)
Typically from rural to small town, to large town to city, ie once
in an urban area people become ‘locked in’ to the urban
hierarchy
The rich move away from the urban areas and commute from
nearby villages and towns

Urban dwellers migrate less than There are fewer opportunities in rural areas
rural dwellers
Women are more migratory than Especially for marinade and in societies where the status of
men over short distances women is low
Migration increases with E.g. transport, communications and the spread of information
advances in technology
 WHY DO PEOPLE MIGRATE
INTERNATIONALLY?

FORCED VOLUNTARY

INTERVENING
OBSTACLES

PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS

 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES FOR
SOURCE COUNTRY
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES FOR
SOURCE COUNTRY
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Reduction in unemployment as
Brain drain - losing your most
more jobs become available
educated and skilled workers.
Remittances sent home from
Shortage of workers, especially in
migrants living abroad
agriculture during periods of
Migrants may return home with
harvest
SOURCE/ new skills
Increase in the dependency ratio as
LOSING Increased political ties with
COUNTRY
economically active migrate
migrants’ host country
Separation of families. This may
Reduced pressure on education
include children losing one or both
and healthcare system
of their parents
Reduction in births rates and total
Creates dependency on
fertility rate as many migrants are in
remittances
the reproductive age range
 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES FOR
HOST COUNTRY
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES FOR HOST
COUNTRY
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

A possible increase in racial tensions

between newly arrived migrants and
Brain gain - Receiving educated and
local population
skilled workers.
Increased population can cause greater
As well as trained migrants there will
pollution and overcrowding
be as source of cheap migrants (low
There may be a rise in unemployment
paid) to fill manual jobs.
when migrants accept lower paid
HOST/ There will be increased cultural
positions, making more of the local
RECEIVING diversity as migrants arrive with their
population unemployed e.g. Polish in
COUNTRY own culture of food, dance, language,
the UK
etc.
Increasing pressure on services. This
Growth of local market with increase
may include schools and hospitals, but
of population
also electricity and water supply.
If migrants are legal, then an increase in
Growth of black market and informal
tax revenues for the government
economy if migrants are illegally
present
FORCED MIGRATION CASE STUDY - RWANDA
Forced migration has been increasing steadily for the last 15 years
1 in every 35 people in the world is an international migrant
Rwanda is in central, east Africa. It was originally a Belgian colony
Hutu militia started routinely killing Tutsi people in 1994 following the
President’s plane being shot down
900,000 Rwandans were killed during a 100 day period between April and
July
100,000 children were orphaned
Over 2 million people escaped and became refugees between April and
August
250,000 Rwandans fled to Tanzania from ethnic violence
The Tutsis gained power in June 1994 and there are now many Hutu
refugees in the Congo and Tanzania
 VOLUNTARY MIGRATION
CASE STUDY - POLAND TO THE UK
An estimated 35000-91000 migrants thought to have settled in the UK over 7 years
from 2006-2013

64% of the ~300,000 migrants applying for work permits in the UK were Polish

Unemployment in Poland is very high at 20% in 2004

In 2010, 86% of the Polish born population in the UK were economically active

Polish plan to come to UK for 4-5 years in order to save enough money to buy a house
in Poland. They can earn in Britain 5x what they earn in Poland

Many of the workers coming are skilled

83.8% of Poles aged 16-64 in the UK were economically active in 2009

The peak of Polish migration as in 2007 when 96,000 Poles came to the UK
 INTERNAL MIGRATION

PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS

INTERNAL MIGRATION IN CHINA

The urban population in China increases by 15-20million people each

year - the largest rural —> urban migration in the world occurs in
China

Until recently China restricted the movement of people internally

through hukou which meant they couldn't receive education, medical
care and other services in any place other than their birth place.

The necessary rural —> urban migration of people in villages

created a huge population of displaced people who could not stay in
the countryside but could not settle in the city
 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES FOR
URBAN AND RURAL AREAS
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES FOR URBAN AND
RURAL AREAS
ADVANTAGES
New workers can fill low paid jobs e.g.
factory and construction work
Government has better control over
the population if they live in urban
areas. May join formal economy and
CITIES (E.G. pay taxes
BEIJING Easier for the government to provide
services like schools and hospital
Migrants may become better educated
and reduce birth rates and population
growth.
Reduced unemployment rate
Reduced overcrowding in schools and
RURAL AREAS
hospitals
(E.G. HAIAN Remittances may be sent back to families
PROVINCE
Reduced pressure on limited electricity
and water supply
DISADVANTAGES
Increased congestion
Causes urban sprawl as informal
housing is built
Increased pollution, especially water
and air because of traffic and waste
Pressure on schools and hospitals
Higher unemployment due to surplus
Pressure on electricity and water
supply
Possible crime and growth in informal
economy as people don't have jobs
Increased dependency ratio as young
and old are left behind.
May be a shortage of workers/
labourers, especially during the harvest
season in agruculture.
Families may become separated as
young adults migrate.
 Legal rights and tenure
Work
Empowerment
World gender ratios

Health
GENDER
Migration INEQUALITIES
Life expectancy

Education
Culture and status

Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)

 GENDER INEQUALITIES
75% of world’s
illiterate population Problems with lack of
are female education:
1. dependence on
men
2. illiteracy makes
everything difficult
EDUCATION 3. high birth rate
4. lack of confidence
Female genital
5. unemployed
mutilation (FGM)-
6. poor health
estimated 100-140
million mutilated
females in the world
Advantages of educating females:
1. better health care for children
2. reduced birth rate
HEALTH
3. confidence
4. equality Complications:
5. contribute to economy WHO trying to stop pain, shock, infection,
FGM occurring. shame, fear,
Working with haemorrhage, tetanus,
charities and NGOs infertility, bladder
problems
 GENDER INEQUALITIES CONT.
Discrimination Gender Empowerment Measure
especially when Pay gap
women are of
child-bearing age Glass ceiling Measures the extent to
which females and males GEM
participate in decision
making processes in the
WORK country 1. Political participation
Stereotypes 2. Economic participation
3. Power over economic
Top countries are nordic
resources
Botton countries are Muslim-
Forbidden to work in Harder to
Saudi Arabia, Niger
some countries by men find work
eg Saudi Arabia

Women often migrate with their Honour killings Dowries

children- harder to find work

Women may have to Arranged or

leave their children forced marriages- CULTURE AND
MIGRATION with relatives and go can occur at a STATUS
and find work young age for
females
POPULATION PROBLEMS IN INDIA
India’s population is now 1.25 billion- almost as high as China’s

India’s population is rapidly growing. Population size becoming a big

problem

Birth rate is decreasing but not quickly enough

In the 1970s India forcibly sterilised 8-9 million men per year

Ever since people are wary of government policies- will not stand for a
one child policy

The province of Kerala has a very low infant mortality rate compared to
Indian national average- 17/1000 compared to 85/1000
 CASE STUDY- KERALA, INDIA
There are no significant resources in Kerala- it will never industrialise

There is a low infant mortality rate, high life expectancy and a falling population size

The women are very well educated- they go to school, colleges and universities

The women of Kerala have autonomy in their own lives- very different from other parts of
India

There is absolute gender equality

There is a joint family system where both the female and male’s family are equal- no patronliny

No one in Kerala lives far from healthcare, schools or services

An example of a natural process of women’s empowerment and emancipation causing a

naturally falling birth rate, death rate and an increasing life expectancy.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NdujfJVShKk
CORE 2 - DISPARITIES IN WEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Population change
Define indices of infant mortality, education, nutrition, income, marginalization
and Human Development Index (HDI). Explain the value of the indices in
measuring disparities across the globe.
Origin of disparities
Explain disparities and inequities that occur within countries resulting from
ethnicity, residence, parental education, income, employment (formal and
informal) and land ownership.
Disparities and change
Identify and explain the changing patterns and trends of regional and global
disparities of life expectancy, education and income.
Examine the progress made in meeting the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) in poverty reduction, education and health.
Reducing disparities
Discuss the different ways in which disparities can be reduced with an
emphasis on trade and market access, debt relief, aid and remittances.
Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies designed to reduce disparities.
 MEASURING DISPARITIES-
REGIONAL AND GLOBAL
Infant Mortality Marginalisation

Education

Gross National Product

Nutrition
Gross National Income
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX- HDI

Used by the UN since 1990 as a measure of development.

More reliable and comprehensive measure of human development

and well being than GNI per head

3 components

Longevity (life expectancy)

Knowledge (adult literacy and average number of years’ schooling)

Standard of living (purchasing power adjusted to cost of living)

REGIONAL DISPARITIES
The development gap
between countries
ORIGIN OF DISPARITIES WITHIN
COUNTRIES
Employment Income
Ethnicity

Residence

Parental education Personal education

Private ownership of land

 GINI COEFFICIENT

Measurement of inequalities in a country

Score of 0 means perfect equality. Score of 100 means one person owns everything
in a country

Areas with a high GINI coefficient are Latin America, Africa

Mexico = 51.7 Botswana = 63

Areas with a low GINI coefficient are Nordic counties and some MEDCs

Norway = 25

Exception is USA with a high coefficient at 45

ROSTOW MODEL

Criticisms
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIFE
EXPECTANCY
World’s current life expectancy about 70 years

Huge gap between highest: Monaco- 89y and the lowest: Angola-
38y

Life expectancy in East and SE Asia increases fast however life

expectancy in sub-saharan Africa has been falling since 1985 due
to …..

World’s average life expectancy increasing by about 25y in last

50y. Why?
IN SOME COUNTRIES LE HAS FALLEN

Sierra Leone

Botswana 60 —> 39 1985 —>2011

Ethiopia

DIFFERENCES WITHIN COUNTRIES

 LIFE EXPECTANCY
CASE STUDY - CHICAGO

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ktxUiHK_gHc
 LIFE EXPECTANCY
CASE STUDY - CHICAGO
Education represents
1. Access to healthcare
2. Income level
3. Access to jobs
This has a profound influence on Life Expectancy (LE)

Being highly educated leads to having a higher LE

The higher the level of education (up to 25y) the higher the LE

In Chicago there is a street with a 15 year LE difference across the street- one side
belongs in the university area, the other side houses uneducated, poor people
There is a huge LE disparity- one side of the street could be in a 3rd world country
given its LE

One side of the street has less access to healthcare, food. Higher instances of diabetes.

Information produced in 2014

 HIV/AIDS
CASE STUDY - MISSISSIPPI
Southern USA- heart of the ‘Bible Belt’

Very socially conservative- very religious, homophobic, stigma, denial

The gay African American community suffers worst from the disease

More people live with HIV and die from AIDs than anywhere else in the country.
Mississippi has the highest rates of new infections in the country.

AIDs is not tested for because people are ashamed and doctors don't think to look for
HIV/AIDs

The death rate from AIDs is 60% higher than the national average

Sexual health lessons in school talk about abstinence only- don’t address the real problem

Mississippi has the highest levels of teen births and gonorrhoea in the country because of
a lack of education

Information produced in 2012

 REDUCING DISPARITIES
WORD MEANING
The exchange of goods and/or services. The exchange may be for other goods and/or
TRADE services but is normally for money.
A group of countries joined to promote trade. E.g. through relaxing protectionist
TRADING BLOC barriers, having a common currency. E.g. EU, NAFTA and ASEAN.


EXPORTS Goods and/or services produced within a country and then sold overseas

IMPORTS Goods and/or services purchased overseas and brought into a country.
Restrictions placed on a country's trading. E.g. after Kuwait was invaded by Iraq; Iraq
SANCTIONS not allowed to buy any military goods or weapons. Sanction was enforced by the UN.

Attempts to protect domestic markets by making foreign goods less competitive. Most
PROTECTIONISM commonly done through tariffs and quotas placed on foreign goods and subsidies
given to domestic goods.

EMBARGO An official ban on trade or other commercial activity with a particular country.

Tax/duties placed on imported products to make them more expensive and reduce
TARIFFS demand for them.
A limit placed on foreign goods to reduce the supply of them, therefore forcing the
QUOTAS price up reducing the demand for them.
Financial help given to companies to decrease production costs. Could be through grants,
SUBSIDIES reduction of taxes, relaxed planning control or below marked price electricity/water. Aim of
subsidies is to make products cheaper and to protect them from overseas competition.

 REDUCING DISPARITIES CONTINUED
WORD MEANING
FREE TRADE Allows a country to trade competitively with another country with no restrictions.
The WTO is an organisation aimed at protecting free global trade. It replaced GATT in 1995
WORLD TRADE
and has 153 members. To join the WTO you have to demonstrate how your country
ORGANISATION
promotes and practices free trade.
Trade that attempts to be socially, economically & environmentally responsible to address the
FAIR TRADE
failings of the global trading system.
BALANCE OF TRADE When the value of your exports is greater than the value of your imports.
SURPLUS
BALANCE OF TRADE
When the value of your imports is greater than the value of your exports.
DEFICIT
FOREIGN DIRECT
FDI is money invested in a foreign country by TNCs or other countries.
INVESTMENT
TRANSNATIONAL
A TNC is a company that operates in multiple countries.
CORPORATION
Small loans that are given to people that normally struggle to get credit from normal banks. The
MICROCREDIT
pioneer of microcredit was Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.
A zone/area where tariffs and quotas may be waived, taxes lowered, planning relaxed and
bureaucracy eased to encourage investment and FDI.
FREE TRADE ZONES Many countries that have developed in recent years e.g. China, South Korea have developed
through a focus on trade. This has enabled the countries as a whole to have a higher income
leading to positive implications on development of the countries.
INTERNATIONAL FREE
TRADE AS A SOLUTION
 INTERNATIONAL FREE TRADE AS A SOLUTION
BENEFITS OF FREE TRADE
Gives local companies chance to become
global companies (TNC)
Local companies may create pollution and may
not be able to prevent it.
Mexico has increased its exports since joining
NAFTA
Trading can improve relationships between
countries —> less likely to go to war
Jobs created for local workers
Workers may improve skill and education
Infrastructure e.g. roads and ports are
improved for the whole country
Laws to protect worker rights
More money selling to external markets
instead of just domestic market
Residents can buy a greater variety of products
Companies may become more competitive —
> lower prices
NEGATIVES OF FREE TRADE
TNCs may take over local producers e.g. Walmart
moving to El Salvador and taking over local
supermarkets
Workers often exploited by TNCs and paid low wages
Countries may become dependent on foreign countries
imports or workers e.g. Europe relies on Russian gas
Producing locally reduces transport costs and air miles
Local companies may use more appropriate technology
and look after the environment better
The most skilled jobs will be taken by foreign workers and
may lead to unemployment of locals
Profits go overseas- economic leakage e.g. tourism in
Egypt
TNCS often don’t care about the environment
Fast food franchises like Starbucks and Burger King may
cause local restaurants to close
Fast food restaurants may worsen people’s diets
TNCs may close factories during economic recessions
leading to unemployment
Countries may be forced to change policies to suit TNCs e.g.
lower taxes.
 AID
WORD MEANING
Help that is given to a country that is suffering from a natural disaster or conflict.
EMERGENCY AID May include food, water, tents, clothing or even rescue teams
Aid that is given to benefit the country. E.g. money to improve infrastructure or
DEVELOPMENT AID money to build a new hospital or school to benefit the people of a country.
Aid that is given to a country with proviso that they spend it in a particularly way
TIED AID or follow a particular policy.
Aid that is given by multiple donors to a specific country. Multilateral aid may be
MULTILATERAL AID collected by an NGO or a UN organisation e.g. UNHCR or WFP.

BILATERAL AID Aid that is given by one country directly to another country.
NON-GOVERNMENTAL NGOs have no connections with national governments. Usually charitable
ORGANISATIONS organisations who aim to benefit local communities and support development
WORLD BANK Formed at Bretton Woods in 1944 the World Bank helps developing nations.
SAPs were implemented by the IMF. Aid/loans were usually dependent on
STRUCTURAL countries following SAPs. SAPs aimed to cut social expenditure, liberalise trade,
ADJUSTMENT privatise assets and reduce corruption. Unfortunately many policies were criticised
PROGRAMMES because they ended up favouring MEDCs and TNCs who were able to obtain
favourable trading terms and purchase undervalued government assets.
AID AS A SOLUTION
 AID AS A SOLUTION
ADVANTAGES
After a natural disaster, food and
medical aid can be vital in saving lives
and cannot always be provided by the
affected government.
Aid can help build expensive
infrastructure products e.g. new roads,
ports, irrigation projects or HEP
stations.
Can help build schools and hospitals
that improve the health and education
of local populations.
Many aid agencies employ local
workers. This creates employment &
also teaches locals new skills.
Bottom-up aid where locals are
fully involved and make all key
decisions.
Charities provide education about
hygiene, diet and health. These
schemes don’t create dependency, but
do improve the well-being of societies.
DISADVANTAGES
Countries can become dependent on money given in aid
instead of developing their own economy to become
independent.
Aid money can be taken by corrupt officials/governments.
Medicine can be stopped by the government and is out of date
when it reaches victims.
Tied aid can force countries to accept bad policies. Many
contracts go to companies from donors —> receiving country
doesn't benefit e.g. jobs, training and income.
IMF had structural adjustment programmes that forced
countries to make harmful economic changes in order to get
loans.
Food aid/food dumping, can force local food production to
collapse. Food is dumped. This undercuts local food market and
takes local farmers out of business.
Aid may stop because of political changes in donor country/
receiving country or because of economic problems.
Aid can fund inappropriate/harmful technologies that can’t be
sustained e.g. Nuclear power.
Aid is sometimes given as loans, which can cause debt e.g. to
World Bank/IMF
 FOOD AID
CASE STUDY- MALAWI
Problem
20% of the population have AIDS. Life
expectancy is 37. There were famines in
2002, 2003, 2005
In 2005 1/3 of 3 million people were
reliant on food aid
At least 300,000 people are fed my the
UN world food programme
Landless farm labourers went
unemployed as farm owners had no cash
Solution
Corn soya blend (CSB)
Widely used in emergency food aid
$20m of CSB donated by US govt to provide 8000 tonnes
442,000 meals given free too school kids each day
School attendance across Malawi up by 7%
Mothers paid to come to schools and cook food
However due to cost of shipping etc it would be more
beneficial for US to just donate the money however that
leaves it open to corruption

Evaluation
Due to cost of shipping etc it would be more beneficial for US to just donate the
money however that leaves it open to corruption

US food programme inevitable picked apart by private interests and benefit goes to
US commerce

Free food causes people to move to refugee camps and become dependent on aid
 TRADE NOT AID
CASE STUDY- SHOALS OF CAPRICORN
Background Problems
Rodrigues Island in the Indian ocean is Lack of economic diversity- only fishing.
one of the most isolated places on earth Trouble with overfishing.
There is a rapidly rising population now Deforestation of the island for farmland —>
at 41,000 soil erosion —> reef damage
Most people live in the capital of Port No good mechanism for waste disposal —>
Mathurin pollution
In stage 2 of the DTM
Solution
The Royal Geographic Society stepped and started to investigate and monitor the
marine life in Rodrigues
Training people in the eco-friendly lifestyle - educating 300 adults and 400 children
Training local people to have a range of skills and develop an eco-tourism based
economy. Many benefits
The program is self administering once the RGS leaves
 PROBLEMS WITH TRADE
CASE STUDY- CAMBODIA
Background What happened
In the 1970s there was the Vietnam war and Cambodia industrialised itself out of poverty and
Cambodia went through terrible times with created export-led developments
genocide and an awful communist regime
There was positive discrimination for Cambodia with
1/3 of the country’s population were executed their garments
by Pol Pot
However the positive discrimination was scrapped in
Cambodia has caterpillars which produce
2005 and the country had to compete on the free
naturally golden silk
trade market
250,000 women work in garment factories-
empowerment of women

Problems
Cambodia must either face mass unemployment or deteriorate conditions for workers in order
to meet China’s low standards and low costs.
Massive job losses are feared as Cambodia has strong trade unions
Cambodia must try and use its high standards to appeal to people’s morals and ethics- fair trade
clothes
Decent labour standards must be a requirement of poor countries if the World Bank is going to
lend them money otherwise low standards push countries with high standards out
 THE HEAVILY INDEBTED POOR COUNTRIES
INITIATIVE - HIPC
Launched in 1996 by the IMF and the World Bank and endorsed by 180
governments there are two main objectives
Relieve certain low-income countries of their unsustainable debt to
donors
Promote reform and sound policies for growth, human development
and poverty reduction
Of the 42 countries participating in the initiative, 34 are in sub-saharan
Africa. None had a PPP above $1500 in 2001 and all rank low on the HDI
MEDCs should set targets to increase development assistance, remove
tariffs and quotas on agricultural products, textiles and clothing and
finance debt reduction for HIPCs having reached their completion points
to ensure sustainability
REMITTANCES AS A SOLUTION
REMITTANCES AS A SOLUTION
ADVANTAGES
Reduces unemployment
Reduces pressure on schools
and hospitals (if migrants take
children)
Reduces pressure on
infrastructure (houses, water,
electricity, transport)
Remittances go directly to
friends and family so enter
economy at local level
Migrants can return with new
skills (language, ICT)
Improved relations with
countries (Barack Obama
recently visited El Salvador)
DISADVANTAGES
Remittances fall during economic downturn.
This is probably the time remittances are most
needed
It can create dependency i.e. a family relying on
one or two members living abroad
Creates family division and family pressure/
conflict (the need to provide)
Increased dependency ratio in losing country,
placing pressure on government
Brain drain. Usually the youngest, most
educated and skilled choose to leave.
Reduces incentive of government to invest in
education and job provision
Migrants are open to extortion (family
members may be threatened for money or
migrants might lose money on exchange rates/
transfer fees)
 REMITTANCES
CASE STUDY - EL SALVADOR
Remittances make a significant contribution to many countries’ overall income
El Salvador received the equivalent of 20% of its GDP from Salvadorians living
abroad, mainly in the US.
El Salvador is a Central American Country with a population of 6.3m and a
population density of ~290 per km2
GDP per capita is ~$7000 but close to 40% people live below the poverty line
Official unemployment is just over 7%, but the true figure is probably much
higher.
Due to high levels of poverty an estimated two million Salvadorians have
migrated abroad, mostly to the US.
The exact figure is unknown because many migrants travel illegally. With two
million migrants living abroad, it is estimated that El Salvador receives about $4
billion in remittances every year. This figure could be higher due to money
returning through unofficial channels.
 CORE 3 - PATTERNS IN ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY AND
SUSTAINABILITY
Atmosphere and change
Describe the functioning of the atmospheric system in terms of the energy balance between
solar and longwave radiation. Explain the changes in this balance due to external forces
(changes in solar radiation, changes in the albedo of the atmosphere and changes in the
longwave radiation returned to space). Discuss the causes and environmental consequences
of global climate change.
Soil and change
Explain the causes of soil degradation. Discuss the environmental and socio-economic
consequences of this process, together with management strategies.
Water and change
Identify the ways in which water is utilized at the regional scale. Examine the environmental
and human factors affecting patterns and trends in physical water scarcity and economic
water scarcity. Examine the factors affecting access to safe drinking water.
Biodiversity and change
Explain the concept and importance of biodiversity in tropical rainforests. Examine the causes
and consequences of reduced biodiversity in this biome.
Sustainability and the environment
Define the concept of environmental sustainability. Evaluate a management strategy at a local
or national scale designed to achieve environmental sustainability.
 ATMOSPHERE AND CHANGE
WORD MEANING
The balance between incoming solar (short-wave)
ENERGY BALANCE
radiation and outgoing (long-wave) radiation.
Incoming solar radiation (insolation) arriving from the
SOLAR RADIATION
sun.

LONGWAVE Long wave radiation is emitted from cooler bodies,

RADIATION e.g. the earth. It is mainly infrared heat.

The changes in global patterns of rainfall and

temperature, sea level, habitats and the incidences of
GLOBAL CLIMATE
droughts, floods and storms, resulting from changes in
CHANGE
the Earth’s atmosphere, believed to be mainly caused
by the enhanced greenhouse effect.
GLOBAL ENERGY BUDGET
 CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Global dimming and brightening Albedo

Sunspots

Earth’s orbit
Enhanced Greenhouse effect

Volcanic eruptions and meteors

 CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
CAUSE EXPLANATION

Amount of solar energy reaching earth fluctuates.

Air pollution which produces greenhouse gasses meaning energy bounces
GLOBAL DIMMING off atmospheric layer into space causes global dimming.
Also changes in properties of clouds i.e. more water in clouds causes
dimming

GLOBAL Changes in cloud cover and destruction of the ozone layer can lead to
BRIGHTENING more sunlight hitting the earth - global brightening.
Proportion of solar energy reflected by object.
High albedo = more reflective, eg snow
ALBEDO Low albedo = less reflective eg tarmac
Deforestation/desertification: albedo of dark vegetation is high —> causes
more energy trapping
Solar variation: changes in the amount of solar radiation. Cycle every 11
years. Increased magnetic activity produces dark spots. These cool gases
SUNSPOTS within.
Solar energy can decrease by 0.2% at times causing reduced surface
temperature. Changes climate.
 CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING
CAUSE EXPLANATION

Milankovitch cycles: movement of earth changes climate-

EARTH’S ORBIT tilt of earth’s axis affects how much energy it receives.
Works on a cyclical bases.
The greenhouse effect is the natural process that keeps
humans warm.
ENHANCED The greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere trap energy.
GREENHOUSE EFFECT However humans are releasing too much greenhouse
gas enhancing this effect and causing the earth to
become warmer.

These alter the climate for certain periods of time.

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Mt Pinotubo erupted in 1991.
AND METEORS
The average global temperature decreased
THE ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Carbon dioxide- CO2
Levels have risen from ~315parts per million in 1950 to 355ppm in 2013. Expected
to reach 600ppp by 2050.
Increase is due to humans burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) and
deforestation- creates CO2 and eliminates photosynthesis
Methane
The second largest contributor to global warming. Increasing at a rate of 1% per year
Cattle convert ~10% of food they eat into methane and emit 100m tonnes of
methane into the atmosphere per year
Natural wetland and paddy fields emit ~150m tonnes of methane per year.
Global warming causes bogs trapped in permafrost to melt releasing methane
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Synthetic chemicals that destroy ozone and absorb long-wave radiation. Increasing at
6% per year and are ~10,000x more efficient at trapping heat than CO2
EFFECTS OF OZONE DEGRADATION
Stratospheric ozone filters out most of the sun's potentially harmful shortwave
ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

If this ozone becomes depleted, then more UV rays will reach the earth.

Exposure to higher amounts of UV radiation could have serious impacts on human

beings, animals and plants.

Adverse impacts on agriculture, forestry and natural ecosystems

Damage to marine life

Animals

Materials
Harm to human health
 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Rise in sea levels
Could cause flooding in low-lying areas
E.g. Netherlands, Egypt and Bangladesh
up to 200m people could be displaced

Extinction of up to 40% of species of wildlife

Increase in storm activity due to

more atmospheric energy Changes in agricultural patterns
E.g. a decline in the USA’s grain belt, but an
increase in Canada’s growing season

Reduced rainfall in the US, southern Europe and CIS

POLICIES TO COMBAT CLIMATE
CHANGE

The Kyoto Protocol

An agreement signed by 38 industrialised countries

in 1997 which promised to cut their emissions of 6
greenhouse gases linked to global warming

Without the protocol there would be 30% more

greenhouse gases being emitted
 SOIL AND CHANGE
TYPE OF SOIL DEGRADATION EXPLANATION

Rain of wind blowing away topsoil and

WIND AND WATER
causing degradation

BIOLOGICAL The loss of humus/plant/animal life

The loss of soil structure or change in

PHYSICAL
permeability

The change in the chemical composition of

CHEMICAL soil. This could be acidification, salinisation
or chemical pollution or loss of nutrients
THE UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION- USLE
USLE = RKLSCP
FACTOR DESCRIPTION
Ecological conditions
How vulnerable the soil is to being eroded because of rainfall. Intense
Erosivity of soil R rainfall or prolonged rainfall causes greater erosion. Rainfall onto bare soil
causes greater erosion than onto vegetation.
How susceptible the soil is to erosion. Soils with high infiltration rates and
Erodibility K strong structure are less vulnerable to erosion.

Length-slope factor LS This is simply the length of the slope and the steepness of the slope.

Land-use types
This is the types of crops being grown and the farming practices. Grass
and forest provide better protection than many crops. Leaving the land
Crop management C fallow or having prolonged periods between harvests can leave soil
vulnerable.
The type of conservation methods used e.g. contour ploughing, terracing
Soil conservation P and shelter belts.
THE NITROGEN CYCLE
SOIL DEGRADATION
 SOIL DEGRADATION
HUMAN CAUSES PHYSICAL CAUSES
Overgrazing
Leaves ground susceptible to wind and water erosion
Overcultivation • Rising temperatures
All nutrients in soil get used up • Harder for vegetation to
Deforestation grow leads to increased
Fewer nutrients + erosion of soil erosion
Overpopulation • Falling rainfall
Demand for agricultural products increases • Harder for vegetation to
Fertiliser and pesticide use grow in arid soil
Water sources can get polluted and reduce capacity of land • Flash floods
HYV and GM crops • Cause erosion
Industrial Pollution • Wind
Chemicals, metals and other pollutants damage the land • Causes erosion
Unsustainable Water Use (aquifer depletion, unsustainable • Topography
irrigation) • Flat land susceptible to
Areas become increasingly arid as water is used (Aral Sea) wind erosion, sloped land
Toyotarisation susceptible to water
Increased use of 4x4s to travel erodes land erosion
Conflict
Biological and chemical weapons degrade quality of soil
PROBLEMS CAUSED BY SOIL EROSION

Conflict Famine
Desertification

Dust Storms Topsoil erosion

Reduced crop yield

Increased use of chemicals

 SOLUTIONS TO SOIL EROSION

Crop rotation and fallow periods Shelter belts

Reforestation and afforestation

Fertilisers
Grazing quotas Irrigation

Terracing and contour ploughing Urban planning

Organic farming
Population control GM crops
 SOIL DEGRADATION
CASE STUDY - CHINA

https://youtu.be/wMhGjguEmLI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VS-v0b8GkFs
 SOIL DEGRADATION
CASE STUDY - CHINA
The problem
• The Gobi desert spanning parts of China and
Mongolia comes to the outskirts of Beijing
• The desert is growing by as much as 950
square miles per year
• Every year huge amounts of sand blows into
Beijing from the desert in a sandstorm
• The sand pollutes the city and makes it very
dirty. It is a natural disaster which has for
many years been getting worse
Causes of the problem
• Overpopulation
• Deforestation
• Overfarming
• Misuse of water
What is being done
• A project called the ‘The Green Wall of China’ has
been introduced to try and stop the encroaching
desert
• The barrier of trees stretches from inner Mongolia
to Beijing over 2800 miles
• It acts as a windbreak stopping the sand from
blowing into Beijing
• It creates an artificial ecosystem which stabilises
the sand dunes of the desert and helps plants to
grow keeping the sand in place
• It is working and the sandstorms are reducing in
strength however some environmentalists say the
issues of global climate change needs to be
addressed for the problem to be solved.
• Reducing livestock farming and water consumption
would also help reduce the problem
 WATER AND CHANGE
TERM MEANING

Where the demand for water is greater than the supply of water.
PHYSICAL WATER Physical water scarcity does not have to be an arid environment,
SCARCITY because the demand for water in arid environments (deserts) is
normally low meaning that there is no shortage.

Where there is water available, but for some economic reason it is

ECONOMIC WATER not possible to fully utilise the source of water. This might because
SCARCITY extraction or transportation costs are too high, or because the water
is polluted and it is not possible to treat it.

When the demand for water exceeds supply during a set period of
WATER STRESS
time leading to shortages.

SAFE DRINKING Water that is safe for human consumption. The water must be free
WATER from harmful pollutants and bacteria that could make people ill.
WATER UTILISATION AT THE REGIONAL SCALE
CAUSES OF WATER SHORTAGES
Population growth
Domestic demand
Pollution

Sewage Agricultural demand Industrial demand

Climate change
Political
Mismanagement

Groundwater depletion Energy production

 PROBLEMS CAUSED BY WATER
SHORTAGES
Drought Crop failure

Famine
Livestock death
Conflict Refugees

Disease
Eutrophication
Biodiversity loss

Groundwater depletion (subsidence and saltwater intrusion)

 WATER MISMANAGEMENT
CASE STUDY - THE ARAL SEA
Aral Sea was one of the largest inland seas in the world
As the Soviet Union grew they developed a number of plans to maximise
production and boost the economy
Water was siphoned off two rivers that ran into the Aral Sea
Caused less water to flow into Aral Sea
Fertiliser used to grow cotton ran into rivers polluting them and the Aral
Sea
Aral Sea used as a dumping ground for SU’s biological warfare testing
Chemicals have caused 83% of children in the area to have bad health
The area is now a desert area with people only allowed water for 25
minutes a day
Water pipes must be above ground to protect from pollution
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FzvEW1FHc60
WATER SCARCITY CASE STUDY - UK
25 million people live in south-east of UK
Relatively low rainfall: 550-650mm
Lots of water in the west and low density population but not
exported to east
Highly developed area with high demand for water
Bough Beach reservoir in Kent needs powerful pumps to bring water
up to it- uses a lot of electricity
Growing population density putting a strain on water supplies
Hose pipe bans and water-saving technology encouraged
Bad management and lack of planning causing water shortages
 PHYSICAL WATER SCARCITY
CASE STUDY - MALAWI
Malawi has a 4 month dry season, lots of rain in wet season
Adequate water in north, inadequate in south —> disparity
Water doesn’t get stored properly for dry season
Poorest communities, far outside cities don't have access to water
Local government don't make it easy to get to these places
Communities will have one well which dries up in dry season and
spreads diseases in wet season e.g. cholera, bilharzia, typhoid
Charities like wateraid try to help with latrines etc
The government doesn’t manage the problem well
 BIODIVERSITY AND CHANGE

• Biodiversity:
• Biological diversity- the variety of all forms of life on earth including
plants, animals and micro-organisms.

• There are ~30m species on earth. Only 1.4m have been identified
• The tropics are the richest areas for biodiversity
• Tropical rainforests contain >50% of the world’s species in 7% of the
land

• They contain 80% of insects and 90% of primates

THE VALUE OF TROPICAL
RAINFORESTS
 THE VALUE OF TROPICAL
RAINFORESTS
INDUSTRIAL USES ECOLOGICAL USES SUBSISTENCE USES

Charcoal Fuelwood and charcoal

Watershed Fodder for agriculture
Saw logs
protection
Gums, resins and oils Building poles
Flood and landslide
Pulpwood Pit-sawing and saw-milling
protection
Plywood and veneer Weaving materials and
Soil erosion
dyes
Industrial chemicals control
Rearing silkworms and
Medicines Climate regulation
bee-keeping
e.g. CO2 and O2
Genes for crops levels Special woods and ashes
Tourism Fruits and nuts
 CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
Cattle ranching
Subsistence farming
HEP
Mining
Urban growth Road building

Population growth
Plantations
Timber (hardwood)

Hunting
CASE STUDY - AMAZON RAINFOREST

• At least 1249km2 of rainforest have been lost between August and

December 2007. Mainly due to soy planting and cattle ranching

• ~20% of the rainforest has already been destroyed, mostly since the 1970s.

• A further 40% could be lost by 2050 if the trend is not reversed

http://www.theguardian.com/environment/video/2012/nov/14/brazil-halting-deforestation-amazon-video
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

• Environmental sustainability:
• Improvements in the standard of living that do not cause long-term
damage to the environment that impact future generations.

• Environmental sustainability MDG #seven

• Sustainable development
• Meeting the needs of today's population without compromising the
needs of future generations.

• Today, sustainable development is usually considered to include

environmental, social and economic sustainability
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AT THE LOCAL LEVEL
CASE STUDY - MONTEVERDE
Eternal forest of the children
Background • Set up in 70s and 80s
• 22,000 ha of forest on the edge of the Monteverde
• Monteverde- ecotourism town
• Monteverde is in the middle of Costa • Kids around the world can buy a piece of the forest
to protect it
Rica, central America
• Developers then cant buy the land
• It is a lush, green, mountainous • Eco-tours through the forest raise funds to keep it
maintained
environment
Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve
• 10,000 ha, 34 plant species
• Locals act as guides though the forest- nature pays for itself
• Traditional ways of preserving the rainforest are used
• The reserve is owned by the local authority. Costs are met by admission to the reserve
CORE 4 - PATTERNS IN RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
Patterns of resource consumption
Evaluate the ecological footprint as a measure of the relationship between
population size and resource consumption. Identify international variations
in its size.
Discuss the two opposing views (neo-Malthusian and anti-Malthusian) of the
relationship between population size and resource consumption.
Changing patterns of energy consumption
Examine the global patterns and trends in the production and consumption
of oil.
Examine the geopolitical and environmental impacts of these changes in
patterns and trends. Examine the changing importance of other energy
sources.
Conservation strategies
Discuss the reduction of resource consumption by conservation, waste
reduction, recycling and substitution. Evaluate a strategy at a local or
national scale aimed at reducing the consumption of one resource.
 RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
TERM MEANING
Theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population
ECOLOGICAL
requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste under
FOOTPRINT
prevailing technology, measured in global hectares.
The capacity of an area or ecosystem to generate an ongoing supply of
BIOCAPACITY
resources and to absorb its wastes.
CARBON FOOTPRINT The total amount of greenhouse gas emissions caused by something
Resources that are naturally made by our planet e.g. water, wind, coal, gold and
NATURAL RESOURCE
diamonds.
Resources that have been created and developed by humans e.g. computers
HUMAN RESOURCE
and schools.
RENEWABLE A resource that can be used over and over again. Resources that don't run out
RESOURCES are often described as being infinite e.g. wind.
NON-RENEWABLE A resource that runs out once it has been used. Non-renewable resources are
RESOURCES finite i.e. they will eventually run out e.g. fossil fuels.
Fuels that have been created over millions of years from decaying biological
FOSSIL FUELS
matter. The three main fossil fuels are; oil, gas and coal.
The maximum number of people that may live in or visit a destination at the
CARRYING CAPACITY same time, without causing destruction of the physical, economic, socio-cultural
environment and a great decrease in the quality of the living environment.
CALCULATING ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
Ecological footprint:

Measured in acres or hectares, calculates the amount of earth’s bioproductive

space needed to keep a population at its current level of resource consumption
Takes into account
arable land: amount of land required for growing crops
pasture land: resources required for growing animals for meat, milk etc
forests: for fuel, furniture, housing etc. Climate stability
oceans: for fish/other marine products
infrastructure needs: transportation, factories, housing etc
energy costs: land require for absorbing CO2 emissions and other wastes
Species extinction and toxic pollution of air, land and sea is not taken into
account when calculating ecological footprint yet
EVALUATING ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
POSITIVES
Link can easily be made
between local and global
consumption
Variety of goods, activities and
services can readily be assessed
and compared
An assessment of sustainability
is possible
Eco-footprints are a more
sophisticated approach to
carrying capacities
Can be used to provide an
index to assess the impact of
particular services and
organisations
NEGATIVES
Deals only with demands placed on the environment
It reflects the supply and demand at the time of the
analysis, future effects would only become apparent in
subsequent analysis
Highly urbanised countries and economies e.g. UK
(4.6ha), Singapore (6.6), Hong Kong (6.1) can’t ever be
sustainable- can’t ever meet their ecological demands
from their own land (dense but small area/need of
import)
Does not attempt to include the social or economic
dimensions of sustainability
Calculations are often influenced by poor data
availability and boundary issues
Calculating the EF for densely populated areas (cities
with a comparatively large population) may lead to
perception of these cities are “parasitic”
INTERNATIONAL VARIATIONS IN SIZE OF
FOOTPRINT
MALTHUS AND BOSERUP
NEO-MALTHUSIAN AND ANTI-MALTHUSIAN VIEWS
THOMAS MALTHUS, EHRLICH
PESSIMISTIC VIEW
Limited resources keep population in checks
and reduce economic growth
Nature’s way of controlling excessive growth in
human population
Population growth should be controlled; if not,
pressure on resources will cause a catastrophe
causing deaths through disaster (e.g. Ethiopia)
Size and growth of population depends on the
food supply and agricultural methods
Hypothesise that if present change in world’s
population, industrialisation, pollution, food
production and resource depletion is
unchanged, limits to growth on the planet will
be reached within the next 100 years
Most probable result: sudden and uncontrollable
disaster
ESTHER BOSERUP, SIMON
OPTIMISIC VIEW
Boserup- demographic pressure promotes
innovations and higher productivity in use of land
When there are shortages of natural resources
humans find ways to provide these resources
Simon: believed people are the ultimate resource.
As more people are born —> more opportunities
for technological improvements —> higher
population growth
True measure of scarcity is not physical quantity of
a resource but price. Scarcity = high price.
Long-term studies show the prices of most natural
resources have declined over time, indicating
abundance not scarcity
In the short term, population increase will increase
demand for natural resources increase prices. But
when this happens, high prices cause entrepreneurs
and innovators to find new resources, or new ways
of getting resources cheaply
GLOBAL PATTERNS IN OIL
REDUCING OIL CONSUMPTION CASE STUDY - USA
Aims
To slash oil consumption by
2050
Solar power to provide 69%
of US electricity by 2050
Provide solar electricity at
same cheap price as oil
Disadvantages of solar
No energy at night and when
cloudy
Excess must be produced in the
day and stored difficult
Plan
Photovoltaic cells covering
80,000km2
Enough area in southwest of USA
Desired result
Get rid of gasoline vehicles and
replace with electric cars. Hybrids
fuelled by solar grid
Invest >$400billion over next 40 years
Huge savings on importing oil + not
reliant on unstable areas such as
middle east for oil

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysDXwvNGHeM
HYDROELECTRIC POWER (HEP) INSTEAD OF COAL
CASE STUDY - CHINA
Background
The Three Gorges Dam is located on the Yangtze river in China (largest river in Asia)
It is the largest and most expensive HEP dam in the world costing $26bn
It has 32 turbines producing 22.5 total gigawatts of power. Roughly equal to power
produced by 20 nuclear power stations
It is 2km long and 60 stories tall, and took 17 years to build
Banks from all over the world invested in the dam
Many disadvantages but these tend to be social and environmental
However the environmental benefits in the long run may outweigh disadvantages-
renewable energy sources are the future
Economic benefits are important as well especially for China’s government

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gze9QVt6EfQ
 HEP INSTEAD OF COAL
CASE STUDY - CHINA CONT.
ADVANTAGES
Environmental Economic
Clean, renewable energy source- Creates jobs
replaces coal power station Shipping is easier and safer due
Cuts emissions by 150m tonnes to the deepening of the river
Reduced flooding downstream Power is cheaper than other
protects wildlife non-renewables

Social
Get rid of gasoline vehicles and replace with electric
cars. Hybrids fuelled by solar grid
20m people downstream protected due to dam’s flood
control e.g. in the city of Jingjiang
Creates jobs
 HEP INSTEAD OF COAL
CASE STUDY - CHINA CONT.
DISADVANTAGES
Social
Loss of homes and land used for livelihood Economic
Serious safety issues associated with dam including earthquake risk, heavy rain
and terrorism threat
The rising water
>360m people live in the watershed so if the dam bursts they will be in danger
level behind the
dam has
Corruption means money set aside to compensate those affected by the
building of the dam did not get to them and was instead taken by local submerged 180
governments for their own use factories
Rising water levels submerged 13 cities and 140 towns

Environmental
There are an increasing number of landslides due to rising water levels making banks
of the river more unstable
>265 billion gallons of sewage are dumped into the river every year. This builds up
behind the dam polluting it and contaminating turbines
Sedimentation builds up behind the dam raising the water level and clogging turbines
Many species have been threatened by rising water levels and the dam blocking their
migration routes e.g. Chinese river dolphin
CHANGING IMPORTANCE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SOURCES
SOLAR POWER
Energy from the sun is clean, renewable and abundant.
In the UK solar energy falling on buildings could meet two-thirds of electricity needs.
Spain, Germany, Japan and the USA currently lead the world for solar power.
Solar power could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Technology improving over time Affected by cloud, seasons, night-time
Noiseless Not always possible to meet demand
Easy to install High costs
Suitable for small scale production Use of toxic cadmium in manufacturing
WIND POWER
Good for small scale production. Needs an exposed site e.g. hillside or coast
Worldwide: 23.6% in Germany, 50% in USA and Spain combined.
Wind power only provides a very small proportion (0.3%) of the world’s energy but growing at 30% rate.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Cheap to run once built Visual impact, noisy, winds may be unreliable
Land between turbines can be cultivated High cost of development
Small scale production possible Suitable areas far from need for electricity
 CHANGING IMPORTANCE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SOURCES
TIDAL POWER
Renewable, clean energy source. Requires a funnel-shaped estuary, free from development with large tidal
range
Still fairly rare worldwide; studies suggest that ~10% of US, UK and Canada’s electricity could be supplied
by tidal energy in the future.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Expensive to build
Tidal barrages low maintenance
Interfere with migrating fish, block shipping routes
No waste pollution produced
Can be damaged in storms
Tidal power predictable
Sedimentation builds up behind barrages
Ideal for island countries
Mechanical fluids can enter water

HYDROELECTRIC POWER (HEP)

Renewable form of energy that harnesses fast-flowing water
Currently accounts for 6.4% of global energy. 22% rise in the last 10 years. Biggest users are China,
Canada and Brazil.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Infinite as long as it’s managed properly Limited number of suitable rivers
Built dam can also prevent flooding Can hamper navigation of river
Reservoir behind dam source of water Reservoirs may force resettlement (China)
 CHANGING IMPORTANCE OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
SOURCES
NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear power is not a renewable energy source because it uses uranium which is finite. However, the
estimated supply of uranium is much greater than fossil fuels and when used to produced energy, creates
a lot less greenhouse gas.
Currently accounts for 5.5% of global energy.
3% rise between 1998-2008 but have fallen since Fukushima disaster when a number of countries (e.g.
Germany) have decided to no longer use nuclear power. Major consumers are USA, France and Japan.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Risk of nuclear accidents like the Chernobyl, Ukraine and Fukushima,
Cheap, reliable, abundant source of Japan.
energy
Risk that nuclear power stations could become terrorist targets or that
The technology to make nuclear terrorists will obtain nuclear material
power already exists.
Transporting nuclear material and nuclear waste is risky and expensive.
There is a plentiful supply of uranium, Nuclear power stations only have a limited life period and the cost of
enough to last hundreds of years. decommissioning them is expensive.
Nuclear energy releases very low Those living near nuclear power stations could have increased risk of
amounts of greenhouse gases. cancers (leukemia).
It reduces the dependency on oil, People don't want nuclear power stations built near where they live
coal and gas producing countries e.g. Mining for uranium is dangerous and can be polluting.
Middle East
Nuclear waste remains radioactive for thousands of years.
 NUCLEAR DISASTER
CASE STUDY - CHERNOBYL
Accident occurred on 26th of April 1986
Accident happened whilst scientists were testing safety procedures
All of Europe received fallout from the cloud which contains 400x
more radioactive material than Hiroshima bomb
An estimated 237 suffered acute radiation sickness, 52 died following
the accident
More incidences of cancer reported
It will be 200 years before area around Chernobyl is safe again
An exclusion zone exists but up to 20,000 residents have returned
https://youtu.be/b11aWXkehtY
 OIL DISASTER
CASE STUDY - BP OIL SPILL
~4.9 million barrels of oil escaped into the Gulf of Mexico
Attempts were made to disperse and break up much of the oil at sea, but a lot still
reached the southern US states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida.
Tourism, wildlife and fishing were all seriously affected.
In July 2015, BP agreed to pay $18.7 billion dollars in fines, the largest corporate
settlement in U.S. history
The spill area hosts 8,332 species, including more than 1000 fish, 218 birds, 4 sea
turtles and 29 marine mammals. These were all affected by the spill
By June 2010, 143 spill-exposure cases had been reported. Chemicals from the oil
and dispersant are believed to be the cause
The spill had a strong economic impact on the Gulf Coast's economy sectors such
as offshore drilling, fishing and tourism.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Uax5FRWnvs
 GEOPOLITICAL IMPACTS
Ownership disputes – Falkland Islands
Dispute between UK and Argentina led to a war in the 1980’s when Argentina invaded
the islands and UK PM Margaret Thatcher sent the Navy to successfully reclaim the
islands. This dispute has recently intensified following the discovery of large amounts of
oil and gas under the sea close to the islands.
Spratly Islands – islands in the South China Sea. Only 4 square km of land but ownership
hotly disputed between China,Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, Taiwan and Brunei.
Internal Pressures – Ghana, West Africa
Recently discovered oil and began pumping in 2010. Ghana is one of Africa’s most stable
countries but government and people concerned that oil find will lead to internal
conflicts as have been seen in other countries.
Political Cooperation and Interdependency – China, Russia
New pipeline (2010) that will take oil from Siberia to China. 300,000 barrels of oil a day
will make their way from Russia to China. In return Russia has accepted a $25bn loan
from China. Countries with oil, like Russia, will hold more political bargaining power.
 CONSERVATION-REDUCTION IN RESOURCE
CONSUMPTION
CASE STUDY -HONG KONG
Initial Solution Possible future solutions
4 Marine parks created in 1995 however Fishing license program, limit new boats from entering
you can still fish in them with small-scale waters
equipment
Establish more, larger ‘no fishing’ zones
Marine parks weren't designed to
increase fish population However these rules are difficult to enforce and
businesses aren't happy with them. HK is a free trade
Destructive bottom trawling still occurs area and doesn’t like policies

Successful policies
Successful policies have been the artificial reef program built in 2003 where 200 fish species have been
recorded.
A fishing license introduced in 2004 regulates the number of boats catching fish
Scheme doesn't include recreational fishing though
Closed season policy in the South China Sea during June and July allows fish stocks to replenish. HK should
do this as well.
It has been successful in increasing fish stocks and biodiversity in the South China Sea

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hLEAXD48hqA
 WASTE DISPOSAL
TERM MEANING
Processing of industrial and household waste e.g. paper, glass, metals and
RECYCLING plastics so that materials can be reused.
Saves scarce raw materials and helps reduce pollution.
The multiple use of a product by returning it to the manufacturer or
REUSE processor each time.
Reuse is more energy and resource efficient than recycling
REDUCTION Using less energy e.g. turning of lights. Using fewer plastics etc

Using one resource rather than another e.g. using renewable energy rather
SUBSITUTION
than non-renewable has major benefits for the environment

The burying of waste in the ground then covering it up with soil and other
LANDFILL material. Landfill is cheap but dirty and toxic materials can be dangerous.
Waste can contaminate water making it harder to clean.
When people or companies dump waste or old equipment. Can be due to
FLY-TIPPING increased cost of landfill, expensive to dispose safe of hazardous goods such
as computers and fridges.
RECYCLING-REDUCTION IN RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
CASE STUDY -CHINA

Population of 19 million in Beijing as of 2010

100,000 people work on the front line of the recycling industry
It is a $14 billion industry
Workers are paid 15 cents per kg
Recyclables come from around the world not just China
China is the biggest importer of recyclables in the world
Plastics are the most commonly recycled material in China
China also processes e-waste which is full of toxic metals
This has caused a pollution nightmare in parts of China
2/3 of the world’s electronic devices come to China to be recycled
Decives are produced in China then return at the end of their lives to be recycled

https://youtu.be/wdIeUev22qM
 RECYCLING POLICIES
CASE STUDY - UK
Background
Lichfield- small city. ~30,000
people
Situated in central England
One of the countries best
recycling cities, recycling about
50% of its waste.
What happens?
Paper, card, plastic, glass and metals either
get crushed, melted or pulped and reused.
Organic waste get used for compost.
Bins were collected every week to
encourage recycling
‘Other’ waste bin collected every fortnight
Policies
In 2005 all households were given four
bins for organic waster, paper, plastic,
glass, metals and ‘other’ waste.
Bins were collected every week to
encourage recycling
‘Other’ waste bin collected every
fortnight
Supermarkets were given recycling
centres for paper, glass, plastics, metals
and clothes
To maximise recycling households and
pupils were educated on the importance
of recycling.
SUBSTITUTION-REDUCTION OF RESOURCE CONSUMPTION
CASE STUDY - CEREPLAST USA
Cereplast creates a wide range of biobased, compostable and sustainable bioplastic resins to
meet surging consumer and industrial demand for alternatives to traditional plastics.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Plastic is made from oil. Substituting plastic for
bioplastic reduces amount of oil needed.
Eco-friendly bioplastics are made from plants.
The market for bioplastics, which are made
from maize, sugarcane, wheat and other crops,
is growing by 20-30% a year.
The industry says bioplastics make carbon
savings of 30-80% compared with
conventional oil-based plastics and can extend
the shelf life of food.
Good for American economy. $5bn market in
a few years.
Can cause other problems for the environment,
e.g. release of methane as they break down in
landfill sites, contributing to climate change.
Many of the bioplastics are contributing to the
global food crisis by taking over large areas of
land previously used to grow crops for human
consumption.
Concern centres on corn-based packaging made
with polylactic acid (Pla). Pla is used by some of
the biggest supermarkets and food companies,
including Wal-Mart, and McDonald's
There have also been complaints that crisp
packets made from Pla are “too noisy”.
CORE COMPLETE