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1 Introduction
This chapter has been adapted from Sell, R.L. Defining and measuring sexual
orientation: a review. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1997;26:643–58.
356 R.L. Sell
Many terms and definitions have been proposed over the last 140 years
to describe the sexual orientation of study subjects. One of the earliest
and most important sexual orientation classification schemes was pro-
posed by Ulrichs in a series of pamphlets he privately published in the
1860s (Carpenter, 1908; Ulrichs, 1994). Ulrichs’ scheme, which was only
intended to describe males, separated them into three basic categories:
dionings, urnings, and uranodionings (see Fig. 14.1). These terms were
derived from a speech by Pausanias in Plato’s Symposium in which
Pausanias refers to Uranus (heaven) (Plato, 1993). Arguably these cat-
egories directly correspond with the categories used today: heterosex-
ual, homosexual, and bisexual (Cory, 1951). Homosexual women, who
were largely ignored by early researchers, were referred to as urnin-
gins and heterosexual women as dioningins by Ulrichs (Bullough,
1990).
B. Urning2
1. Mannling3
2. Weibling4
3. Zwischen5
4. Virilised6
C. Urano-Dioning7
Notes:
1 – Comparable to the modern term “heterosexual.” A Dioning that sexually behaves like a Urning is termed an
“Uraniaster.”
2 – Comparable to the modern term “homosexual.”
3 – A manly Urning.
4 – An effeminate Urning.
5 – A somewhat manly and somewhat effeminate Urning.
6 – An Urning that sexually behaves like a Dioning.
7 – Comparable to the modern term “bisexual.”
(for additional information see Ulrichs, K. H. The Riddle of Man-Manly Love, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY,
1994.; Carpenter, E. The Intermediate Sex, Allen and Unwin, London, 1908.)
In addition to the normal sexual urge in man and woman, Nature in her sov-
ereign mood has endowed at birth certain male and female individuals with
the homosexual urge, thus placing them in a sexual bondage which renders
them physically and psychically incapable—even with the best intention—of
normal erection. This urge creates in advance a direct horror of the opposite
sexual [sic] and the victim of this passion finds it impossible to suppress the
feeling which individuals of his own sex exercise upon him.
terms take on new meaning and importance for describing sexual ori-
entations. The term “queer,” for example, was defined by Legman in
1941 as: “Homosexual; more often used of male homosexuals than of
Lesbians. As an adjective it is the most common in use in America.” At
the time Legman wrote this, the term was slang and used pejoratively.
Currently, the term still means “homosexual” but is frequently used
nonpejoratively in scholarly works (e.g., Signorile, 1993; Brett et al.,
1994; Feinberg, 1994; Goldberg, 1994; Packard & Packard, 2005).
Today’s preferred terms and the term “sexual orientation” itself have
a wide variety of definitions in the literature, but they generally com-
prise one or both of two components: a “psychological” component
and a “behavioral” component. Not all definitions include both of these
components; and as is discussed in detail below, definitions that
include both components use either “and” or “or” to join them.
Mayne’s (1908) definition of urning and Benkert’s definition of
homosexual (Robinson, 1936) included descriptions of only the psy-
chological state. Mayne discussed how the individual’s feelings of
sexual passion determine his or her sexual orientation, whereas
Benkert talked of an “urge.” Ellis, one of the most important writers on
sexuality during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century
England also talked only of a psychological entity, which he described
as “sexual instinct.” Ellis defined homosexuality as “sexual instinct
turned by inborn constitutional abnormality toward persons of the
same sex” (Ellis & Symonds, 1898). Ellis used the term “sexual inver-
sion” at the time this definition was provided; but in later versions of
his work he substituted the term “homosexuality” (Ellis & Symonds,
1898; Ellis, 1942). Two of the earliest medical journal articles about
homosexuality to appear in the English language provided a definition
that, like the other early definitions, does not discuss sexual behavior.
Their definitions, which in both cases is a translation of Westphal’s
German definition, describes homosexuals as persons who: “as a result
of their inborn nature felt themselves drawn by sexual desire to male
individuals exclusively” (Blumer, 1882; Shaw & Ferris, 1883).
These definitions and other early ones generally omitted any dis-
cussion of behavior (and in particular sexual behavior), except to say
that the thought of it with the other sex is repulsive or horrifying to the
homosexual. Another definition of this type was provided by Forel
(1924) in his popular book The Sexual Question. Forel stated,
However shocking or absurd the aberrations of the sexual appetite and its irra-
diations may be, of which we have spoken hitherto, they are at any rate derived
from originally normal intercourse with adults of the opposite sex. Those we
have now to deal with are distinguished by the fact that not only the appetite
itself, but all its psychic irradiations are directed to the same sex as the per-
verted individual, the latter being horrified at the idea of genital contact with
the opposite sex, quite as much as a normal man is horrified at the idea of
homosexual union.
1. Does he feel for males and only for males a passionate yearning of
love, be it gushing and gentle, or fiery and sensual?
2. Does he feel horror at sexual contact with women? This horror may
not always be found; but when it is found, it is decisive.
3. Does he experience a beneficial magnetic current when making
contact with a male body in its prime?
4. Does the excitement of attraction find its apex in the male sexual
organs?
Which of the following best describes how you think of yourself? (1) straight
or heterosexual; (2) gay or lesbian; (3) bisexual; (4) don’t know/not sure.
(for additional information see Kinsey, A. C, Pomeroy, W. B., and Martin, C. E. Sexual Behavior in the Human
Male, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, 1948; Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin. C. E., and Gebhard, P. H.
Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, 1953.)
The world is not to be divided into sheep and goats. Not all things are black
nor all things white. It is a fundamental of taxonomy that nature rarely deals
with discrete categories. Only the human mind invents categories and tries to
force facts into separated pigeon-holes. The living world is a continuum in each
and every one of its aspects. The sooner we learn this concerning human sexual
behavior the sooner we shall reach a sound understanding of the realities of
sex [Kinsey et al., 1948].
It is characteristic of the human mind that it tries to dichotomize in its
classification of phenomena. Things are either so, or they are not so. Sexual
behavior is either normal or abnormal, socially acceptable or unacceptable,
heterosexual or homosexual; and many persons do not want to believe that
there are gradations in these matters from one to the other extreme [Kinsey
et al., 1953].
One of the more striking facts about these statements is that Kinsey
had been trained as a taxonomist (Weinrich, 1990). It had been much
of his life work to develop such dichotomous, yes or no, classifications
as he so easily dismissed here. By dismissing dichotomous classifica-
tions and developing a bipolar continuous model, a new way of meas-
uring sexual orientation, providing a new perspective on sexuality, was
created. However, as it forces subjects into one of seven categories,
the Kinsey Scale is not a true continuum. This is fortunate in some
ways because the seven points are difficult to assign; and if there were
an infinite number of points, the task would be that much more
difficult.
Masters and Johnson (1979), in a major study of homosexuality, pro-
vided the following discussion about the difficulty of assigning Kinsey
ratings.
Kinsey 3 classification was the most difficult to assign of the ratings. Relative
equality in any form of diverse physical activity is hard to establish. Particu-
larly was this so when the interviewer, in attempting to separate mature sexual
experience into its homosexual and heterosexual components, was faced with
a history of a multiplicity of partners of either sex. The problem was augmented
by the subjects’ frequently vague recall of the average number of sexual inter-
actions with each partner.
history when using the Kinsey Scale, but this is only one of several con-
cerns often expressed by researchers about this scale. A second concern
with the Kinsey Scale is that it lumps individuals who are significantly
different based on different aspects or dimensions of sexuality into the
same categories (Weinrich et al., 1993; Weinberg et al., 1994). In fact,
Kinsey himself took two dimensions of sexual orientation, “overt
sexual experience” and “psychosexual reactions,” into account when
applying his scale. Kinsey el al. (1948) provided the following discus-
sion of these two dimensions and how they were used in the assess-
ment of sexual orientation.
It will be observed that the rating which an individual receives has a dual basis.
It takes into account his overt sexual experience and/or his psychosexual reac-
tions. In the majority of instances the two aspects of the history parallel but
sometimes they are not in accord. In the latter case, the rating of an individual
must be based upon an evaluation of the relative importance of the overt and
the psychic in his history [Kinsey et al., 1948].
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
other sex only other sex other sex both sexes same sex same sex same sex only
mostly somewhat equally somewhat mostly
II. Scale to Measure Dimension E and F of the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
heterosexual heterosexual heterosexual hetero/homo homosexual homosexual homosexual
only mostly more equally more somewhat only
(for additional information see Klein, F., Sepekoff, B., and Wolf, T. J. Sexual orientation: A multi-variable dynamic
process. J. Homosexuality. 1985;11: 35-49.)
I am, however, at this point in my research, convinced that the Kinsey scale has
outlived its political usefulness and we need a more effective scholarly meas-
uring tool. In fact, the Kinsey scale offers the same kind of difficulty that the
traditional masculine-feminine scale did until it was realized that women could
have masculine traits and still be feminine and vice versa.
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Somewhat Very
Heterosexual Heterosexual Heterosexual
1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Somewhat Very
Homosexual Homosexual Homosexual
(for additional information see Shively, M. G., and DeCecco, J. P. Components of sexual identity. J.
Homosexuality. 1977;3:41-48.)
I. Sexual Attractions- The following six questions are asked to assess how frequently and intensely you are
sexually attracted to men and women. Consider times you had sexual fantasies, daydreams, or dreams about a man
or woman, or have been sexually aroused by a man or woman.
1. During the past year, how many different men were you sexually attracted to (choose one answer):
a. None.
b. 1.
c. 2.
d. 3-5.
e. 6-10.
f. 11-49.
g. 50-99
h. 100 or more.
2. During the past year, on average, how often were you sexually attracted to a man (choose one
answer):
a. Never.
b. Less than 1 time per month.
c. 1-3 times per month.
d. 1 time per week
e. 2-3 times per week.
f. 4-6 times per week.
g. Daily.
3. During the past year, the most I was sexually attracted to a man was (choose one answer):
a. Not at all sexually attracted.
b. Slightly sexually attracted.
c. Mildly sexually attracted.
d. Moderately sexually attracted.
e. Significantly sexually attracted.
f. Very sexually attracted.
g. Extremely sexually attracted.
4. During the past year, how many different women were you sexually attracted to (choose one
answer):
a. None.
b. 1.
c. 2.
d. 3-5.
e. 6-10.
f. 11-49.
g. 50-99.
h. 100 or more.
5. During the past year, on average, how often were you sexually attracted to a woman (choose one
answer):
a. Never.
b. Less than 1 time per month.
c. 1-3 times per month.
d. 1 time per week
e. 2-3 times per week.
f. 4-6 times per week.
g. Daily.
6. During the past year, the most I was sexually attracted to a woman was (choose one answer):
a. Not at all sexually attracted.
b. Slightly sexually attracted.
c. Mildly sexually attracted.
d. Moderately sexually attracted.
e. Significantly sexually attracted.
f. Very sexually attracted.
g. Extremely sexually attracted.
II. Sexual Contact – The following four questions are asked to assess your sexual contacts. Consider times when
you had contact between your body and another man or woman’s body for the purpose of sexual arousal or
gratification.
7. During the past year, how many different men did you have sexual contact with (choose one
answer):
a. None.
b. 1.
c. 2.
d. 3-5.
e. 6-10.
f. 11-49.
g. 50-99.
h. 100 or more.
8. During the past year, on average, how often did you have sexual contact with a man (choose one
answer):
a. Never.
b. Less than 1 time per month.
c. 1-3 times per month
d. 1 time per week.
e. 2-3 times per week.
f. 4-6 times per week.
g. Daily.
9. During the past year, how many different women did you have sexual contact with (choose one
answer):
a. None.
b. 1.
c. 2.
d. 3-5.
e. 6-10.
f. 11-49.
g. 50-99.
h. 100 or more.
10. During the past year, on average, how often did you have sexual contact with a woman (choose
one answer):
a. Never.
b. Less than 1 time per month.
c. 1-3 times per month
d. 1 time per week.
e. 2-3 times per week.
f. 4-6 times per week.
g. Daily.
III. Sexual Orientation Identity- The following two questions are asked to assess your sexual orientation identity.
(for additional information see Sell, R.L. (1996) The Sell assessment of sexual orientation: background and scoring.
Journal of Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Identity 1(4):295–310.
beginning for the creation of better measures. One researcher who has
attempted to do this is Friedman who is developing an adolescent
measure of sexual orientation (Friedman et al., 2004).
1
Other proposed scales that do not advance the field of sexual orientation meas-
urement theoretically but are of some interest include those of Sambrooks and
MacCulloch (1973), Berkey et al. (1990), and Coleman (1990).
14 Defining and Measuring Sexual Orientation 371
These questions were taken from surveys that have collected sexual ori-
entation data. They are good questions but may not be perfect for every
need. For example, the identity question was used on a self-
completed questionnaire and may not work well over the telephone
because it requires the respondent to repeat the response categories out
loud in their home. The sexual behavior question also may not suit
every need because it does not assess how many male or female part-
ners with whom the respondent has had sex or the frequency of that
sex; moreover, it limits the time period to the past 12 months. When
selecting questions, one must therefore carefully think about what the
data will be used for as well as how it will be collected.
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