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Article history: Numerous pressure drop correlations for microchannels have been proposed; most of them can be clas-
Received 10 January 2011 sified as either a homogeneous flow model (HFM) or a separated flow model (SFM). However, the predic-
Received in revised form 1 August 2011 tions of these correlations have not been compared directly because they were developed in experiments
Accepted 30 August 2011
conducted under a range of conditions, including channel shape, the number of channels, channel mate-
Available online 6 October 2011
rial and the working fluid. In this study, single rectangular microchannels with different aspect ratios and
hydraulic diameters were fabricated in a photosensitive glass. Adiabatic water-liquid and Nitrogen-gas
Keywords:
two-phase flow experiments were conducted using liquid superficial velocities of 0.06–1.0 m/s, gas
Rectangular microchannel
Pressure drop
superficial velocities of 0.06–72 m/s and hydraulic diameters of 141, 143, 304, 322 and 490 lm. A pres-
Flow pattern sure drop in microchannels was directly measured through embedded ports. The flow pattern was visu-
Correlation alized using a high-speed camera and a long-distance microscope. A two-phase pressure drop in the
microchannel was highly related to the flow pattern. Data were used to assess seven different HFM vis-
cosity models and ten SFM correlations, and new correlations based on flow patterns were proposed for
both HFMs and SFMs.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
The test section (Fig. 1; the unit is mm) was fabricated in a sheet
⇑ Corresponding author. of a photosensitive glass using UV rays. Details can be found in
E-mail address: chiwoongchoi@gmail.com (C.W. Choi). Choi and Kim (2008). The test section has two inlets (i.e., one for
0142-727X/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2011.08.002
1200 C.W. Choi, M.H. Kim / International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 32 (2011) 1199–1207
each phase flow), one outlet and three pressure ports. Total chan- rates of the liquid were measured using flow-meters. The pressure
nel length was 60 mm and the distance between pressure ports drop was measured directly through embedded pressure ports in
was 15 mm. The test section was held horizontally with a support the microchannel using four different pressure transducers (Druck
frame to connect inlets and outlet tubing. The interconnections LPM9000, Setra 230-5, 10, and 25 PSID). Data were collected using
were achieved using fitting and ferrule (Upchurch Scientific), and a data acquisition system (Agilent 34970) and were saved on a per-
a fitting holder. sonal computer. The details of the experimental setup were de-
Pressure was measured directly through the three embedded scribed in Choi et al. (2010a).
pressure ports; this overcame the uncertainties in a measurement Before the main experiment, water was pumped into the inlet of
that occurred in most previous studies, in which pressure was the test section to extract non-degassed water from the tubes, and
measured outside of the channel. Moreover, the fully developed tubes connected to pressure ports were fully filled with water to
condition was checked with comparing pressure differences offset the effect of a static head, which was significant under low
among three pressure ports (Fig. 1). Flow patterns were visualized pressure conditions. Then the gas flow was applied to the other in-
directly through the transparent glass using a high-speed camera let to create a two-phase flow. When the temperature and the
and a long-distance microscope. pressure upstream of each phase flow were steady, the pressure
Cross sections of five different fabricated rectangular micro- and the flow rate were measured every 2 s. Then, the gas flow rate
channels were measured using a 3D-profiler (Veeco-Wyko DMEMS was changed while the liquid flow rate was held a constant
NT1100). To verify this measuring method, the cross-section of a (Table 1). All experimental uncertainties are summarized in Table 2.
test sample was measured using a microscope (Table 1).
3. Results and discussion
2.2. Experimental facilities and procedure
3.1. Single phase pressure drop
In the experimental setup (Fig. 2), the liquid and gas flows were
controlled using a pneumatic pumping system, which consisted of Before conducting the two-phase flow experiment, experiments
electric regulators and pressurized gases. Nitrogen gas was used to for a single phase pressure drop in the rectangular microchannels
pressurize the gas phase loop and Helium gas was used to pressur- were conducted to verify the experimental apparatus and to eval-
ize the liquid phase loop. The two-phase flow was mixed in a uate the friction factor of the rectangular microchannel. The value
T-junction. The effect of the mixing method is not well understood of fRe is 16 for circular tubes, and Hartnett and Kostic (1989) pro-
and still hot issues in this research area (Kawaji, 2008). Therefore, posed a correlation of fRe for ducts of different ARs (Eqs. (1)–(3))
in this study, we used T-junction configuration, which is well pro-
ven mixing method in various fields. The volume and mass flow f Re ¼ 24ð1 1:3553AR þ 1:9467AR2 1:7012AR3
þ 0:9564AR4 0:2537AR5 Þ; ð1Þ
Table 1
where
Experimental conditions.
Table 2
Experimental uncertainties.
Variables Uncertainty
Diameter (lm) ±17 (4.5%)
Area (lm2) ±6311 (3.8%)
Pressure (kPa) ±6% (±0.01, ±0.005, ±0.034, ±0.085)
Temperature (°C) ±0.1–0.5
Mass flux, G (kg/m2s) ±0.1–2%
Friction factor ±9%
Superficial velocities (m/s) ±10%
drop in our test section for water liquid indicate that the conven-
tional theory of pressure drops in a single phase-laminar flow is
acceptable and that our experimental setup is appropriate.
GDh
ReTP ¼ ; ð8Þ
lTP
where lTP is a two-phase viscosity. For a laminar flow in a circular
tube, n = 1 and N = 16; in a rectangular channel N is a function of AR
(Eq. (1)).
Numerous two-phase viscosity models have been proposed.
Recently, Costa-Patry et al. (2011) conducted flow boiling experi-
ments in 85 lm wide multi-microchannels. They showed that
Cioncolini et al. (2009)’s correlation is well agree with their pres-
sure drop results. The Cioncolini et al.’s correlation is developed
using a dimensionless analysis for an annular flow pattern.
Costa-Patry et al. also mentioned the Cioncolini et al.’s correlation
had a good accuracy for the annular flow pattern. Therefore, the
Cioncolini et al.’s correlation is exempted from our assessment cor-
Fig. 4. Two-phase pressure drop in rectangular microchannel with Dh = 322 lm: relations. In this study, our experimental results were used to as-
Typical trend of the pressure drop in a rectangular microchannel ((I) bubbly or sess seven viscosity models: Owens (1961), MacAdams et al.
liquid slug flow, (II) elongated bubble flow, (III) transition flow regime (transition),
(1942), Cicchitti et al. (1960), Dukler et al. (1964), Beattie and
(IV) liquid ring flow).
Whalley (1982), Lin et al. (1991) and Awad and Muzychka (2008).
contribute to the pressure drop. The typical trend of pressure drops Owen ð1961Þ : lTP ¼ lL ; ð9Þ
in the microchannel (Fig. 4) is composed of three regions.
1
x 1x
Region I: A bubble flow regime including bubbly, slug bubble McAdams etal: ð1942Þ : lTP ¼ þ ; ð10Þ
lG lL
and elongated bubble flow patterns. Pressure drops increased
as gas superficial velocity increased.
Region II: Transition flow patterns. Pressure drop decreased as Cicchitti etal: ð1960Þ : lTP ¼ xlG þ ð1 xÞlL ; ð11Þ
gas superficial velocity decreased.
Region III: Liquid ring flow. Pressure drop increased as gas Dukler etal: ð1964Þ : lTP ¼ blG þ ð1 bÞlL ; ð12Þ
superficial velocity increased.
This typical trend indicates that the pressure drop in the rectan- Beattie and Whalley ð1982Þ : lTP
gular microchannel is highly related to the flow pattern. ¼ blG þ ð1 bÞð1 þ 2:5bÞlL ; ð13Þ
An HFM is the simplest two-phase flow model; it treats two- 2lG þ lL 2ðlG lL Þð1 xÞ
Awad and Myuztchka ð2008Þ : lTP ¼ lG :
phase flow as a single phase flow with mixture properties. A 2lG þ lL þ ðlG lL Þð1 xÞ
two-phase frictional pressure drop consists of frictional, accelera- ð15Þ
tional, and gravitational terms (Eq. (4)) (see Carey, 1992).
Pressure drop based on the HFM and viscosity models were com-
dP dP dP dP pared to experimental data. Accuracy of model predictions was as-
¼ þ þ : ð4Þ
dz TP dz Friction dz Acceleration dz Gravitation sessed using the mean absolute error (MAE), expressed as a
percentage:
In this study, the gravitational term was neglected, because a
flow was horizontal, and the accelerational term was neglected be-
1 X jDPTP;pred DPTP;exp j
cause the flow was adiabatic. Therefore, the total measured pres- MAE ¼ 100 : ð16Þ
M DPTP;exp
sure drop is the frictional term in Eq. (4), which can be defined
using the HFM (Eq. (5)). HFMs were assessed for microchannels having different diame-
ters (Table 3). The most accurate viscosity model is the Beattie and
dP dP 2f G2 Whalley (1982)’s model, which is based on the volumetric quality.
¼ ¼ TP ; ð5Þ
dz TP dz Friction qTP Dh Experimental pressure drop data and the viscosity models, were
used to calculate f and Re (Fig. 5), and an original HFM for
where fTP is a two-phase friction factor, G is mass flux and qTP is Dh = 322 lm with n = 1 and N = 15.75 (Eq. (7)). The two-phase Re
two-phase density (Eq. (6)) was over-predicted by Dukler et al. (1964)’s model and under-pre-
1 dicted by other models. The two-phase viscosity predicted by the
x 1x Beattie and Whalley (1982)’s model agreed marginally well with
qTP ¼ þ : ð6Þ
qG qL the original HFM. However, the other models except that of Dukler
et al. (1964)’s model overestimated two-phase viscosity (Fig. 6).
The two-phase friction factor can be expressed as an exponen-
Beattie and Whalley (1982)’s two-phase viscosity model was
tial function of the two-phase Reynolds number (Eq. (7))
developed for the bubble flow and annular flow patterns; this con-
fTP ¼ NRen ð7Þ cept agreed well with our experimental result (Fig. 7), but it was
TP ;
deviated from measurements by approximately ±50%. With other
with microchannels, a similar trend was observed.
C.W. Choi, M.H. Kim / International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 32 (2011) 1199–1207 1203
Table 3
Comparison of the two-phase pressure drop based on the homogeneous flow model for two-phase viscosity models with the experimental results.
Fig. 7. Two-phase friction factor and Reynolds number for Dh = 322 lm using
Fig. 5. Relation of friction factor and Reynolds number based on different two- Beattie and Whalley’s two-phase viscosity model.
phase viscosity models for Dh = 322 lm and jL = 0.4 m/s.
Dp Dp where k is a fluid property, Caj and Rej are capillary number and
¼ Fð1 xÞ1=3 þ x3 ; ð22Þ
Dz TP Dz GO Reynolds number based on total superficial velocity (j), respectively,
and A, p, q and r are empirically-determined coefficients. For lami-
Dp Dp Dp nar–liquid and laminar–gas flow, A = 6.833 108, p = 1.317,
F¼ þ2 x: ð23Þ
Dz LO Dz GO Dz LO q = 0.719 and r = 0.557.
Moriyama and Inoue (1992) studied a two-phase pressure drop
The correlation of Muller-Steinhagen and Heck has a form that in 35–110 lm gaps using R113 under boiling conditions, and
is similar to Chisholm’s correlation without the B-coefficient. Nitrogen and R113 under adiabatic conditions. They proposed a
Mishima and Hibiki group (1993, 1996) investigated the effect modified L–M correlation (Eq. (30))
of a mini-sized diameter on two-phase frictional pressure in exper-
iments on an air–water adiabatic two-phase flow in minichannels K
/2L ¼ 1 þ : ð30Þ
with diameters of 1–4 mm. They proposed that the C-value of the X 2vv
L–M correlation is a function of the diameter. They defined the C-
This correlation lacks the second term in the original L–M correla-
value as
tion (Eq. (19)), i.e., the C-value that is an interactional effect in the
C ¼ 21ð1 e333D Þ; ð24Þ two-phase pressure drop. They multiplied the third term (the gas
phase portion in the two-phase pressure drop) by a factor K, which
for circular tubes and as
they postulated to be a function of liquid Reynolds number. This
C ¼ 21ð1 e319Dh Þ; ð25Þ means that the influential parameter in the two-phase pressure
drop in a microchannel is the gas phase portion rather than the
for rectangular tubes.
interactional portion. Recently, a similar correlation was proposed
Zhang et al. (2007) modified Mishima and Hibiki’s correlation to
by Saisorn and Wongwises (2008).
extend to the micro-scale and verified it using different experi-
Qu and Mudawar (2003) investigated the frictional two-phase
mental results. The hydraulic diameter was replaced by a Laplace
pressure drop in water flow boiling experiments using 21 parallel
constant:
microchannels of size 231 lm 713 lm. They proposed a modi-
C ¼ 21ð1 e358=Nconf Þ; ð26Þ fied Mishima et al. (1993)’s correlation, which considers the effect
of mass flux (Eq. (31))
where Nconf is a confinement number (Eq. (27))
C ¼ 21ð1 e319Dh Þð0:00418G þ 0:0613Þ: ð31Þ
lc lc ½r=ðqL qV Þg1=2
Nconf ¼ ¼ ¼ ; ð27Þ Lee and Mudawar (2005) conducted flow boiling experiments
D Dh Dh
with R134a using Qu and Mudawar (2003)’s experimental facili-
where lc is the Laplace constant, and the unit of D or Dh is a meter. ties. They proposed a new correlation composed of dimensionless
The applicable range was limited to 0.014 mm <Dh < 6.25 mm and numbers (Eq. (32))
to laminar flow structures of liquid and vapor phases. They recom-
mended that the constant of 0.358 is replaced by 0.674 for the C ¼ c1 RecLO2 WecLO3 ; ð32Þ
adiabatic two-phase flow. where c1, c2 and c3 are experimentally-determined coefficients; for
Tran et al. (2000) performed a series of experiments with laminar–liquid and laminar–gas flow, c1 = 2.16, c2 = 0.047 and
R134a, R12 and R113 flows using circular minitubes with diame- c3 = 0.60.
ters of 2.46 mm and 2.92 mm, and a rectangular mini-channel with Li and Wu (2010) studied dominant parameters using database
dimensions of 4.06 mm 1.7 mm. They proposed a modified Chis- of 769 points, which include 12 different working fluids, diameter
holm correlation with the confinement number for the turbulent range from 0.148 to 3.25 mm, and a channel configuration of circu-
region (Eq. (28)). lar, rectangular cross section and multi-channel. They found that
h i
2s 2s influential parameters are Bond number (Bo) and liquid Reynolds
/2LO ¼ 1 þ ð4:3Y 2 1Þ N conf x 2 ð1 xÞ 2 þ x2s : ð28Þ
number (ReL). Finally, they proposed a new correlation based on
Lee and Lee (2001) conducted air–water adiabatic two-phase the Bo and ReL as follows:
flow experiments for different rectangular minichannels with low Bo 6 1:5 : C ¼ 11:9Bo0:45 ; ð33Þ
aspect ratios. They proposed a new C-value as a function of three
dimensionless numbers for laminar and turbulent regions:
1:5 < Bo 6 11 : C ¼ 109:4ðBoRe0:5
L Þ
0:56
: ð34Þ
p q
l2
jl L qL jDh r
C ¼ Ak q
Carj Resj ¼A L
; ð29Þ The ten correlations based on the SFM were assessed for chan-
qL rDh r lL nels with different diameters (Table 4). The most accurate correla-
tion is that of Qu and Mudawar (2003), which considered the
Table 4
Comparison of the two-phase pressure drop correlations based on the separated flow model with the experimental results.
effects of confinement and mass flux. The second most accurate C-values do not have a constant value for different flow conditions
correlation is that of Lee and Mudawar (2005), which had been val- and well matched flow patterns (Fig. 9). Therefore, the flow pattern
idated previously using that of Qu and Mudawar (2003). Although should be considered when the pressure drop analyzed in a
Qu and Mudawar (2003)’s experiments were conducted in multi- microchannel.
microchannels under boiling conditions, their correlation is well-
predictable with a deviation of approximately ±50%.
Awad and Muzychka (2006) compared correlations of the two- 5. New flow pattern based correlation
phase frictional pressure drop in microchannels, and reported that
a modified C-value with L–M correlation predicts a pressure drop 5.1. New flow pattern based HFM
well. They proposed bounds on the two-phase frictional pressure
drop in the microchannel: the upper bound was the L–M correla- In the basic HFM, n in Eq. (7) indicates flow structure. In this
tion with C = 5 (i.e., the original correlation for laminar–liquid study, three flow regimes were defined: (1) the bubble regime
and laminar–gas); the lower bound was Ali et al. (1993)’s correla- including bubbly, slug and elongated bubble flows, (2) the liquid
tion (i.e., the original correlation with the C = 0). Awad and ring regime, (3) the transition regime between bubble and liquid
Muzychka (2006)’s upper bound was slightly underestimated, ring flows. The relation between f and Re was clearly distinct for
though the lower bound matched the data well (Fig. 8). As hydrau- the flow regimes (Fig. 7), which means that different flow regimes
lic diameter increased, the two-phase multiplier decreased; this have different values of n. Therefore, a flow regime based on the
trend is similar to that of Zhang et al.’s correlation. The correlation HFM was developed using Beattie and Whalley (1982)’s viscosity
suggested by Zhang et al. uses C values of 1.31, 0.87, 0.39, 0.82 and model, which was assessed as the best two-phase viscosity model.
0.38 for hydraulic diameters of 490, 322, 143, 304 and 141 lm, The exponent n and the coefficient N in Eq. (7) were evaluated for
respectively. However, Zhang et al. (2007)’s correlation under-pre- flow regimes using a regression method. New correlations for dif-
dicted pressure drop for larger hydraulic diameters. Originally, the ferent flow regimes (Fig. 10) show no dependency on AR and Dh in
L–M correlation represented the two-phase multiplier monotoni- the bubble and transition regimes, but an obvious effect of hydrau-
cally increased as the Martinelli parameter decreased. This means lic diameters in the liquid ring regime. As AR or Dh increased, a
that the pressure drop always increased with increasing gas coefficient N in Eq. (7) increased. We proposed a new correlation
superficial velocity. The reason is that the Martinelli parameter is of a function of AR, because the AR shows higher correlation
inversely proportional to this quantity in Eq. (19). Moreover, the (Eqs. (35)–(37)).
Fig. 10. Two-phase friction factor and Reynolds number for different flow regimes: (a) bubble regime, (b) transition regime and (c) liquid ring regime.
Fig. 11. Comparison of new flow pattern based homogeneous flow model with all Fig. 13. Comparison of a new flow pattern based separated flow model with all
experimental data. experimental data.
6. Conclusions
pressure drop was directly measured using embedded pressure Choi, C.W., Kim, M.H. 2008 The fabrication of a single glass microchannel to study
the hydrophobicity effect on two-phase flow boiling of water. J. Micromech.
ports in the microchannels. The transparent channel walls allowed
Microeng., doi: 18.105016.
visualization of the flow pattern using a high-speed camera and a Choi, C.W., Yu, D.I., Kim, M.H., 2010a. Adiabatic two-phase flow in rectangular
long–distance microscope. Experimental data were used to assess microchannels with different aspect ratios: Part I – Flow pattern, pressure drop
seven two-phase HFM viscosity models and ten correlations based and void fraction. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. doi:10.1016/
j.ijheatmasstransfer.2010.07.067.
on SFMs. Finally, an HFM and an SFM based on flow patterns were Choi, C.W., Yu, D.I., Kim, M.H., 2010b. Adiabatic two-phase flow in rectangular
proposed. microchannels with different aspect ratios: Part II – Bubble behaviors and
From the present study, the following main conclusions can be pressure drop in single bubble. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. doi:10.1016/
j.ijheatmasstransfer.2010.07.035.
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