Design of a 590 MW FBC Coal Fired Power Plant 5

CHAPTER 2
COAL SELECTION AND ANALYSIS

In designing a coal-fired thermal power plant, it is important to consider the availability

of the fuel and its characteristics whether it is compatible to the boiler. This chapter will focus on
the type of fuel to be use for the Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) technology.

2.1 Coal
Coal is the world’s the most widely used fuel for electricity generation. The major
attraction of coal is abundance. Significant deposits can be found in most parts of the world,
from the USA to South Africa, across Europe, and in many parts of Asia and Australia.
Exceptions exist, such as Japan and Philippines, where resources are limited; these countries
import vast quantities of coal. Among the continents, only South America and South Africa-
outside South Africa- have limited reserves. Coal is the cheapest of fossil fuels. This is another
reason why it is attractive; however, it is also the dirtiest of fossil fuels, producing large
quantities of ash, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO2). As a result the combustion
of coal has been responsible for some of the world’s environmental damage, barring accidents,
created by heavy industry anywhere in the world (Breeze, 2005).

Coal originated from vegetable matter which grew millions of years ago. Trees and plants
falling into water decayed and later produced peat bogs. Huge geological upheavals buried these
bogs under layers of silt. Subterranean heat, soil pressure and movement of earth’s crust distilled
off some of the bog’s moisture and hardened it to form brown coal or lignite. Continuing
subterranean activity and metamorphosis produced higher grades of coal (Nag, 2008).

2.2 Coal Classification

There are many ways of classifying coal according to its chemical and physical
properties. The most accepted system is the one used by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), which classifies coals by grade or rank according to the degree of
metamorphism (change in form and structure under the influences of heat, pressure, and water),

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ranging from the lowest state, lignite, to the highest, anthracite (ASTM D 388). These
classifications are briefly described below in a descending order.

a. Anthracite

This is the highest grade of coal. It contains a high content, 86 to 98 mass percent, of
fixed carbon (the carbon content in the elemental state) on a dry, mineral matter-free basis and a
low content of volatile matter, less than 2 to 14 mass percent (chiefly methane, CH 4). Anthracite
is a shiny black, dense, hard, brittle coal that borders on graphite at the upper end of fixed
carbon. It is slow-burning and has a heating value just below that of the highest for bituminous
coal. Its use in steam generators is largely confined to running on stokers, and rarely in
pulverized form (Wakil, 1988).

The anthracite rank of coal is subdivided into three groups. In descending order of fixed-
carbon percent, they are meta-anthracite, greater than 98 percent; anthracite, 92 to 98 percent;
and semi-anthracite, 86 to 92 percent.

b. Bituminous Coal

The largest group, bituminous coal is a broad class of coals containing 46 to 86 percent of
fixed carbon and 20 to 40 percent of volatile matter of more complex content than that found in
anthracite. It derives its name from bitumen, an asphaltic residue obtained in the distillation of
some fuels. Bituminous coals range in heating value from 11,000 to more than 14,000 Btu/lb m
(about 25,600 to 32,600 kJ/kg). Bituminous coals usually burn easily, especially in pulverized
form (Wakil, 1988).

The bituminous rank is subdivided into five groups: low-volatile, medium-volatile, and
high-volatile A, B, and C. The lower the volatility, the higher the heating value. The low-
volatility group is grayish black and granular in structure, while the high-volatility groups are
homogeneous or laminar (Wakil, 1988).

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 Design of a 590 MW FBC Coal Fired Power Plant 7

c. Sub-bituminous Coal

This is a class of coal with generally lower heating values than bituminous coal, between
8300 to 11,500 Btu/lbm (about 19,300 to 26,750 kJ/kg). It is relatively high in inherent moisture
content, as much as 15 to 30 percent, but often low in sulfur content. It is brownish black or
black and mostly homogenous in structure. Sub-bituminous coals are usually burned in
pulverized form. The sub-bituminous rank is divided into three groups: A, B, and C (Wakil,
1988).

d. Lignite

The lowest grade of coal, lignite derives its name from the Latin lignum, which means
“wood.” It is brown and laminar in structure, and remnants of wood fiber are often visible in it. It
originates mostly from resin-rich plants and is therefore high in both inherent moisture, as high
as 30 percent, and volatile matter. Its heating value ranges between less than 6300 to 8300
Btu/lbm (about 14,650 to 19,300 kJ/kg). Because of the high moisture content and low heating
value, lignite it is not economical to transport over long distances and it is usually burned by
utilities at the mine site. The lignite rank is subdivided into two groups: A and B (Wakil, 1988).

2.3 Coal Analysis

There are two types of coal analysis: proximate and ultimate, both done on a mass
percent basis. Both these types may be based on: (a) as-received basis, useful for combustion
calculations, (b) dry or moisture free basis, (c) dry mineral-matter-free or combustible basis.

2.3.1 Proximate Analysis

This is the easier of two types of coal analysis and the one which supplies readily
meaningful information for coal’s use in steam generators. The basic method for proximate
analysis is given by ANSI/ASTM Standards D 3172. It determines the mass percentages of fixed
carbon, volatile matter, moisture, and ash. Sulfur is obtained in a separate determination.

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 Chapter 2 – Coal Selection and Analysis 8

a. Fixed Carbon

Fixed carbon is the material remaining after the determination of moisture, volatile matter
and ash. It is, in fact, a measure of the solid combustible material in coal after the expulsion of
volatile matter. The fixed-carbon value is one of the values used in determining the efficiency of
coal burning equipment. Since gas-solid combustion reactions are slower than gas-gas reactions,
a high fixed-carbon content indicates that the coal will require a long combustion time (Speight,
2005).

b. Volatile Matter

This is critical for maintaining flame stability and accelerating the particle burnout. Coals
with low volatile matter, such as anthracite and low-volatile bituminous, are difficult to ignite
and require specially designed combustion systems (Woodruff, 2004).

Fuels with high-volatile matter burn quickly and require less furnace residence time.
Alternatively, fuels with low-volatile matter contents tend to burn poorly (incomplete
combustion) and may require use of supplemental fuels to assure proper flame stability (Black &
Veatch, 1996).

c. Moisture

Moisture content in the coal influences combustion behaviour. The moisture presents a
burden to coal ignition because the water in the coal must be vaporized as the volatile matter in
the coal particles is burned. Not all moisture in the coal is eliminated; however, fluidized bed
boiler can handle coal with less than 30% by weight (Woodruff, 2004).

d. Ash
Ash Content is what remained after the coal is completely burned. It is a mineral matter
which is not combustible. Ash has no heating value; therefore, it is undesirable characteristic of
coal when ash content is too high. High ash content reduces the amount of heat obtainable from a
given quantity of coal. High ash content also lead to the problem of handling and disposing of
larger amounts of ash produced during combustion. The composition of coal ash is considered in
the amount of clinkering and boiler tube slagging that may occur in the boiler. The ash content of

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 Design of a 590 MW FBC Coal Fired Power Plant 9

raw coal is often used to select the best cleaning method and ash content of a cleaned coal is used
to measure the effectiveness of the cleaning method. In the commercial pulverization of coals,
the amount and nature of ash is considered carefully before selecting pulverizing equipment or
setting up the process (Speight, 2005). Fluidized Bed combustion system can burn any fuel
including low grade coals up to 70% ash (Raja, 2006).

e. Sulfur

Sulfur is determined separately in a standard test, given by ANSUASTM Standards D

2492. Being combustible, it contributes to the heating value of the coal. It forms oxides which
combine with water to form acids. These cause corrosion problems in the back end of steam
generators if the gases are cooled below the dew point, as well as environmental problems (Raja,
2006).

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has the considerable advantage of being capable of
burning high sulfur fuel. Since sulfur is found in many solid fuels, sulfur dioxide emissions can
be controlled by introducing sulfur sorbent such as limestone (CaCO3) directly into the
combustor. Reduction of SO2 emissions by 90 percent or greater is achieved by this technique
(Woodruff, 2004).The higher the sulfur content, the more limestone used in the bed. Fluidized
bed boilers can combust low grade coal having sulfur content of 6 – 10% effectively (Dekker,
2004).

2.3.2 Ultimate Analysis

A more scientific test than proximate analysis, ultimate analysis gives the mass
percentages of the chemical elements that constitute the coal. These include carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Ash is determined as a whole, sometimes in a separate analysis.
Ultimate analysis is given by ASTM Standards D 3176 (Raja, 2006).

a. Carbon (C)

Carbon forms more than 50% by weight and more than 70% by volume of coal (this
includes inherent moisture). This is dependent on coal rank, with higher rank coals containing

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 Chapter 2 – Coal Selection and Analysis 10

less hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, until 95% purity of carbon is achieved at Anthracite rank &
above. High carbon content of the coal represents high calorific value (Bowen, 2008).

b. Hydrogen (H)

Hydrogen increases the calorific value of the fuel. However, H is mostly associated with
volatile matter and hence it influences the use of coal. Since H is mainly present in combination
with O as water it lowers the calorific value of fuel, so lesser the percentage of H better is the
quality of coal (Bowen, 2008).

c. Oxygen (O)

Oxygen content decreases the calorific value of coal. High O content coals are
characterized by high inherent moisture, low calorific value and low coking power. Moreover
oxygen is in combined form with hydrogen in coal and thus H available for combustion is lesser
than actual. An increase in 1% oxygen content decreases the calorific value by 1.7% and hence O
is undesirable (Bowen, 2008).

d. Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen is an inert and incombustible gas and doesn't contribute any useful property. It
is generally found in small amounts (around 1%). As coal matures, extractable nitrogen
decreases. Its proportion does not depend on rank (Bowen, 2008).

e. Sulfur (S)

Sulfur present in metallurgical coal is harmful for use in metallurgy as it transfers to the
metal and adversely affects the properties of metal. Oxidation products of S (SO2 and SO3)
especially formed in presence of moisture, have corrosive effect on the equipment and also
causes atmospheric pollution. Hence the presence of S is undesirable (Bowen, 2008).

2.4 Properties of Coal

There are other properties of coal which are important in power plant applications. They
are swelling index, grindability, weatherability, heating value, and ash fusion temperature.

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 Design of a 590 MW FBC Coal Fired Power Plant 11

a. Grindability

Measured on Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI), it is defined as indication of the ease

of grinding of coal. Grindability is often an important criterion for selecting a coal. This property
of coal is measured by the standard grindability index, which is inversely proportional to the
power required to grind the coal to a specified particle size for burning. Grindability of a
standard coal is defined as 100. If the coal selected for use at a power plant has a grindability
index of 50, it would require twice the grinding power of the standard coal to produce a specified
particle size (Nag, 2008). The typical values for this index are 50 to 60 for good coal (Morse,
1953).

b. Heating Value

In boiler practice, the heat of combustion of a fuel is the amount of heat, expressed in
Btu, generated by the complete combustion, or oxidation, of a unit weight of fuel. Calorific value
or “fuel Btu value” are also describe the unit heat of combustion of a fuel. In determining the
heating value of a coal, a calorimeter is employed. The bomb calorimeter provides a means of
burning a small sample of fuel under controlled conditions and measuring the resulting
temperature rise in a given quantity of water. High heating value fuels tend to burn with a hot
flame, increasing radiant heat transfer (Black & Veatch, 1996).

The heating value of the coal will be based on the lower heating value. The heating value
in coal is defined as the amount of coal needed for combustion (Black, 1996). The fluidized
combustion process allows the burning of fuels having very low heating values, thus having the
ability to burn waste fuels such as waste coal. Fluidized bed has the ability to burn coal with
lower heating values of 2000 kcal/kg or approximately 4500 BTU/lb (Woodruff, 2004).

c. Ash Fusion Temperature

The ash fusion temperature is the temperature at which the ash softens and becomes plastic.
This is somewhat below the melting point of ash. The design of the steam generator greatly
depends on the ash fusion temperature of the coal. If the furnace temperature is higher than the
ash fusion temperature, all the ash will melt and would come out of the furnace bottom

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 Chapter 2 – Coal Selection and Analysis 12

continuously as molten slag. For a furnace that would discharge ash in the solid form, a high ash
fusion temperature would be required (Nag, 2008). Ash fusion temperature must be higher than
bed temperature. The heat transferred to the furnace walls provides the heat absorption necessary
to maintain the required bed temperature range of 1500 to 1600 oF (Woodruff, 2004).

2.5 Coal Criteria

The firing qualities of a coal are highly important when selection of the coal or
combustion equipment is being considered, for if it were not for the effects of these qualities,
coal could be purchased on the basis of heating value alone (Morse,1953). Some of the factors
that must be considered are:

1. Sizes and grades for economical and satisfactory performances. Sizing practice in the
coal industry is to state the screen limits through which that sample of coal will pass, and
on which it will be retained.
2. Constituent – this includes such information as proximate and ultimate analyses, ash
analysis, and uniformity over a range.
3. Physical characteristic such as (a) friability- resistance to degradation ; (b) Grindability –
as measure by hardgrove grindability or some other standard; (c) size consistency.
4. Storage characteristics. Deterioration, spontaneous combustion.
5. Performance characteristics – coking and caking tendency. The retention of original
shape during combustion versus softening or crusting.
6. Slugging characteristics – dependent on ash fusion temperature and iron content
7. Corrosive characteristic – the sulfur content
8. Ignition Characteristics – the presence of certain minerals of low – ignition temperature
in the volatile.

The designers tabulated the coal properties which will be used in selecting the proper coal
for the selected boiler (Table 2.1).

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Table 2.1: Coal Selection Criteria

Percentage Fluidized
Criteria Remarks
(%) Range
The fluidized bed combustion process allows the
burning of fuels having very low heating values
(Woodruff, 2004). That’s the reason why
designers choose to compare three types of low
quality coal having low heating value. The best
one will be chosen among the three low class coal
Lower Heating Minimum of though fluidized bed technology can burn coal
55
Value 2000 kcal/kg with low heating value, it is advisable to have
coal with high heating value for greater burning
efficiency. Meaning the higher the heating value
the higher the score it will get. It has an
equivalent rating of 55% since it is the most
important parameter that tells whether the
selected coal is of high quality
Grindability will be considered since it affects the
fuel preparation to the boiler. It is inversely
proportional to the power required to crush the
coal. Coal with high grindability would be
Grindability required for easier and less costly preparation.
10 50 - 60
(HGI) However, fluidized bed boiler requires only
crushed coal of less than 1⁄4 in (Woodruff, 2004),
and this is easier and less costly to prepare than
many types of boiler. Thus, giving an equivalent
rating of 10% for HGI.
The presence of sulfur is undesirable since it adds
pollution to the environment and corrosive effects
to equipment. To avoid or lessen these effects,
fuel with low sulfur content is advisable.
However, fluidized bed combustion can burn
Sulfur Content 10 Up to 10%
high-sulfur coals and achieves low SO2 emissions
by introducing sulfur sorbent such as limestone
directly into the combustor. Thus, giving an
equivalent rating of 10%. Coal with lowest sulfur
content will obtain a highest score.
Ash fusion temperature must be greater than bed
temperature to prevent melting of discharged ash.
Must be If ash fusion is lower than bed temperature, the
Ash Fusion greater than ash would come out in the form of molten slag. It
10
Temperature bed would give problem in handling and disposing
temperature the ash. However, the required bed temperature is
in the range of 1500 to 1600 oF (Woodruff,
2004), it is smaller compared to many other types

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of boiler. Thus giving an equivalent rating of

10%. Coal with highest ash fusion temperature
will obtain the highest score for factor of safety.
Moisture content in the coal influences
combustion behaviour. Water presents in coal
must be vaporized as the volatile matter in the
coal particles is burned. But not all moisture in
the coal is eliminated. The higher the moisture
content, the higher the possibility of moisture left
Less than
Moisture as the coal ignites. Then, it is recommended to
5 30% by
Content use coal with low moisture content. However,
weight
fluidized bed boiler gives a wider range of
moisture content which handles coal with less
than 30% by weight (Woodruff, 2004) giving this
criterion not a major factor. Besides, moisture has
no harmful effect to the environment. Therefore,
moisture content will have an equivalent of 5%.
Ash content affects the design and the capacity of
auxiliary systems: the system for recirculation of
unburned particles, the system for flue gas
cleaning, and the system for removal of the solid
material from the bed (Dekker, 2004). It can also
Less than affect the environment and health. People can be
Ash Content 10
70% exposed to coal ash from disposal sites and
environmental contamination. Therefore, coal
having low ash content is recommended.
However, fluidized bed boiler can combust coal
having ash content up to 70% (Raja, 2006). Thus,
giving an equivalent rating of 10%.
Distance must also be considered to determine
the availability of the coal. However, the three
Distance - coals to be compared came from only one
country, Indonesia. Therefore, distance is not a
factor in comparing the coals.
Source: Woodruff, 2004

The lower heating value has an equivalent rating of 55% since it is the most important
parameter that tells whether the selected coal is of high quality. The sulfur content, grindability,
ash fusion temperature and ash content have an equal rating of 10% because they have minor
effects on the combustion technology selected. And lastly, moisture content with an equivalent
rating of 5% since it is not a major factor.

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 Design of a 590 MW FBC Coal Fired Power Plant 15

2.6 Coal Selection

In order to select the proper coal for the proposed circulating fluidized bed power plant,
the designers made a comparison between the three low quality coals coming from different
mining companies in Indonesia. Table 2.2 shows the specification of the three coals.

Table 2.2: Coal Specifications

Criteria Coal A[1] Coal B[1] Coal C[3]

Lower Heating Value
(kcal/kg) 5009 5850 4000
Grindability (HGI) 42 45 60
Sulfur Content (%) 0.25 0.7 0.1
Ash Fusion Temperature (oC) 1150 1150 1300
Moisture Content (%) 18 9 27
Ash Content (%) 3 5.5 2
Source: [1] PT Kaltim Prima Coal
[2] PT Adaro Indonesia

Coal A is a sub-bituminous coal with low ash and sulfur contents. Base on its heating
value, it is a sub-bituminous class B. For coal B, it is a high volatile bituminous coal with low
calorific value, very low ash, moderate sulfur, and high moisture content. It falls under high
volatile class C. Similar to coal A, coal C is a sub-bituminous coal and fall under class C. It has
also low ash and sulfur contents.

The one with the highest score will be chosen as fuel for the proposed power plant. The
formula to be use will be;

Acceptable Value
Score = x Percentage (Equation 1)
Value

If the highest score to consider is the highest value among the three coal properties, then
the acceptable value is on the denominator. Opposite of this, if the highest score to consider is
the lowest value of the three coal properties, then the acceptable value will be the numerator.

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2.6.1 Score Computation

Coal A will be used as a sample for the computation.

 For Low Heating Value,

5009
Coal A LHV = 5850 𝑥 55%

Coal A LHV = 47.09%

Repeating the same process, Table 2.3 shows the summary of score for low heating value.

Table 2.3: Score Summary for Low Heating Value

Equivalent Percentage (%)
Coal A Coal B Coal C
47.09 55 37.61

Coal B has the highest equivalent percentage of 55%

 For Grindability,

42
Coal A HGI = 60 𝑥 10%

Coal A HGI = 7%

Repeating the same process, Table 2.4 shows the summary of score for grindability index.

Table 2.4: Score Summary for Grindability Index

Equivalent Percentage (%)
Coal A Coal B Coal C
7 7.5 10

Coal C has the highest equivalent percentage of 10%

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 Design of a 590 MW FBC Coal Fired Power Plant 17

 For Sulfur Content,

0.1
Coal A Sulfur Content = 0.25 𝑥 10%

Coal A Sulfur Content = 4%

Repeating the same process, Table 2.5 shows the summary of score for sulfur content.

Table 2.5: Score Summary for Sulfur Content

Equivalent Percentage (%)
Coal A Coal B Coal C
4 1.43 10

Coal C has the highest equivalent percentage of 10%

 For Ash Fusion Temperature,

1150
Coal A Ash Fusion Temperature = 1300 𝑥 10%

Coal A Sulfur Content = 8.85%

Repeating the same process, Table 2.6 shows the summary of score for ash fusion temperature.

Table 2.6: Score Summary for Ash Fusion Temperature

Equivalent Percentage (%)
Coal A Coal B Coal C
8.85 8.85 10

Coal C has the highest equivalent percentage of 10%

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 Chapter 2 – Coal Selection and Analysis 18

 For Moisture Content,

9
Coal A Moisture = 18 𝑥 5%

Coal A Moisture = 2.5%

Repeating the same process, Table 2.7 shows the summary of score for moisture content.

Table 2.7: Score Summary for Moisture Content

Equivalent Percentage (%)
Coal A Coal B Coal C
2.5 5 1.67

Coal B has the highest equivalent percentage of 5%

 For Ash Content,

2
Coal A Ash = 3 𝑥 10%

Coal A Ash = 6.67%

Repeating the same process, Table 2.8 shows the summary of score for ash content.

Table 2.8: Score Summary for Ash Content

Equivalent Percentage (%)
Coal A Coal B Coal C
6.67 3.64 10

Coal C has the highest equivalent percentage of 10%

After the computation, Coal B has the highest score percentage. Therefore it will be used
as fuel for the proposed power plant. Table 2.9 shows the summary of the score computation.

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Table 2.9: Score Summary of the Three Coals

Coal A Coal B Coal C

Equivalent Fluidized
Criteria
Rating (%) Bed Range Percentage Percentage Percentage
Value Value Value
(%) (%) (%)
Lower Heating
Minimum of
Value 55 5009 47.09 5850 55 4000 37.61
2000 kcal/kg
(kcal/kg)
Grindability
10 50 - 60 42 7 45 7.5 60 10
(HGI)
Sulfur Content
10 Up to 10% 0.25 4 0.7 1.43 0.1 10
(%)
Must be
Ash Fusion
greater than
Temperature 10 1150 8.85 1150 8.85 1300 10
bed
(oC)
temperature
Less than
Moisture
5 30% by 18 2.5 9 5 27 1.67
Content (%)
weight
Ash Content Less than
10 3 6.67 5.5 3.64 2 10
(%) 70%
TOTAL 100 76.11 81.42 79.28
Source: Woodruff, 2004
Morse, 1953
Dekker, 2004

2.7 Selected Coal

Based on the comparative selection, the coal to be use in the furnace is coal B. It has the
highest score with regards to the criteria given for a fluidized bed type of combustion. Among
the three coals, coal B has the highest heating value which is the main reason why it is selected.
Heating value has the highest score of 55%. Compared to other coal, it contains low moisture.
This is one of the reasons why it becomes the high quality coal among the three low class coals.
With regards to other criteria, coal B has the highest sulfur and ash content. However it will not
affect the combustion because fluidized bed technology can handle fuel with high ash and sulfur
content.

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 Chapter 2 – Coal Selection and Analysis 20

Coal B is a high volatile bituminous coal class C with low calorific value, very low ash,
moderate sulfur, and high moisture. It is a bright and lustrous coal with high vitrinite content. It
comes primarily from six main seams in pits that are located close to the Pinang Dome (PT
Kaltim Prima Coal).Table 2.10 and 2.11 shows the analysis of Pinang Coal.

Table 2.10: Proximate Analysis of Coal B

Proximate Analysis (%)
Air Dried Basis
Moisture 9
Ash 5.5
Volatile Matter 40
Fixed Carbon 45.5
Source: PT Kaltim Prima Coal

Table 2.10: Ultimate Analysis of Coal B

Ultimate Analysis (%)
Carbon 78.5
Hydrogen 5.5
Nitrogen 1.6
Sulfur 0.7
Oxygen 13.7
Source: PT Kaltim Prima Coal

Given the proximate and ultimate analysis, it is also important to consider the other
properties of the coal such as Hardgrove Grindability Index, Coal Size, Heating Value, Ash
Fusion Temperature, etc. Table 2.11 shows the other properties of the selected coal.

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Table 2.11: Other Properties of Coal B

Hardgrove Grindability Index 45
Coal Size 50 mm
Heating Value
Low Heating Value 5850 kcal/kg
High Heating Value 6150 kcal/kg
Ash Fusion Temperature

Initial Deformation Temperature 1150oC

Hemispherical Temperature 1250oC

Flow Temperature 1300oC
Source: PT Kaltim Prima Coal

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