Technical Details

THEMATIC RESEARCH SUMMARY
Advanced fossil
fuel power
generation
Manuscript completed in September 2014
© European Union 2014
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Photo credits: iStockphoto

This publication was produced by the Energy Research Knowledge
Centre (ERKC), funded by the European Commission, to support its
Information System for the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SETIS).
It represents the consortium’s views on the subject matter. These views
have not been adopted or approved by the European Commission and
should not be taken as a statement of the views of the European
Commission.
The manuscript was produced by Hamid Mozaffarian from the Energy
Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN). We would like to thank
Michal Glazer and Colin Henderson for their review of the manuscript
and their support.
While the information contained in this brochure is correct to the best of
our knowledge, neither the consortium nor the European Commission
can be held responsible for any inaccuracy, or accept responsibility for
any use made thereof.
Additional information on energy research programmes and related
projects, as well as on other technical and policy publications is
available on the Energy Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC) portal at:
setis.ec.europa.eu/energy-research
1
A d va n c e d f o s s i l f u e l p o w e r g e n e r at i o n
Executive Summary
Key messages
• Fossil-fuel power generation is expected to continue to be the biggest
contributor to the EU27’s CO2 emissions in the short and medium term.
Improvements in power plant efficiency are therefore a major factor in reducing
CO2 emissions in Europe.
• Increasing the net efficiency of coal-fired power plants is a major requirement
for the intelligent and cost-effective use of CCS technologies. The most
promising strategies to achieve this are based on boosting steam temperature
and pressure in new AUSC power plants (including attention to materials of
construction), and clean coal technologies based on oxy-combustion and co-
firing technologies, among others.
• The priority grid access granted to renewables means that fossil-fuel power
plants will increasingly move from baseload operation to load-following. The
flexibility of power plants therefore requires special attention in future research.
• Other fields requiring special research attention are fuel pre-treatment and fuel
flexibility, emissions reduction (SO2, NOx and dust), and polygeneration.
This report has been produced as part of the activities of the Energy
Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC). The ERKC project aims to collect,
organise and disseminate validated, referenced information on energy
research programmes and projects and their results from across the
EU and beyond.
The Thematic Research Summaries (TRS) are designed to analyse the
results of energy research projects identified by the Energy Research
Knowledge Centre (ERKC). The rationale behind the TRS is to identify
the most novel and innovative contributions to research questions that
have been addressed by European and national research projects on
a specific theme.
The present TRS provides an overview of the developments for
advanced fossil-fuel power generation, as part of the ERKC priority
area Low-carbon Heat and Power Supply.
Despite efforts to increase the share of renewables in the European
energy mix, fossil fuels account for the largest share of Europe’s total
electricity generation capacity, in both the short and medium terms,
and will continue to do so. Fossil-fuelled power plants are consequently
the biggest contributor to CO2 emissions in the EU27 countries, and
increasing their efficiency is an important way to cut global CO2
emissions.
The average efficiency of coal-fired generation worldwide is expected
to improve from 36% in 2011 to 40% in 2035. In the European Union
the efficiency of coal-fired generation will increase from 38% to 44%
as subcritical plants are almost entirely phased out by 2035.
2
The overall estimated public RD&D expenditure related to fossil fuels
in 2011 in IEA Europe was EUR 358 million, or about 21% of the
total public budget for RD&D on fossil fuels for all the IEA member
countries.
Policy context
The main EU policy documents relevant to advanced fossil-fuel power
generation are:
• Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD) (Directive 2001/80/EC);
• Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) (Directive 2010/75/EU) ;
• CHP Directive (Directive 2004/8/EC);
• Renewable Energy Sources Directive (RED) (Directive 2009/28/EC);
• Emissions Trading Directive (2009/29/EC).
The LCPD sets absolute emission limit values for SO2, NOx and dust
for individual new installations (coal or oil/gas-fired plants). The RES
Directive sets a binding target for 20% of EU final energy consumption
to be provided by renewable sources by 2020, with related binding
targets for each Member State. The EU’s emission trading scheme
(ETS) is the most ambitious of its kind in the world and a central pillar
of European climate policy.
Scope of the theme

Fuel pre-treatment can improve power plant efficiency. Diversifying
fuels can have a marked impact on efficiency, while minimising the
effects of fluctuations in fuel price and availability. Using the best
available technologies can increase efficiency.
Combined-cycle plants using natural gas, the use of biomass in
pulverised coal power plants, and integrated gasification combined-
cycle (IGCC) plants, which turn coal into gas, can all potentially reduce
emissions even further, especially with carbon capture1.
One of the most effective ways to increase the electrical efficiency of
coal-fired power plants is to increase the temperature and pressure of
the steam used to drive the turbines. Historically, changes in steam
conditions have followed the development of improved steels. Current
ultra-supercritical (USC) plants run with superheater temperatures up
to 604°C, for a maximum electrical efficiency of 47%. The new target
is advanced ultra-supercritical (AUSC) operation with superheater
temperatures up to 700°C and efficiencies up to 50%.
Further into the future, IGCC with hybrid fuel cells could possibly
reach 60% efficiency, with zero emissions. For both new coal plants
and retrofits, combustion using pure oxygen rather than air seems a
promising way to reduce the cost of carbon capture. Polygeneration
1
Biomass co-firing and carbon capture and storage (CCS) are covered under other headings.
3
from coal is another option, yielding not only electricity and heat, but
also chemical feedstocks and alternative fuels for transport.
Based on this background, this TRS considers the following sub-
themes:
• fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility;
• conversion efficiency;
• emissions;
• advanced firing systems, such as oxyfuel combustion;
• polygeneration;
• steam conditions and materials of construction.
Synthesis of the research findings

Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility
Circulating fluidised bed (CFB) combustion, with its advantages of fuel
flexibility, heat integration and low emissions, is well suited to using
pure oxygen instead of air. CFB with oxyfuel combustion will allow
the use of low-quality domestic coal and biomass with carbon capture
(CCS), thus improving energy security while cutting emissions.
However, it is expensive.
Chemical looping combustion (CLC) in large-scale plants, currently
under investigation, is expected to open new possibilities for using
multiple fuels and reduce the energy penalty for CO2 capture.
Conversion efficiency
In the very long term, direct electrochemical conversion of coal to
electricity via fuel cells could offer significant increases in efficiency
and easier CO2 capture.
High-pressure CFB gasifiers can be fuelled with high-ash coals, but
their efficiency and reliability need to be improved.
Emissions
The gas turbines in the next generation of IGCC power plants may
be able to burn undiluted hydrogen-rich syngas, with benefits for fuel
flexibility and carbon capture.
Innovative SCR-deNOx catalysts for coal, biomass, and co-combustion
are in development. These will improve the removal of NOx and
mercury, while avoiding the formation of SO2 from sulphur in the fuel.
Advanced firing systems

For both new coal plants and retrofits, oxyfuel combustion is a promising
option that increases the concentration of CO2 in the flue gas and so
reduces the cost of CO2 capture. It normally requires the flue gas
to be recycled around the furnace, increasing the risk of corrosion.
Research needs to address this.
4
High oxygen concentrations in oxyfuel combustion save energy by
reducing the flue gas recirculation rate, allow the use of smaller
boilers, bring new opportunities for using waste heat, and improve
system flexibility. To make this possible, researchers need to check the
effects of high oxygen concentrations on combustion performance and
other important operating characteristics.
Polygeneration
Converting coal into so-called substitute natural gas (SNG) will reduce
dependence on non-European oil and natural gas. An innovative
coal-to-SNG technology based on steam gasification is currently in
development for plants in the 50–500 MWth range. One completed
project has yielded a basic design for a 5 MWth pilot plant. A follow-
up project is targeting a demonstration of the complete process chain
with European coal and lignite. Other products of polygeneration
could include liquid transport fuels, hydrogen, fertiliser and chemical
feedstocks.
Steam conditions and materials of construction

Cost-effective use of CCS requires new strategies to increase the net
efficiency of coal-fired power plants. One of the most promising of
these is to increase the steam pressure and temperature in new AUSC
power plants to at least 350–370 bar and 700/720°C respectively.
However, this demands new materials and manufacturing techniques
to withstand such challenging conditions, and the necessary research
is a long-term process. There are plans to build a European 500 MW
demonstration plant that would begin operation in 2021.
R&D challenges for future research

Flexibility of power plants
Coal-fired power plants are increasingly required to balance power
grids by compensating for the variable electricity supply from
renewable energy sources. This needs high flexibility in terms of
the ability to withstand frequent start-ups and load changes, and to
provide frequency control. Designs are now being developed to give
future plants such flexibility.
Economics of AUSC technology

Though AUSC technology has already been in development for 15
years, it still requires an extensive materials research programme.
The main outstanding issue is the fabrication of large components.
This research is expected to take more than ten years, with substantial
costs and technical risks. Consortia of utilities, manufacturers and
research establishments are combining their resources to overcome
these barriers.
5
Reducing the efficiency penalty associated with CCS

One of the main drawbacks of CCS is the additional energy needed
to run it. This penalty reduces efficiency and increases the cost of
electricity and the use of resources. Reducing the efficiency penalty
associated with CCS is a major challenge for the coming years.
International developments
The global share of fossil fuels in total power generation is expected
to fall from 68% in 2011 to 57% in 2035. Global coal-fired generation
will increase from 9 140 TWh in 2011 to 12 310 TWh in 2035, despite
coal’s share of total generation falling from 41% to 35%. The average
efficiency of coal-fired generation worldwide will improve from 36%
to 40% in the same period as old plants are retired and replaced by
newer technology. In the EU the efficiency of coal-fired generation will
increase from 38% to 44% by 2035 as subcritical plants are almost
entirely phased out.
Gas-fired generation will rise from 4 847 TWh in 2011 to 8 310 TWh
in 2035, maintaining a constant 22% share of total generation. In the
EU, low electricity demand growth, support for renewables, high gas
prices and low CO2 prices will stifle new gas-fired generation before
2020. After 2020, gas-fired generation will increase as inefficient
coal capacity is retired, CO2 prices rise and more system flexibility is
needed to match the growth in renewables. Compared to coal, gas-
fired generation is cheaper and quicker to build, more flexible to run,
and has lower emissions.
Conclusions and recommendations

•D
espite the growth in renewables, fossil fuels will continue to
hold the largest share of Europe’s total electricity generation
capacity in the short and medium term (53% in 2010; 43.5%
in 2020; 39.8% in 2030).
• I n the EU, new gas-fired generation is unlikely before 2020.
Beyond that, gas-fired generation will rise as inefficient coal
capacity is retired, CO2 prices rise and the need for system
flexibility becomes greater.
•T
he priority grid access given to renewables will require fossil-fuel
power plants to move from baseload to load-following operation.
The necessary increase in flexibility requires special attention in
future research.
•T
he additional energy needed for CCS reduces power plant
efficiency and increases the cost of electricity. Reducing the
efficiency penalty associated with CCS will be a major challenge
in the coming years.
•T
he cost-effective use of CCS requires new strategies to increase
the net efficiency of coal power plants. The most promising
strategies are to:
6
o increase the steam temperature and pressure in new AUSC
power plants (350–370 bar, 700/720°C minimum);
op
romote clean coal technologies, such as oxyfuel combustion
and biomass co-firing, in order to reduce both CO2 capture
losses and the amount of CO2 to be captured and stored.
•A
USC technology has already been in development for 15
years. However, it still requires an extensive materials research
programme; the main outstanding issue is the fabrication of
large components. This research is expected to take more than
ten years, with substantial costs and technical risks. Consortia of
utilities, manufacturers, research establishments must combine
their resources to solve these technical issues and expedite
AUSC technology.
• For both new coal plants and retrofits, oxyfuel combustion seems
a promising option that is expected to minimise the cost of carbon
capture. Attention should be paid to understanding the effects
on corrosion, combustion performance, fuel flexibility, solids
recirculation, materials performance and CO2 compression.
However, this technology is currently unacceptably expensive,
so it is not expected to see commercial use in the near future.
7
8
Table of contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY �� 2
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES �� 9
1 INTRODUCTION �� 11
2 SCOPE OF THE THEME �� 15
3 POLICY CONTEXT �� 18
3.1 EU policy framework �� 18
3.1.1 L
arge Combustion Plant Directive �� 18
3.1.2 Industrial Emissions Directive �� 19
3.1.3 C
HP Directive �� 19
3.1.4 Renewable Energy Sources Directive �� 20
3.1.5 Emission Trading Directive �� 20
3.2 Advanced fossil-fuel power generation outlooks �� 21
4 RESEARCH FINDINGS �� 24
4.1 Introduction �� 24
4.1.1 Sources of information �� 24
4.1.2 Technology costs �� 24
4.1.3 List of projects sorted by sub-theme �� 25
4.2 Sub-theme 1: Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility �� 26
4.3 Sub-theme 2: Conversion efficiency �� 28
4.4 Sub-theme 3: Emissions �� 29
4.5 Sub-theme 4: Advanced firing systems �� 30
4.6 Sub-theme 5: Polygeneration �� 32
4.7 Sub-theme 6: Steam conditions and materials of construction �� 34
5 INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS �� 36
5.1 Synthesis of the research findings �� 36
5.2 R
&D challenges for future research �� 38
6 TECHNOLOGY MAPPING �� 39
7 CAPACITIES MAPPING �� 41
7.1 Coal-fired generation �� 41
7.2 G
as-fired generation �� 42
7.3 A
USC materials research �� 43
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS �� 44
REFERENCES �� 46
ANNEXES �� 48
Annex 1: Acronyms and abbreviations used in the TRS �� 48
Annex 2: Complete list of projects relevant to the theme �� 50
9
List of tables and

figures
Table 1: ERKC priority areas and themes �� 12
Table 2: A
dvanced fossil-fuel power generation sub-themes �� 13
Table 3: S
team conditions, materials, efficiency and coal consumption
for four generations of coal plants (Nicol, 2013) �� 16
Table 4: E
mission limit values (ELVs) for existing and new coal plants,
according to the LCPD �� 18
Table 5: E
mission limit values (ELVs) for existing and new coal plants,
according to the IED �� 19
Table 6: I ndicative capital and operating costs for fossil-fuel power
generation technologies (JRC, 2013) �� 24
Table 7: P
rojects sorted by sub-theme �� 25
Table 8: T
otal RD&D expenditure on oil and gas, coal, and related
conversion routes in 2011 for selected European countries
(million EUR, with 2012 prices and exchange rates)
(IEA RD&D, 2013) �� 39
Figure 1: S
hares of different fuels in primary energy consumption (%)
for 2030 and 2050, compared with 2005, for various EU
decarbonisation scenarios (COM(2011) 885 final) �� 22
Figure 2: C
oal-fired power generation by region in the IEA
New Policies Scenario (IEA WEO, 2013) �� 41
Figure 3: S
hare of coal-fired power generation by technology and
average efficiency in selected regions in the IEA New
Policies Scenario (IEA WEO, 2013) �� 42
Figure 4: G
as-fired power generation for selected regions in the
IEA New Policies Scenario (IEA WEO, 2013) �� 43
10
1 Introduction
This publication has been produced as part of the activities of the
ERKC (Energy Research Knowledge Centre), funded by the European
Commission to support its Information System of the Strategic Energy
Technology Plan (SETIS).
The ERKC collects, organises and analyses validated, referenced
information on energy research programmes and projects, including
results and analyses from across the EU and beyond. Access to energy
research knowledge is vastly improved through the ERKC, allowing it
to be exploited in a timely manner and used all over the EU, thus also
increasing the pace of further innovation. The ERKC therefore has a
key role in gathering and analysing data to monitor progress towards
the objectives of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-
Plan). It also brings important added value to the monitoring data by
analysing trends in energy research at national and European levels,
and deriving thematic analyses and policy recommendations from the
aggregated project results.
The approach to assessing and disseminating energy research results
used by the ERKC team includes the following three levels of analysis:
•P
roject analysis, providing information on research background,
objectives, results, and technical and policy implications on a
project-by-project basis;
•T
hematic analysis, which pools research findings according to
a classification scheme structured by priority and research focus.
This analysis results in the production of a set of Thematic
Research Summaries (TRS);
•P
olicy analysis, which pools research findings on a specific topic,
with emphasis on the policy implications of results and pathways
to future research. This analysis results in the compilation of
Policy Brochures (PB).
The Thematic Research Summaries are designed to provide an overview

of innovative research results relevant to the themes which have been
identified as of particular interest to policymakers and researchers.
The classification structure adopted by the ERKC team comprises 45
themes divided into nine priority areas. Definitions of each theme can
be found on the ERKC portal at:
setis.ec.europa.eu/energy-research
11
Table 1: ERKC priority areas and themes
 Priority area 1: Low-carbon heat and power suplly

Bioenergy / Geothermal / Ocean energy / Photovoltaics / Concetrated solar power / Wind
/ Hydropower / Advanced fossil fuel power generation / Fossil fuel with CCS / Nuclear
fission / Nuclear fusion / Cogeneration / Heating and cooling from renewable sources
 Priority area 2: Alternative fuels and energy sources for transport
Biofuels / Hydrogen and fuel cells / Other alternative transport fuels
 Priority area 3: Smart cities and communities
Smart electricity grids / Behavioural aspects - SCC / Small scale electricity storage /
Energy savings in buildings / ITS in energy / Smart district heating and cooling grids -
demand / Energy savings in appliances / Building energy system integration
 Priority area 4: Smart grids
Transnission / Distribution / Storage / Smart district heating and cooling grids - supply
 Priority area 5: Energy efficiency in industry
Process efficiency / Ancillary equipment
 Priority area 6: New knowledge and technologies
Basic research / Materials
 Priority area 7: Energy innovation and market uptake
Techno-economic assessment / Life-cycle assessment Cost-benefit analysis / (Market-)
decision support tools / Security-of-supply studies / Private investment assessment
 Priority area 8: Socio-economic analysis
Public acceptability / User participation / Behavioural aspects
 Priority area 9: Policy studies
Market uptake support / Modeling and scenarios / Enviromental impacts / International
cooperation
The purpose of the TRS is to identify and trace the development of

technologies in the context of energy policy and exploitation. The aim
is to identify drivers of policy that will create a demand for ‘products’
that are likely to impact on policy in the coming years, especially
technological acceleration, innovation, sustainable development,
employment policy and international cooperation and social cohesion.
The TRS are intended for policymakers as well as any interested
reader from other stakeholders and from the academic and research
communities.
The present TRS deals with advanced fossil-fuel power generation, as
part of the ERKC priority area ‘Low-carbon Heat and Power Supply’.
Despite efforts to introduce power generation from renewable energy
sources and increase its share in the European energy mix, fossil
fuels continue to hold the largest share of Europe’s total electricity
generation capacity, in both the short and medium terms (53% in
2010; 43.5% in 2020; 39.8% in 2030). The 2010 figure of 53% fossil-
fuel-based electricity generation comprises 23% based on natural gas,
16% on hard coal, 11% on lignite and 3% on fuel oil. This European
breakdown is slightly ‘greener’ than the global picture, where fossil-
fuel power generation provides more than 60% of the world’s electricity
output, including 42% based on coal. More than 70% of China’s
12
installed electricity capacity is based on coal. In the US, 40% of power
generation is based on natural gas. Fossil-fuelled power generation is
consequently the biggest contributor to CO2 emissions; in 2009, for
instance, 35% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions in the EU27 countries
were from power generation (JRC, 2011).
Fossil-fuel power generation uses the heating value of gas, liquid and
solid fossil fuels to create electricity and heat. The fuel is burned in a
combustion chamber, with the resulting hot flue gases either driving
gas turbines directly or used to produce steam, which in turn drives
steam turbines. In each case, the shaft power from the turbines
drives generators to produce electricity. Gains in conversion efficiency
translate to energy savings and cuts in greenhouse gases emissions.
In plants burning coal, fuel efficiency increases when the steam is
generated at very high temperatures and pressures (advanced
‘supercritical’ (SC) and ‘ultra-supercritical’ (USC) plants). For natural
gas, advanced technologies include ‘combined-cycle’ (NGCC) plants
which use both gas turbines and steam turbines; this is currently the
most efficient type of thermal power plant.
Co-firing biomass in coal plants, and integrated gasification combined-
cycle (IGCC) plants – in which coal or other solid fuels are converted
into combustible gases – have a relatively high emissions reduction
potential, especially when used with carbon capture. Biomass co-firing
and carbon capture and storage (CCS) are covered in other TRS.
This TRS is organised as follows. Chapter 2 provides an overview of
the relevant EU policies. Chapter 3 includes a brief analysis of the
scope of the theme.
Chapter 4 provides an overview of the costs of different technologies,
reports on the results of specific research projects, and examines gaps
and topics for future research identified in the projects. This section is
structured according to six sub-themes (Table 2). Links to the project
websites (if available) are also included.
Table 2 Advanced fossil-fuel power generation sub-themes
Sub-theme Description
1 Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility
2 Conversion efficiency
3 Emissions
4 Advanced firing systems, including oxyfuel combustion
5 Polygeneration
6 Steam conditions and materials of construction
Chapter 5 provides an updated picture of the latest developments

and the future of the technology described in the SET-Plan technology
map, based on an analysis of the research results from Chapter 4.
Chapter 6 gives an overview of public funding for advanced fossil-fuel
power generation RD&D, based on statistics from the International
13
Energy Agency. Chapter 7 reviews current trends in advanced

fossil-fuel power generation R&D and industrial production beyond
Europe. Finally, Chapter 8 provides an overview of the key issues and
recommendations that can be drawn from the TRS.
14
2 Scope of the theme
The technologies used to generate electricity from fossil fuels can be
categorised based on the fuel used (coal, lignite, natural gas or oil), the
technology used to convert the chemical energy of the fuel into thermal
energy (conventional thermal, fluidised bed, internal combustion, or
gasification), the type of turbine (gas turbine or steam turbine) and,
where applicable, the steam conditions used (JRC, 2013).
In plants based around steam turbines, the heat produced by burning
the fuel is used to generate high-pressure steam that passes through
a turbine to generate electricity. In gas turbines, on the other hand,
hot exhaust gases pass directly through the turbine to generate
electricity. More advanced ‘combined-cycle’ plants include both steam
and gas turbines. Here the fuel is first burned in a gas turbine, which
generates electricity directly. The resulting exhaust gas is then used to
heat water in a boiler, creating steam to drive a steam turbine. Apart
from being burned, fossil fuels can also be gasified to produce ‘syngas’
(a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen). Syngas can be used
directly as a fuel for power generation. Alternatively, the hydrogen can
be separated and used as a fuel in an open- or combined-cycle power
plant (JRC, 2011).
Fossil-fuel power plants produce most of the EU’s electricity, mainly
through pulverised coal combustion (PCC). As fossil-fuel power
generation is the biggest contributor to carbon dioxide emissions, any
gains in conversion efficiency would translate into substantial carbon
dioxide reductions. Each percentage point increase in fossil-fuel power
generation efficiency reduces CO2 emissions by about 2.5% in absolute
terms. Power plant efficiency is therefore a major factor that could be
used to reduce global CO2 emissions (JRC, 2011).
Fuel pre-treatment can improve the efficiency of power plants. As an
example, lignite with an inherent moisture content as high as 30–65%
is used for power generation in some countries. Lignite pre-drying
would give a potential efficiency advantage of about four percentage
points, if a boiler designed for dry feed were used (IEA-CCC Profiles,
2013).
Diversifying fuel can have a marked impact on power plant efficiency,
while minimising the effects of fluctuations in fuel price and availability.
Using the best available technologies can also increase efficiency.
Combined-cycle plants burning natural gas, burning biomass alongside
pulverised coal, and integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC)
plants, which turn coal into gas, can all potentially reduce emissions
even further, especially when used with carbon capture2.
2
http://setis.ec.europa.eu/technologies/Advanced-fossil-fuel-production/info
15
Thermodynamics shows that one of the most effective ways to

increase the electrical efficiency of PCC plants is to increase the steam
temperature and pressure. Increasing both the superheater and
reheater temperatures by 20°C gives a net efficiency gain of roughly
one percentage point. However, achievable temperatures are limited
by the available materials.
Lowering the temperature of the coolest part of the cycle, the condenser,
also increases efficiency considerably. In practice, however, the
condenser temperature is limited by the temperature of the available
cooling water, which in turn depends on the plant’s geographical
location and climate (Nicol, 2013).
Historically, steam temperature and pressure have increased in line with
the development of improved steels. The first generation of PCC plants,
with low-alloy CMn and Mo ferritic steels, operated at ‘subcritical’ steam
conditions. The next generation of supercritical (SC) plants achieved
their higher temperatures and pressures thanks to low-alloy CrMo
steels and 9–12% chromium martensitic steels. Ultra-supercritical
(USC) steam conditions followed the development of improved 9–12%
chromium martensitic steels and austenitic steels. State-of-the-art USC
technology has now reached a superheater temperature of 604°C and
an electrical efficiency of 47% (net, LHV, hard coal).
The new target is advanced ultra-supercritical (AUSC) steam
conditions, with a superheater temperature of 700°C and an electrical
efficiency estimated at 50% (net, LHV, hard coal). However, this will
require the use of nickel alloys for the high-temperature components.
Table 3 summarises these four generations of PCC plant with their
steam conditions, materials of construction, electrical efficiency and
coal consumption (Nicol, 2013).
Table 3: Steam conditions, materials, efficiency and coal consumption

for four generations of coal plants (Nicol, 2013)
Materials Net
Super- Coal
for high- efficiency
heater consumption
temperature (%, LHV,
conditions (g/kWh)
components hard coal)
Low-alloy CMn
≤540°C
Subcritical and Mo ferric <35 ≥380
<22.1 MPa
steels
Low-alloy
540–580°C CrMo steels
SC 35–40 380–340
22.1–25 MPa and 9–12% Cr
martensitic steels
Improved 9–12%
580–620°C Cr martensitic
USC 40–45 340–320
22–25 MPa steels and
austenitic steels
Advanced 10–
700–725°C
AUSC 12% Cr steels 45–52 320–290
25–35 MPa
and nickel alloys
16
Further into the future, IGCC with hybrid fuel cells, gas turbines
and steam turbines could possibly reach 60% efficiency, with zero
emissions. For both new PCC plants and retrofits, oxyfuel combustion
is a promising option, using pure oxygen rather than air to reduce the
cost of carbon capture. Polygeneration from coal is another option;
this yields not only electricity and heat, but also chemical feedstocks
and alternative fuels for transport3.
Against this background, this TRS considers the following sub-themes:
• fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility;
• conversion efficiency;
• emissions;
• advanced firing systems, including oxyfuel combustion;
• polygeneration;
• steam conditions and materials of construction.
2
http://setis.ec.europa.eu/technologies/Advanced-fossil-fuel-production/info
17
3 Policy context
3.1 EU policy framework
The main EU policies relevant to advanced fossil-fuel power generation
are:
• Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD) (Directive 2001/80/EC);
• Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) (Directive 2010/75/EU) ;
• CHP Directive (Directive 2004/8/EC);
• Renewable Energy Sources Directive (RED) (Directive 2009/28/EC);
• Emissions Trading Directive (2009/29/EC).
3.1.1 Large Combustion Plant Directive

The latest version of the Large Combustion Plant Directive 2001/80/
EC (LCPD) came into effect on 24 October 2001. It sets absolute
emission limits (concentrations) for SO2, NOx and dust for individual
new installations (coal or oil/gas-fired plants), based on Best Available
Technology (BAT). In general, installations in use before 27 November
2003 were seen as ‘old’ and had until 1 January 2008 to meet the
same limits. But governments do have some options in setting other
emission limits for existing installations, according to their own national
emissions reduction plans. Table 4 sets out the emission limit values
(ELVs) for new and existing coal plants (at standard conditions of 6%
O2 and dry gas) according to the LCPD.
Table 4: Emission limit values (ELVs) for existing and new coal plants,
according to the LCPD
SO2 NOx PM10
From 1
Coal plant 400 mg/Nm3 January 2016:
(>500 MWth) old (1300 mg/kWh) 200 mg/Nm3
(650 mg/kWh)
Coal plant 200 mg/Nm3 200 mg/Nm3
(>500 MWth) new (650 mg/kWh) (650 mg/kWh)
Linear reduction
from 1200 mg/
Nm3 (300 MW) 500 mg/Nm3
Coal plant 50 mg/Nm3
to 400 mg/Nm3 (1620 mg/
(>300 MWth) old (160 mg/kWh)
(500 MW) kWh)
(from 3600 to
1300 mg/kWh)
Coal plant 200 mg/Nm3 200 mg/Nm3 30 mg/Nm3
(>300 MWth) new (650 mg/kWh) (650 mg/kWh) (100 mg/kWh)
Standard combustion conditions of 6% O2 and dry gas
Figures for mg/kWh assume an electrical efficiency of 40%
18
The LCPD specifies different types of BAT for old and new installations,
as well as different emissions limits. Both the BAT and the emissions
limits for coal power plants are expected to be updated in 2017.
3.1.2 Industrial Emissions Directive

The Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU (IED) is designed to
bring several separate pieces of EU legislation on industrial emissions
under one Directive. The IED came into force on 14 December 2010.
The old limits are valid for all permits that were granted before 7
January 2013 or were in use before 7 January 2014.
For both old and new plants, the limits set by the IED are at least as
stringent as those of the LCPD and often more so (Table 5). However,
existing installations built before 27 November 2003 and running for
fewer than 1,500 hours per year have an exception from the SO2
limit: instead of the standard 200 mg/Nm3 they must show a five-year
mean of 800 mg/Nm3 or below. Another exemption applies to NOx
from plants dating from before 1 July 1987 that are smaller than 500
MWth and operate for fewer than 1,500 hours per year: their five-year
mean emissions must be a maximum of 450 mg/Nm3, instead of the
standard 200 mg/Nm3.
Governments have to make a plan showing when installations with
permits dating from before 27 November 2002 will meet the limits in
the transition period from 1 January 2016 to 30 June 2020. They can
make exception for plants with a limited lifetime.
Table 5: Emission limit values (ELVs) for existing and new coal plants,
according to the IED
SO2 NOx PM10
Coal plant 200 mg/Nm3 200 mg/Nm3 20 mg/Nm3
(>300 MWth) old (650 mg/kWh) (650 mg/kWh) (60 mg/kWh)
150 mg/Nm3
10 mg/Nm3
(490 mg/
(30 mg/kWh),
kWh), with
with
Coal plant 150 mg/Nm3 200 mg/Nm3
20 mg/Nm3
(>300 MWth) new (490 mg/kWh) for pulverised
for biomass
lignite
and peat
combustion
(60 mg/kWh)
(650 mg/kWh)
Standard combustion conditions of 6% O2 and dry gas
Figures for mg/kWh assume an electrical efficiency of 40%
3.1.3 CHP Directive

The purpose of the CHP Directive (sometimes known as the
Cogeneration Directive) is to ‘increase energy efficiency and
improve security of supply by creating a framework for promotion
and development of high efficiency cogeneration of heat and power
based on useful heat demand and primary energy savings’ in the
internal energy market. The annexes to the Directive list the different
19
technologies for combined heat and power (CHP), set the basis for
calculating CHP electricity production and describe the primary energy
savings test that plants must pass to qualify as ‘high-efficiency’ CHP.
Installations other than micro-CHP must achieve primary energy
savings of 10% compared with the separate production of electricity
and heat.
The CHP Directive has set the frame for Member State support through
state aid for environmental protection, thus allowing Member States
actively to support CHP4.
3.1.4 Renewable Energy Sources Directive

In December 2008 the European Parliament adopted the ‘Directive on
the promotion of energies from renewable sources’ (RES Directive,
2009), as part of the EU Climate and Energy Package. The RES
Directive (otherwise known as the Renewable Energy Directive or
RED) sets a general binding target for the EU to obtain 20% of its final
energy consumption from renewable sources by 2020. It also includes
a specific target of 10% renewable energy for the total energy used in
the transport sector.
The Directive also sets binding targets for each Member State with
respect to the share of energy from renewable sources in their
gross final energy consumption by 2020. A key element of the
implementation of the RES Directive is a National Renewable Energy
Action Plan (NREAP) delivered by each Member State to the European
Commission (Beurskens & Hekkenberg, 2011).
3.1.5 Emission Trading Directive

The EU’s emission trading scheme (ETS) is the most ambitious of its
kind in the world. Plants covered by the ETS include the power and heat
generation sectors, combustion plants, oil refineries, coke ovens, iron
and steel plants, and factories making cement, glass, lime, bricks and
ceramics. The ETS is the central pillar of European climate policy. It is
designed to be technology-neutral, cost-effective and fully compatible
with the internal energy market.
A revision of the ETS Directive (Directive 2009/29/EC) considerably
strengthened several features of the scheme, including:
•P
hase 3 has a prolonged compliance cycle, spanning from 2013
to 2020. It incorporates a centralised EU-wide allocation of
allowances. The total emissions cap will decrease at 1.74% per
year, even beyond 2020.
•A
uctions will progressively replace the free allocation of emission
allowances, which was key to the acceptance of the ETS during
the pilot phase but comes with an efficiency loss. Apart from a
4
http://www.cogeneurope.eu/medialibrary/2011/05/27/3cce5db0/310111-A-quick-guide-
to-the-CHP-Directive.pdf
20
few transitional exemptions, the whole power sector will now
have to buy its emission allowances at auction. The European
Commission expects that at least 50% of all allowances,
corresponding to 1 billion tonnes of CO2, will be auctioned in
2013, and this proportion will rise each year.
• Industrial installations will receive allowances on the basis of
product-specific EU-wide benchmarks, but must purchase at
least 20% of their allowances in 2013. This proportion will rise
to 70% in 2020 and 100% in 2027. Operators at risk of carbon
leakage will receive free allowances up to their benchmark. The
benchmark is based on the average of the 10% most efficient
installations in a given sector.
•T
he EU ETS will cover new industries (such as aluminium and
part of the chemical industry) and two new gases (nitrous oxide
and perfluorocarbons). The capture, transport and geological
storage of all greenhouse gas emissions will also be covered.
The ETS has covered the aviation sector since 2012 and in future
might be further extended, for example to emissions from ships.
3.2 Advanced fossil-fuel power

generation outlook
In 2011 the European Commission set long-term targets by adopting the
Low-Carbon Roadmap 2050 (covering all sectors of the economy) and
the Energy Roadmap 2050 (especially for the energy sector). Through
these two documents the EU committed to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions to 80–95% below 1990 levels by 2050. The Roadmaps serve
as a basis for developing a common long-term European framework
for energy and climate change.
The policies and measures chosen by the EU to achieve the Energy
2020 goals and the Energy 2020 strategy will continue to deliver
beyond 2020, helping to reduce emissions by about 40% by 2050.
To keep the global mean temperature rise below 2°C, in February
2011 the European Council reconfirmed the EU objective of reducing
greenhouse gas emissions by 80–95% by 2050 compared to 1990.
The transition towards a competitive low-carbon economy means that
the EU should prepare to reduce its domestic emissions by 80% by
2050 compared to 1990 (COM(2011) 112 final).
In the Energy Roadmap 2050 the Commission explores the challenges
posed by the need to deliver the EU’s decarbonisation objective while at
the same time ensuring security of energy supply and competitiveness.
Five decarbonisation scenarios have been defined5, next to the two
current trend scenarios6. In all the decarbonisation scenarios electricity
5
igh energy efficiency, diversified supply technologies, high renewable energy sources,
H
delayed CCS, and low nuclear scenario.
6
Reference scenario and Current Policy Initiatives (CPI).
21
will have to play a much greater role than now (almost doubling its
share in final energy demand, to 36–39%, by 2050) and will have
to contribute to the decarbonisation of transport and heating/cooling
(COM(2011) 885 final).
Figure 1 shows the proportions of different fuels in primary energy
consumption by 2030 and 2050, compared to 2005, for different EU
decarbonisation scenarios.
Coal in the EU contributes to a diversified energy portfolio and security
of supply. With the development of carbon capture and storage (CCS)
and other emerging clean coal technologies, coal could continue to play
an important role in a sustainable and secure future energy supply.
Substitution of coal (and oil) by gas in the short to medium term could
help to reduce emissions, while still using existing technologies, until
at least 2030 or 2035. Gas demand in the residential sector might
drop by a quarter by 2030 thanks to new energy efficiency measures,
but it will remain high in other sectors, including power generation, for
a longer period. In the Diversified Supply Technologies scenario, for
example, gas-fired power generation accounts for roughly 800 TWh in
2050 – slightly above its current level. With evolving technologies, gas
might play an increasing role in the future.
Figure 1: Shares of different fuels in primary energy consumption

(%) for 2030 and 2050, compared with 2005, for various EU
decarbonisation scenarios (COM(2011) 885 final)
22
Oil is likely to remain part of the energy mix even in 2050, helping to
fuel long-distance transport of both people and freight. The challenge
for the oil sector is to adapt to changes in oil demand resulting from
the switch to renewable and alternative fuels, and uncertainties
surrounding future supplies and prices. As a fuel for electricity
generation, oil’s share fell from 9% in 1990 to 2.6% in 20107, and this
slow downward trend looks set to continue. Liquid fuels for transport
are hard to replace, but oil is not a good choice as a fuel for power
plants oil – it combines high cost (like gas) with high carbon emissions
(like coal).
Carbon pricing can provide an incentive to develop efficient, low-carbon
technologies across Europe. A higher carbon price creates stronger
incentives for investment in low-carbon technologies, but may increase
the risk of carbon leakage. The scenarios show that carbon pricing can
coexist with instruments designed to achieve particular energy policy
objectives, notably research and innovation, promotion of energy
efficiency and development of renewables (COM(2011) 885 final).
7
European Environment Agency,
www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/gross-electricity-production-by-fuel-5 and
www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/gross-electricity-production-by-fuel-1
23
4 Research findings
4.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the research results, their benefits and policy
implications.
4.1.1 Sources of information

The main sources of information are the EU-funded FP7-ENERGY
projects8, followed by projects related to the RFCS (Research Fund for
Coal and Steel of the European Commission)9.
The selection criteria for the projects are as follows:
• projects announced after 2007;
•projects that have been completed and that have publicly
available results;
• current projects for which results are not yet available.
4.1.2 Technology costs

Table 6 gives indicative costs for fossil-fuel power generation
technologies.
Table 6: Indicative capital and operating costs for fossil-fuel power

generation technologies (JRC, 2013)
Fixed O&M
Nominal Capital Variable
costs
capacity cost O&M costs
€2012/kW-
(MW) €2012/kW €2012/MWh
year
Advanced PC
650 2,516 29.3 3.5
(single unit)
Advanced PC (dual
1,300 2,274 24.2 3.5
unit)
IGCC
600 3,100 48.2 5.6
(single unit)
IGCC
1,200 2,933 39.8 5.6
(dual unit)
NGCC
620 711 10.2 2.8
(conventional)
NGCC
(advanced gas 400 793 11.9 2.5
turbine)
Conventional
85 754 5.7 12.0
combustion engine
8
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/energy
9
http://cordis.europa.eu/coal-steel-rtd
24
4.1.3 List of projects sorted by sub-theme
Table 7 presents the projects considered within this TRS, sorted by
sub-theme.
Table 7: Projects sorted by sub-theme

Sub-theme 1: Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility
Project Project title Type/ Budget Link
acronym start-end (EUR)
FLEXI BURN Development of FP7- 11,026,943 www.vtt.
CFB high efficiency ENERGY fi/sites/
CFB technology to 2009–12 flexiburncfb/
provide flexible air/
oxy operation for
power plant with
CCS
FECUNDUS Advanced concepts RFCS 2,877,029 www.fecundus.
and process schemes 2010–13 cnr.it
for CO2-free fluidised
and entrained bed co-
gasification of coals
DemoCLOCK Demonstration of FP7- 8,193,558 www.sintef.no/
a cost-effective ENERGY Projectweb/
medium size 2011–15 DemoClock/
chemical looping
combustion through
packed beds using
solid hydrocarbons
as fuel for power
production with CO2
capture
Sub-theme 2: Conversion efficiency
DCFC Efficient conversion RFCS 2,030,301
of coal to electricity 2011–14
– direct coal fuel
cells
OPTIMASH Optimizing FP7- 5,303,906 http://
gasification of high- ENERGY optimash.net/
ash content coals for 2011–15
electricity generation
Sub-theme 3: Emissions
H2-IGCC Low emission gas FP7- 17,191,876 http://www.h2-
turbine technology ENERGY igcc.eu/default.
for hydrogen-rich 2009–13 aspx
syngas
DEVCAT Development of high RFCS 2,359,856 http://devcat.
performance SCR- 2010–13 eu-projects.de/
catalysts related to
different fuel types
Sub-theme 4: Advanced firing systems
OxyCorr Boiler corrosion RFCS 1,956,218 http://oxycorr.
under oxy-fuel 2009–12 eu-projects.de
conditions
25
RELCOM Reliable and efficient FP7- 9,736,057 http://

combustion of ENERGY relcomeu.com
oxygen/coal/recycled 2011–15
flue gas mixtures
HETMOC Highly efficient FP7- 7,812,392 www.hetmoc.eu
tubular membranes ENERGY
for oxy-combustion 2011–15
O2GEN Optimization of FP7- 11,856,914 www.
oxygen-based CFBC ENERGY o2genproject.eu
technology with CO2 2012–15
capture
Sub-theme 5: Polygeneration
CO2freeSNG Substitute natural RFCS 1,879,655 www.co2freesng.
gas from coal 2009–12 eu
with internal
sequestration of CO2
CO2free Advanced substitute RFCS 1,834,169 www.co2freesng.
SNG2.0 natural gas from 2013–16 eu/index.php/
coal with internal co2freesng2-0
sequestration of CO2
Sub-theme 6: Steam conditions and materials of construction
COMTES700 Component test RFCS 15,189,984 www.
facility for a 700°C 2004–11 comtes700.org
power plant
ENCIO European network RFCS 23,886,488 www.encio.eu
for component 2011–17
integration and
optimisation
MACPLUS Component FP7- 18,204,522 http://
performance-driven ENERGY macplusproject.
solutions for long- 2011–15 eu
term efficiency
increase in ultra
supercritical power
plants
4.2 Sub-theme 1: Fuel pre-treatment

and fuel flexibility
FLEXI BURN CFB aims to develop and demonstrate a power plant
concept that allows flexible high-efficiency air-firing of fossil fuels with
biomass, and oxygen-firing with carbon capture – the latter providing
the potential for an almost 100% reduction in CO2 emissions. The
project combines the intrinsic advantages of circulating fluidised bed
(CFB) combustion (fuel flexibility and low emissions) with oxygen-firing
for carbon capture and storage (CCS). CFB technology appears to be
ideally suited to oxygen firing, and it will allow CCS to be used with
lower-quality indigenous coals and biomass. This in turn will address
the need for security of supply, reduced dependency on imported coal
and lower CO2 emissions.
26
The final result of this project will be a power plant design that is
ready to demonstrate high-efficiency, utility-scale power generation
with CCS, burning a large variety of indigenous and imported coals
– from lignite to anthracite – as well as co-firing biomass. The main
novelty is the combination of the latest advances in CFB boiler design
with a supercritical once-through steam cycle, an air separation unit
to produce oxygen and a CO2 capture unit.
The project has developed new simulation tools to support the FLEXI
BURN CFB concept. A demonstration at 30 MWth scale proved that an
oxygen-fired CFB boiler can be operated in a reliable, controllable and
safe manner. Based on this and other tests at scales up to 30 MWth,
and field measurements at a 460 MWe coal-fired plant in Lagisza,
Poland, the project team developed the concept to commercial scale.
FLEXI BURN CFB is a first-generation CFB plant that is capable of
operation with either air or oxygen. Second-generation oxyfuel CFB
plants will use only oxygen for combustion. An example of such a
second-generation plant is the FP7 project O2GEN (see section
4.5), which aims significantly to reduce (by around 50%) the overall
efficiency penalty imposed by CO2 capture.
The FECUNDUS project aimed to integrate the co-gasification of coal,
biomass and wastes with processes for CO2 separation and capture.
Both fluidised bed and entrained-flow gasification processes were
considered because of their suitability for different feedstocks. The
project’s nine partners undertook seven work packages, including
tailoring gasification schemes for integration with CO2 separation,
and developing materials for gas cleaning, char upgrading, and CO2
separation.
DemoCLOCK aims to demonstrate the technical, economic and
environmental feasibility of high-temperature, high-pressure, packed-
bed chemical looping combustion (CLC)10 in large power plants. A 500
kWth fixed-bed reactor will be designed, built and operated within
an existing integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC) power
plant in Puertollano, Spain. The packed-bed CLC unit will convert raw
10
hemical looping combustion (CLC) uses two or more reactions to oxidise hydrocarbon-
C
based fuels. In its simplest form, a chemical species (normally a metal) is first oxidised in
air to form an oxide. This oxide is then reduced using a hydrocarbon in a second reaction.
In recent years, interest has been shown in CLC as a carbon capture technique. Carbon
capture is facilitated by CLC because the two redox reactions generate two intrinsically
separated flue gas streams: a stream from the oxidiser, consisting of atmospheric N2
and residual O2, but sensibly free of CO2; and a stream from the reducer containing
CO2 and H2O with very little diluent N2. The oxidiser exit gas can be discharged to
the atmosphere with minimal CO2 pollution. The reducer exit gas contains almost all
of the CO2 generated by the system, so CLC can be said to exhibit ‘inherent carbon
capture’. Water vapour can easily be removed from the reducer flue gas via condensation,
leading to a stream of almost pure CO2. This gives CLC clear benefits when compared
with competing carbon capture technologies, as the latter generally involve a significant
energy penalty associated with either post-combustion scrubbing systems or the work
input required for air separation plants. This has led to CLC being proposed as an energy-
efficient carbon capture technology (Wikipedia).
27
syngas produced from solid hydrocarbons to thermal energy, with

straightforward recovery of CO2. Packed-bed CLC reactor technology
opens up the possibility of using multiple fuels, such as coal, petroleum
coke and biomass, in the same power plant. It will deliver power
cost-effectively, with a reduced energy penalty for CO2 avoidance
compared to currently available techniques. The DemoCLOCK project
has already developed suitable materials to serve as oxygen carriers
in the CLC process. Simulation is now under way to design the test
reactor, which will operate at up to 1100°C and 22 bar. This combination
of temperature and pressure cannot be handled by a single-walled
vessel, so the reactor incorporates a thick layer of internal insulation
to reduce the skin temperature.
4.3 Sub-theme 2: Conversion

efficiency
Direct electrochemical conversion of coal to electricity offers very
significant increases in efficiency, with consequent reductions in CO2
emissions and new possibilities when sequestrating CO2. Direct carbon
fuel cells (DCFCs) can exceed the performance of commercial MCFCs
(molten carbonate fuel cells), and have given their name to the DCFC
project, which seeks to apply DCFC technologies to coal conversion.
The projects will focus on developing coal DCFCs, increasing scale,
improving cell design, seeking new active and conductive structures
and surface-promoted catalysts, addressing durability, investigating
coal sources, and optimising coal processing for this application. The
project will conclude by making recommendations for a commercial-
scale demonstrator.
The OPTIMASH project aims to optimise the efficiency and reliability
of gasifiers fuelled with coals containing high proportions of ash. High-
pressure circulating fluidised bed gasifiers are the target technology.
The objective of the project is to develop a pilot gasifier capable of
producing syngas at a pressure of 10 bar and a flowrate suitable for a
1 MWth combustion plant. Indian high-ash coals are the main target of
the project, but to ensure the fuel flexibility the project will also study
Turkish high-ash coals. The project will allow the global efficiency
of the gasification technology to be optimised for high-ash coal by
minimising steam use, optimising particle size versus residence time,
developing strategies to avoid particle agglomeration, investigating
corrosion risks, increasing fuel flexibility, developing efficient ash
disposal systems, and testing technologies for gas cooling, tar and fly
ash removal.
28
4.4 Sub-theme 3: Emissions
The overall objective of the H2-IGCC project is to provide and
demonstrate technical solutions to allow the use of state-of-the-art
gas turbines (GTs) in the next generation of IGCC plants. The goal is
to enable combustion of undiluted hydrogen-rich syngas with low NOx
emissions, high fuel flexibility, high efficiency and high reliability. The
challenge is to operate a GT on hydrogen-rich syngas in a stable and
controllable manner, with emissions and processes similar to current
state-of-the-art GTs running on natural gas. The project aims to tackle
this challenge, as well as that of fuel flexibility, by enabling the burning
of back-up fuels, such as natural gas, without harming reliability.
H2-IGCC is divided into four sub-projects:
•C
ombustion: Demonstrate the use of (undiluted) high-hydrogen
syngas in typical natural gas combustion systems, with minimal
modifications, so as to conserve the ability to burn a variety of
fuels; demonstrate the safe use of (undiluted) high-hydrogen
syngas in lean premixed combustion at comparatively low
emission levels.
•M
aterials: Demonstrate cost-effective materials and coatings
technologies to overcome the component life-limiting problems
of overheating and hot corrosion, resulting from the higher
temperatures and from residual contaminants in the syngas
respectively; validate materials performance data, life prediction
and monitoring methods applicable to industrial implementation
in advanced IGCC plants.
•T
urbomachinery: Deliver a compressor design with a stability
margin enabling the switch between fuels without compromising
its efficiency; deliver a turbine design and cooling system capable
of coping with the resulting heat transfer environment dominated
by water vapour; verify designs using large-scale virtual testing
environment to meet industrial standards.
•S
ystem analysis: provide a detailed system analysis that
generates realistic technical and economic results for future
IGCC plants based on GTs.
The DEVCAT project addresses the control of NOx, SO3 and mercury
(Hg) emissions from power plants. The goal is to develop special deNOx
catalysts for selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for coal, biofuels and co-
combustion, targeting efficient NOx reduction and mercury oxidation,
while also ensuring low conversion of SO2– to SO3–. Existing catalyst
technology will be further developed with innovative designs for biofuel
applications, including the use of nanotechnology.
Various studies have shown that SCR also enhances the oxidation of
elemental mercury in the flue gas, and so improves mercury retention
in both wet flue gas desulphurisation and dry adsorption processes.
A major part of the project is to study the interaction of the three
types of parallel reaction: NOx reduction, Hg oxidation, and SO2/
29
SO3 conversion. The project will work on minimising investment and

operating costs, avoiding deactivation when biofuels are burned, and
devising new ways to regenerate deactivated catalysts.
4.5 Sub-theme 4: Advanced firing

systems
For both new PC combustion plants and retrofits, combustion using pure
oxygen rather than air seems a promising option. The expectation is
that this will minimise the cost of carbon capture, since the flue gas from
oxyfuel combustion contains around 90% CO2, compared to 9–14%
CO2 in the case of conventional combustion using air. There are many
non-quantified operational effects associated with oxyfuel combustion
that will need to be addressed before it could be used commercially. A
30 MW pilot-scale project was started in 2008 in Germany11 and a 30
MW pilot plant designed by Foster Wheeler for CIUDEN12 commenced
operation in north-west Spain in the second half of 2011 (JRC, 2013).
Globally, the Callide Oxyfuel Project in Australia is a world-leading
demonstration of how carbon capture technology can be applied to
an existing coal-fired power station. The $245 million Callide Oxyfuel
Project, one of a handful of low-emission coal projects in the world to
move beyond the concept stage, is now in the demonstration phase13.
Work performed so far on oxyfuel combustion has dealt with process
feasibility and optimisation. Combustion in an atmosphere of O2
plus recycled flue gas (RFG) leads to higher concentrations of CO,
SO2/SO3, HCl and fine particles inside the furnace, so the corrosion
potential is higher. The OxyCorr project aims to determine critical
corrosion parameters during oxy-coal combustion, investigate high-
and low-temperature corrosion, and characterise the fly ash produced
and its deposition on plant elements.
Experimental and theoretical investigations have focused on problems
relating to deposition and corrosion at both high and low temperatures,
as well as the effects on flue gas cleaning equipment such as
electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). The impact of varying combustion
parameters on the flue gas composition and their further effect on the
corrosion process were studied and evaluated. Two bituminous coals
and three types of lignite were tested in rigs rated at 3 MW and 0.5
MW, respectively. More than 60 material rings were exposed using
corrosion probes in the combustion chambers of both test rigs, and
more than 20 metal coupons were positioned in the flue gas ducts.
Simultaneous long-term corrosion tests were run in four independent
laboratories, generating almost 200 specimens. Both oxidising and
11
www.vattenfall.com/en/ccs/index.htm
12
www.ciuden.es/index.php/en/technologias
13
www.callideoxyfuel.com/What/CallideOxyfuelProject.aspx
30
reducing conditions were considered. The process parameters were
chosen to reflect operation in the USC regime. Further tests on 12
alloys and a coating were carried out to simulate conditions at the
cold end of a power plant, resulting in more than 100 specimens.
The results from this project should be of use in developing advanced
process layouts and boiler design strategies to increase efficiency and
reduce maintenance costs in oxyfuel power stations.
The RELCOM project focuses on the key issues that need to be
addressed to pave the way for full-scale deployment of oxy-coal firing.
The project will undertake systematic and focused applied RD&D,
involving both experimental studies and combustion modelling,
to resolve existing technical uncertainties and barriers that inhibit
commercial deployment of the technology. Attention will be paid to
generating design rules and methods which can be employed to scale
up results from pilot and laboratory studies. The data obtained from
the experiments and models will be integrated to produce detailed
designs for a retrofit oxy/coal/RFG system for an existing boiler, as
well as a novel design for a new plant. The project will therefore enable
full-scale early demonstration plants to be designed with greater
confidence, and will improve assessments of the commercial risks and
opportunities.
HETMOC will develop and demonstrate highly efficient tubular
membranes to produce oxygen for oxyfuel combustion. Compared
to traditional combustion in air, oxyfuel combustion has the potential
significantly to reduce the efficiency losses associated with carbon
capture and to improve the overall process economics. However, it
requires large quantities of oxygen to be extracted from air: according
to the HETMOC project partners, a 500 MW power plant would need
around 16 000 tonne/day of oxygen. Conventionally this would be
obtained by liquefying and distilling air at temperatures down to –195°C
– a surprisingly energy-efficient process in modern air separation plants,
thanks to close attention to heat recovery. Membrane separation of
gases, however, can be even more energy-efficient when high purity is
not required. HETMOC aims to develop two types of oxygen transport
membranes and to test their performance and durability.
One of the main drawbacks of CCS is the additional energy it uses for
operation. This energy penalty reduces the power plant’s efficiency,
increasing both the cost of electricity and the use of resources (mainly
fossil fuels but also water, raw materials and additional equipment).
Reducing the efficiency penalty associated with CCS is therefore a
major challenge for the years to come. The objective of the O2GEN
project is to demonstrate the concept of second-generation oxyfuel
combustion that halves the overall efficiency penalty of CO2 capture
in power plants, from approximately 12 to 6 percentage points. The
concept focuses on the use of higher oxygen concentrations in oxyfuel
combustion, reducing the flue gas recirculation rate and the energy
penalty. The use of higher oxygen concentrations has other important
advantages: smaller boilers with lower capital and operating costs,
31
more opportunities to take advantage of high-temperature waste

heat and process integration, smaller flue gas volumes and improved
system flexibility. To achieve this objective, however, it is necessary
to demonstrate and analyse the effect of high oxygen concentrations
on combustion performance, fuel flexibility, materials, and the
performance of the CO2 removal system. Depending on the results
obtained in the demonstration tests, the project will then study how
best to use the heat and electrical energy available from different
parts of the process to reduce the overall energy penalty of CCS.
4.6 Sub-theme 5: Polygeneration

Polygeneration refers to any process that transforms fuels into multiple
energy forms or products. The simplest example is a CHP plant that
produces cooling as well as heat and power. Within the context of this
TRS, however, polygeneration typically refers to more complex plants
that yield chemical products, as well as heat and power. The fuel could
be coal, oil, gas, biomass, or mixtures of these; a polygeneration plant
running on biomass has a good deal of overlap with the concept of a
biorefinery.
Although polygeneration is a new idea in the power industry, much
of the technology is familiar to chemical companies who have been
building very large ‘gas-to-liquids’ (GTL) and ‘coal-to-liquids’ (CTL)
plants for several years.
For polygeneration based on coal or biomass, the starting point is a
gasifier that converts fuel into synthesis gas (syngas) – a mixture
of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and steam. A further step, known as
the water-gas shift reaction, turns carbon monoxide and steam into
CO2 and more hydrogen. The CO2 is removed, while the hydrogen
can be burned in a gas turbine to generate electricity or converted to
fertilisers based on ammonia (NH3).
Alternatively, methanation and other Fischer-Tropf (F-T) reactions
can turn carbon monoxide and hydrogen into methane or heavier
hydrocarbons (synthetic gasoline and diesel). Methane can be used as
substitute natural gas (SNG), or as a building block for a huge range
of chemical products, starting with methanol.
Converting coal into SNG would reduce Europe’s dependency on
external natural gas resources. An innovative steam gasification
technology promises competitive coal-to-SNG plants in the medium-
size power range (50–500 MW). The CO2freeSNG project aims to
scale up technologies for gasification, methanation of the resulting
syngas, and CO2 sequestration, originally developed for the conversion
of biomass, and to evaluate their technical and economical potential
for use with coal. The necessary gasification and methanation tests will
take place at an existing gasification plant. The new process includes
32
a substantially simplified gas cleaning system based on carbonate
scrubbing that will substantially increase process efficiency compared
to current state-of-the-art systems. The single-stage pressurised
water/carbonate scrubbing process simultaneously removes CO2,
sulphur and tar.
Gasification tests carried out at an existing 500 kW heatpipe reformer
(HPR) plant yielded a highly compatible syngas for the production of
SNG. Methanation tests showed full conversion of CO in a compact
honeycomb methanation reactor, with a very high selectivity for
methane. A commercially available and economically feasible catalyst
was identified for large-scale application. The researchers also used
ASPEN and IPSEpro simulation packages to confirm the feasibility of
an efficient 5 MWth coal/lignite-to-SNG plant with parallel production
of electric power. The simulated total coal-to-SNG efficiency reached
69.1% (3.20 MWth SNG plus net electricity production of 254.5 kW).
The SNG produced meets the standard specification and so could be
injected into the gas grid. A chemical scrubber was identified as the
best option for removing CO2 from the raw SNG.
CO2freeSNG now plans to use this process to produce SNG in a
planned 5 MWth demonstration plant based around a heatpipe
reformer. The investment cost is estimated at around EUR 12 million,
while the lifetime cost including CO2 emissions and electricity sales
revenues is estimated at EUR 17.2 million. The plant is likely to be
built in Germany or Greece; the criteria for choosing a site are coal
availability and characteristics, logistics costs, existing infrastructure,
water management, ash disposal issues, and SNG management.
Initial discussions with site owners, operators, authorities and project
developers are under way.
The project has concluded that larger SNG plants based on this
technology should be profitable. Thermodynamic evaluation of plants
rated at 50 MWth and above showed a simulated SNG efficiency of
about 63%, with a production cost of EUR 50 /MWhSNG(HHV) (or
EUR 54 /MWhSNG(HHV) when CO2 emissions costs are taken into
account). Based on detailed cost estimates, including a sensitivity
analysis, it was concluded the 50 MWth plant could be an economically
viable investment.
The follow-up project CO2freeSNG2.0 aims to demonstrate a complete
process chain for the technology developed within CO2freeSNG, using
European coal and lignites.
33
4.7 Sub-theme 6: Steam conditions

and materials of construction
The intelligent and cost-effective use of CCS requires new strategies
to increase the net efficiency of coal-fired power plants. The most
promising strategies are:
• increase the working steam temperature and pressure in new
USC power plants (350–370 bar, 700–720°C minimum);
•p
romote clean coal technologies based (for example) on oxy-
combustion and co-firing technologies – continuously increasing
the percentage of biomass in the mixture with coal – to reduce
CO2 capture losses, as well as the amount of CO2 to be captured
and stored.
High-temperature materials research programmes in Europe are

steered largely by a consortium of large utilities under the name
of the EMAX initiative14. Funding for the majority of projects has
come from the European Commission and the German government
(mostly through COORETEC), and to a lesser extent the UK and Swiss
governments; some projects have been financed purely by utilities.
There are plans in Europe to build a 500 MW full-scale demonstration
plant (FSDP) rated at 705–720°C and 350 bar. Construction would
take place in 2017–21, with operation and feedback in 2021–26.
The numerous high-temperature materials research programmes and
projects in Europe have produced notable research spin-offs for use in
USC plant, such as improved steels, boilers and steam cycle designs.
Starting in 1998, the AD700 programme in Europe involved up to
40 partners and aimed to develop AUSC technology for 700°C and
375 bar. The entire project, including operation and evaluation of an
FSDP, was initially planned for completion in 2018. A pre-engineering
study of an FSDP, the North Rhine-Westphalia Power Plant at 700°C
project, was completed in 2009 and concluded that the FSDP would
have a net efficiency of 50.2% (LHV, hard coal). After four years of
work at component test facilities (CTFs) under AD700 phase 3 (the
COMTES700, TCV and ETR projects), cracks were found in thick-section
components, and this ultimately postponed construction of the FSDP.
The AD700 programme continues until 2017 under the names of
COMTES+, with its HWT II project in Germany, and ENCIO project
in Italy, and the NexGenPower and MACPLUS projects (see below).
The latter two aim to improve and develop new materials, assess
the effect of biomass and waste co-firing on materials, and reduce
manufacturing costs.
14
Source: Nicol, 2013.
34
The ENCIO project is an important step before a 700°C power plant
can be built. ENCIO will install a test facility at an ENEL power plant
in Fusina, Italy. The test components will be installed in loops of
pipework added to the existing plant, allowing them to be isolated
quickly in the event of any problems. Four test loops will be dedicated
to, respectively, techniques for repairing damaged pipework; tests
on thick-walled parts made by the technique known as hot isostatic
pressing; different nickel-based alloys; and cast alloys used for steam
turbine blades. The project will focus on practical investigations,
aiming to prove manufacturing, welding, repair and life assessment
techniques for thick-walled components. ENCIO can be seen as a
transition from pilot plants towards large-scale demonstrations.
The MACPLUS project aims to boost the efficiency of coal-fired plants
by increasing the performance and reliability of critical components,
such as combustion chambers, boiler and superheater tubes, steam
headers and pipework, and by reducing manufacturing costs. The project
partners are working to develop refractory materials used in combustion
chambers, especially for oxyfuel applications at temperatures up to
1800°C. Other areas studied include crack repair techniques for steel
steam pipes; measures to prolong the life of nickel-based superheater
components and boiler tubes subject to harsh conditions when co-firing
biomass; and the relationship between manufacturing techniques and
defects that limit the service life of components. Full-scale prototypes
will be tested under realistic conditions.
35
5 International
developments
5.1 Synthesis of the research findings
Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility
CFB technology, with its intrinsic advantages of fuel flexibility and low
emissions, appears to be ideally suited to oxygen-fired combustion.
CFBs will allow the use of indigenous coals and biomass with CCS,
thus addressing the need both for security of supply and reduced
dependence on imported coal.
High-temperature, high-pressure chemical looping combustion (CLC)
in packed beds for large-scale plants is currently under investigation.
Compared to currently available techniques, packed-bed reactor
technology is expected to open new possibilities in using multiple fuels
(such as coal, petroleum coke and biomass), and to deliver power
cost-effectively with a lower energy penalty for CO2 avoidance.
Conversion efficiency
Direct electrochemical conversion of coal to electricity offers
theoretically significant increases in efficiency, with consequent
reductions in CO2 emissions, plus easier CO2 sequestration. Such a
system is, however, a long way from fruition (Henderson, 2014a).
Current activities are directed towards developing combined coal-fuel
cell conversion technology, with a focus on increasing scale, improving
cell design, finding new catalysts and addressing durability.
High-pressure CFB gasifiers have the advantage that they can be
fuelled with high-ash coals. However, the efficiency and reliability
of such gasifiers still need to be optimised. The focus, among other
things, is on developing strategies to avoid particle agglomeration,
investigating corrosion risks, increasing fuel flexibility and developing
efficient ash disposal systems.
Emissions
The ability to burn undiluted hydrogen-rich syngas in the next
generation of IGCC plants will benefit the downstream carbon
sequestration process. Work is ongoing to provide and demonstrate
technical solutions to allow the use of state-of-the-art, highly efficient
and reliable gas turbines with low NOx emissions and high fuel flexibility.
Attention has been directed, among other things, towards using
(undiluted) high-hydrogen syngas in typical natural gas combustion
systems with minimal modifications; demonstrating cost-effective
materials and coatings technologies to overcome problems that limit
36
component life; designing compressors with a stability margin to
allow switching between fuels without compromising efficiency; and
generating realistic techno-economic results for future gas turbine-
based IGCC plants.
Innovative SCR-deNOx catalysts for coal, biomass and co-combustion
are in development, with the objective of reducing NOx, SO3 and
mercury emissions efficiently. A major aspect of the investigation
is the interactions between the parallel reactions of NOx reduction,
mercury oxidation and SO2/SO3 conversion. Minimising investment
and operating costs, avoiding catalyst deactivation by biofuels or
co-combustion and regenerating deactivated catalysts are of special
interest.
Advanced firing systems

For both new PC combustion plants and retrofits to existing plants,
oxyfuel combustion seems a promising option. The use of pure oxygen
rather than air is expected to minimise the cost of carbon capture,
since the resulting flue gas contains around 90% CO2.
Combustion in an atmosphere of oxygen plus recycled flue gas (RFG)
leads to higher concentrations of CO, SO2/SO3, HCl and fine particles
inside the furnace, and thus higher corrosion potential. Attention
should therefore be directed towards the critical corrosion parameters
during oxy-coal combustion.
Higher oxygen concentrations in oxyfuel combustion reduce the flue
gas recirculation rate and the energy penalty attached to CCS. They
also enable the use of smaller boilers with lower capital and operating
costs, make it easier to take advantage of high-temperature waste
heat and process integration, reduce flue gas volumes and improve
system flexibility. However, to achieve this objective it is necessary
to demonstrate and analyse the effect of high oxygen concentrations
on combustion performance, fuel flexibility, controllability of solids
recirculation within the boiler, materials performance, and the effects
on the CO2 capture unit.
Polygeneration
The conversion of coal into substitute natural gas (SNG) will reduce
dependence on non-European natural gas resources. An innovative
coal-to-SNG technology based on steam gasification is currently in
development for the medium-scale power range (50–500 MWth). One
project has already been finalised, resulting in, among other things, a
basic design for a 5 MWth coal-to-SNG pilot plant. A follow-up project
is in progress, aiming to demonstrate the complete process chain with
European coal and lignite (see also Section 4.6).
Steam conditions and materials of construction

The intelligent and cost-effective use of CCS requires new strategies
to increase the net efficiency of coal-fired power plants. The most
promising strategies are:
37
• increase working steam temperature and pressure in new USC

power plants (350–370 bar, 700/720°C minimum);
•p
romote clean coal technologies based (for example) on oxy-
combustion and co-firing technologies (continuously increasing
the percentage of biomass in the mixture with coal), in order to
reduce both CO2 capture losses and the amount of CO2 to be
captured and stored.
There are plans in Europe to build a full-scale demonstration plant

(500 MW at 705/720°C and 350 bar) in 2017–21, with operation and
feedback in the years 2021–26. The numerous high-temperature
materials research programmes and projects in Europe have produced
notable research spin-offs for use in USC plants, such as improved
steels, boilers and steam cycle designs.
5.2 R&D challenges for future

research
Flexibility of power plants
Coal-fired power plants are increasingly required to balance power grids
by compensating for the variable electricity supply from renewable
energy sources. This requires high flexibility in terms of resilience
when faced with frequent start-ups, large and rapid load changes, and
the need to provide frequency control. The necessary flexibility can be
achieved with acceptable impacts on component life, efficiency and
emissions, and designs are now being developed to do this in future
plants (Henderson, 2014b).
Economics of AUSC technology

AUSC technology has already been in development for 15 years.
However, it still requires an extensive and complex materials research
programme, with the main outstanding issue being the fabrication of
large components (Henderson, 2014a). This research programme is
expected to last for more than ten years, at a substantial cost and
with high technical risks. Major industries have acknowledged that
it is not possible to develop AUSC technology alone. Consortia of
utilities, manufacturers and research establishments need to combine
their individual strengths and resources in order to solve the technical
issues currently preventing the use of AUSC.
Reduction of efficiency penalty associated with CCS

One of the main drawbacks of CCS is the additional energy required
to operate the plant. This energy penalty reduces the efficiency of
the host power plant, and increases the cost of electricity and the
use of resources (mainly fossil fuels but also water, raw materials and
additional equipment). Reducing the efficiency penalty associated with
CCS is a major challenge for the years to come.
38
6 Technology mapping
According to the International Energy Agency RD&D Statistics
Database, overall estimated public expenditure on fossil-fuel RD&D in
2011 in IEA Europe15 amounted to EUR 358 million16. This represented
about 21% of the total public budget for RD&D on fossil fuels for the
IEA member countries as a whole. The IEA divides RD&D spending on
fossil fuels into two parts, relating respectively to oil and gas and to coal.
Oil and gas RD&D involves mainly enhanced oil and gas production,
refining, transport, storage, non-conventional oil and gas production,
combustion, and conversion. Coal-related activities consist mainly
of coal production, preparation and transport, combustion (including
IGCC), conversion (excluding IGCC), and CCS.
Table 8 presents total RD&D expenditure by selected Member States,
plus Norway and Switzerland, in these areas in 2011.
Table 8: Total RD&D expenditure on oil and gas, coal, and related
conversion routes in 2011 for selected European countries (million
EUR, with 2012 prices and exchange rates) (IEA RD&D, 2013)
Country AT DK FI FR DE HE IT
Fossil fuels 1.131 3.963 8.678 112.532 34.351 0.716 30.514
Oil and gas 0.099 3.763 2.461 58.194 5.086
Oil and gas 0.074 0.860 0.009 5.086
combustion
Oil and gas 0.012 3.781
conversion
Coal 0.505 6.218 0.167 2.034
Coal 0.474 2.429 2.034
combustion
(incl. IGCC)
Coal
conversion
(excl. IGCC)
Country NL NO PO SE CH UK
Fossil fuels 9.337 82.547 0.052 0.994 14.139 52.632
Oil and gas 5.808 51.812 0.007 10.812 2.921
Oil and gas 1.451 10.812
combustion
Oil and gas 4.863
conversion
15
ustria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
A
Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom (Luxembourg excluded due to missing data)
(IEA, 2013)
16
2012 prices and exchange rates (EUR 0.778 = USD 1)
39
Coal 0.015 0.210 10.436

Coal
combustion
(incl. IGCC)
Coal 0.015
conversion
(excl. IGCC)
40
7 Capacities mapping
7.1 Coal-fired generation

According to the IEA New Policies Scenario, the global share of fossil
fuels in total power generation will fall from 68% in 2011 to 57% in
2035. In this scenario, global coal-fired generation increases from 9
140 TWh in 2011 to 12 310 TWh in 2035 (Figure 2), despite its share
of total generation falling from 41% to 35% (IEA WEO, 2013).
Figure 2: Coal-fired power generation by region in the IEA New

Policies Scenario (IEA WEO, 2013)
The average efficiency of coal-fired generation worldwide will improve

from 36% to 40% during the projection period as old plants based
on subcritical technology are retired and increasingly replaced by
supercritical and other higher-efficiency technologies. The latter
include ultra-supercritical (USP), integrated gasification combined-
cycle (IGCC), and combined heat and power (CHP) plants.
Figure 3 presents the share of coal-fired power generation by technology
and average efficiency in selected regions in the IEA New Policies
Scenario. According to this scenario, China’s share of generation from
supercritical and other high-efficiency coal capacity will rise from one-
third to two-thirds between 2011 and 2035, raising average efficiency
from 36% to 40%.
In the EU the efficiency of coal-fired generation will increase from 38%
to 44% over the same period as subcritical plants are almost entirely
phased out of service by 2035 (IEA WEO, 2013).
Major programmes to drive efficiency improvements in the world’s
coal fleets are (IEA-CCC Profile, 2013):
41
• Australia’s Energy Efficiency Opportunities Programme;

• the USAID CenPEEP programme in India;
• India’s Partnership in Excellence (PIE) Programme;
•C
hina’s recent programme providing incentives for plant owners
to carry out upgrading and efficiency improvements through
retrofits, with a total capacity of over 350 GW expected to have
been improved or to be undergoing improvements by 2015.
Figure 3: Share of coal-fired power generation by technology and

average efficiency in selected regions in the IEA New Policies Scenario
(IEA WEO, 2013)
7.2 Gas-fired generation

Under the IEA New Policies Scenario gas-fired generation will rise from
4 847 TWh in 2011 to 8 310 TWh in 2035, its share of total generation
remaining constant at 22%. Nearly 80% of incremental generating
capacity added between 2011 and 2035 will be in non-OECD countries,
with around 20% of incremental generation added in the Middle East.
In China, where there is a policy of increasing gas use to diversify the
energy mix (Figure 4), gas-fired generation is expected to increase
eightfold by 2035, reaching an absolute level slightly above that of the
EU today.
In the US, the availability of relatively cheap gas throughout the
projection period – the combined result of booming shale gas production
and a competitive gas market – underpins a 38% expansion in gas-
fired generation.
For the countries of the EU, the combination of low electricity demand
growth, support for renewables, high gas-to-coal price spreads and
low CO2 prices will stifle additional gas-fired generation in the period
to 2020. Beyond that, gas-fired generation will increase as inefficient
coal capacity is retired, CO2 prices rise and the need for system
42
flexibility becomes greater (to complement the large-scale deployment
of renewables). Despite higher gas prices in the European and Asia-
Pacific markets, gas-fired generation still has characteristics that make
it an attractive option relative to the alternatives, notably lower capital
costs, shorter construction times, greater operational flexibility and
lower emissions (IEA WEO, 2013).
Figure 4: Gas-fired power generation for selected regions in the IEA

New Policies Scenario (IEA WEO, 2013)
7.3 AUSC materials research

The materials research needed for advanced ultra-supercritical (AUSC)
plants has three main stages, which can overlap each other by a few
years depending on technical readiness and funding availability:
• stage 1: small-scale laboratory tests (8–13 years);
•s
tage 2: large-scale component test facilities; a ‘design and build’
phase of 4–5 years will be followed by an ‘operate and evaluate’
phase lasting 3–5 years;
•s
tage 3: full-scale demonstration plant: design and build (4–6
years), followed by operate and evaluate (6 years).
The AUSC material programmes in the US, China, Japan and India
have largely completed stage 1 (except for long-term creep tests) and
are progressing towards stage 2. The European programme is still at
stage 2 after encountering technical difficulties. By 2018, results from
stages 1 and 2 will provide enough technical data to decide how the
technology will progress to stage 3. Full-scale demonstration projects
are planned to start up in 2021, followed by five years of operation
to qualify the materials and verify the performance of the technology.
43
8 Conclusions and
recommendations
Key messages
• Fossil-fuel power generation is expected to continue to be the biggest
contributor to the EU27’s CO2 emissions in the short and medium term.
Improvements in power plant efficiency are therefore a major factor in reducing
CO2 emissions in Europe.
• Increasing the net efficiency of coal-fired power plants is a major requirement
for the intelligent and cost-effective use of CCS technologies. The most
promising strategies to achieve this are based on boosting steam temperature
and pressure in new AUSC power plants (including attention to materials of
construction), and clean coal technologies based on oxy-combustion and co-
firing technologies, among others.
• The priority grid access granted to renewables means that fossil-fuel power
plants will increasingly move from baseload operation to load-following. The
flexibility of power plants therefore requires special attention in future research.
• Other fields requiring special research attention are fuel pre-treatment and fuel
flexibility, emissions reduction (SO2, NOx and dust), and polygeneration.
Based on the previous chapters, the following conclusions and

recommendations have been made:
•D
espite efforts to introduce power generation from renewable
energy sources and increase its share in the European energy
mix, fossil fuels will continue to hold the largest share of Europe’s
total electricity generation capacity in both the short and medium
terms (53% in 2010; 43.5% in 2020; 39.8% in 2030).
• In the EU the combination of low electricity demand growth,

support for renewables, high gas-to-coal price spreads and low
CO2 prices will stifle additional gas-fired generation in the period
to 2020. Beyond that, gas-fired generation will increase as
inefficient coal capacity is retired, CO2 prices rise and the need
for system flexibility becomes greater.
•A
s a result of the priority grid access given to renewables, fossil-
fuel power plants will move increasingly from baseload to load-
following operation. The operating flexibility of these plants
therefore requires special attention in future research.
•T
he additional energy required for CCS reduces the efficiency
of the whole plant, increasing the cost of electricity and use of
resources. Reducing the efficiency penalty associated with CCS
is therefore a major challenge for the coming years.
44
•T
he intelligent and cost-effective use of CCS technologies requires
new strategies to increase the net efficiency of coal-fired power
plants. The most promising strategies are:
o increase steam temperature and pressure in new USC power
plants (350–370 bar, 700/720°C minimum);
op
romote clean coal technologies based (for example) on
oxyfuel combustion and co-firing, with a continuous increase
in the percentage of biomass mixed with coal, in order to
reduce CO2 capture losses and the amount of CO2 to be
captured and stored.
•A
USC technology has already been in development for 15 years.
However, it still requires an extensive and complex materials
research programme, with the main outstanding issue being the
fabrication of large components. This research programme is
expected to last for more than ten years, at a substantial cost
and with high technical risk. Consortia of utilities, manufacturers
and research establishments need to combine their individual
strengths and resources to solve the technical issues and expedite
AUSC technology.
•F
or both new coal plants and retrofits, oxyfuel combustion using
pure oxygen rather than air seems a promising way to cut the cost
of carbon capture. Attention should be directed towards critical
corrosion parameters in oxy-coal combustion, demonstrating and
analysing the effect of high oxygen concentrations in combustion
performance, fuel flexibility, controllability of solids recirculation
within the boiler, materials performance, and the effects on the
CO2 compression unit. However, this technology would currently
result in costs too high for the industry to bear, so it is not
expected to enter the market in the near future (Glazer, 2014).
45
References
•B
eurskens, L.W.M., M. Hekkenberg (2011) Renewable energy
projections as published in the National Renewable Energy
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•E
uropean Commission, Communication COM(2011) 112 final:
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament,
the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee
and the Committee of Regions; A Roadmap for moving to a
competitive low carbon economy in 2050.
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Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament,
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•E
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• Henderson, C. (2014a): Personal communication. June 25, 2014.
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enderson, C. (2014b): Increasing the flexibility of coal-fired power
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• IEA RD&D Statistics Database 2013, www.iea.org/statistics/
topics/rdd
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47
Annexes
Annex 1: Acronyms and abbreviations

General
EC European Commission
ECN Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
ERKC Energy Research Knowledge Centre
EU European Union
FP7 Seventh Framework Programme (EU R&D programmes)
ICT Information and Communications Technology
IEA International Energy Agency
JRC Joint Research Centre
NREAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan
PB Policy Brochure
R&D Research and development
RD&D Research, development and demonstration
RFCS Research Fund for Coal and Steel of the European
Commission
SCC Smart City Context
SETIS Strategic Energy Technologies Information System
SET-Plan European Strategic Energy Technology Plan
SP Sub-project
TRS Thematic Research Summary
Technical and related to the theme

AUSC Advanced ultra-supercritical
BAT Best Available Technology
CCS Carbon capture and storage
CFB Circulating fluidised bed
CHP Combined heat and power
CLC Chemical looping combustion
CMn Carbon manganese
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CPI Current Policy Initiatives
CrMo Chrome molybdenum
CTF Component test facility
48
CTL Coal-to-liquids
DCFC Direct carbon (or coal) fuel cell
ELV Emission limit value
ER Enhanced recovery
ESP Electrostatic precipitator
ETS Emissions trading scheme
FBC Fluidised bed combustion
FSDP Full-scale demonstration plant
F-T Fischer-Tropf
GT Gas turbine
GTL Gas-to-liquids
HHV Higher heating value
HPR Heatpipe reformer
IED Industrial Emissions Directive
IGCC Integrated gasification combined cycle
LCPD Large Combustion Plant Directive
LHV Lower heating value
MCFC Molten carbonate fuel cell
Mo Molybdenum
NGCC Natural gas combined-cycle
NOx Nitric oxides
O&M Operation and maintenance
PC Pulverised coal
PCC Pulverised coal combustion
RED Renewable Energy Sources Directive
RFG Recycled flue gas
SC Supercritical
SCR Selective catalytic reduction
SNG Substitute natural gas
SO2 Sulfur dioxide
USC Ultra-supercritical
WEO World Energy Outlook
49
Annex 2: Complete list of projects relevant to the theme

Sub-theme 1: Fuel pre-treatment and fuel flexibility
Project acronym Project title Type/start-end Budget (EUR) Project website
Development of high efficiency CFB technology to provide FP7-ENERGY
FLEXI BURN CFB 11 026 943 www.vtt.fi/sites/flexiburncfb/
flexible air/oxy operation for power plant with CCS 2009–12
Advanced concepts and process schemes for CO2 free RFCS
FECUNDUS 2 877 029 www.fecundus.cnr.it
fluidised and entrained bed co-gasification of coals 2010–13
Demonstration of cost effective medium size chemical
FP7-ENERGY
DemoCLOCK looping combustion through packed beds using solid 8 193 558 www.sintef.no/Projectweb/DemoClock/
2011–15
hydrocarbons as fuel for power production with CO2 capture
Sub-theme 2: Conversion efficiency

Efficient conversion of coal to electricity – direct coal fuel RFCS
DCFC 2 030 301
cells 2011–14
Optimizing gasification of high-ash content coals for FP7-ENERGY
OPTIMASH 5 303 906 http://optimash.net
electricity generation 2011–15
Sub-theme 3: Emissions
Low emission gas turbine technology for hydrogen-rich FP7-ENERGY
H2-IGCC 17 191 876 www.h2-igcc.eu
syngas 2009–13
Development of high performance SCR-catalysts related to RFCS
DEVCAT 2 359 856 http://devcat.eu-projects.de
different fuel types 2010–13
Sub-theme 4: Advanced firing systems

OxyCorr Boiler corrosion under oxy-fuel conditions RFCS 2009–12 1 956 218 http://oxycorr.eu-projects.de
Reliable and efficient combustion of oxygen/coal/recycled FP7-ENERGY
RELCOM 9 736 057 http://relcomeu.com
flue gas mixtures 2011–15
FP7-ENERGY
HETMOC Highly efficient tubular membranes for oxy-combustion 7 812 392 www.hetmoc.eu
2011–15
Optimization of oxygen-based CFBC technology with CO2 FP7-ENERGY
O2GEN 11 856 914 www.o2genproject.eu
capture 2012–15
50
Sub-theme 5: Polygeneration
Substitute natural gas from coal with internal sequestration RFCS
CO2freeSNG 1 879 655 www.co2freesng.eu
of CO2 2009–12
Advanced substitute natural gas from coal with internal RFCS www.co2freesng.eu/index.php/
CO2freeSNG2.0 1 834 169
sequestration of CO2 2013–16 co2freesng2-0
Sub-theme 6: Steam conditions and materials of construction

RFCS
COMTES700 Component test facility for a 700°C power plant 15 189 984 www.comtes700.org
2004–11
European network for component integration and RFCS
ENCIO 23 886 488 www.encio.eu
optimisation 2011–17
Component performance-driven solutions for long-term FP7-ENERGY
MACPLUS 18 204 522 http://macplusproject.eu
efficiency increase in ultra supercritical power plants 2011–15
51

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THEMATIC RESEARCH SUMMARY

Photo credits: iStockphoto

Scope of the theme

Synthesis of the research findings

Advanced firing systems

Steam conditions and materials of construction

R&D challenges for future research

Economics of AUSC technology

Reducing the efficiency penalty associated with CCS

Conclusions and recommendations

List of tables and

The Thematic Research Summaries are designed to provide an overview

Table 1: ERKC priority areas and themes

 Priority area 1: Low-carbon heat and power suplly

The purpose of the TRS is to identify and trace the development of

Table 2 Advanced fossil-fuel power generation sub-themes

Chapter 5 provides an updated picture of the latest developments

Energy Agency. Chapter 7 reviews current trends in advanced

Thermodynamics shows that one of the most effective ways to

Table 3: Steam conditions, materials, efficiency and coal consumption

3.1.1 Large Combustion Plant Directive

3.1.2 Industrial Emissions Directive

3.1.3 CHP Directive

3.1.4 Renewable Energy Sources Directive

3.1.5 Emission Trading Directive

3.2 Advanced fossil-fuel power

Figure 1: Shares of different fuels in primary energy consumption

4.1.1 Sources of information

4.1.2 Technology costs

Table 6: Indicative capital and operating costs for fossil-fuel power

Table 7: Projects sorted by sub-theme

RELCOM Reliable and efficient FP7- 9,736,057 http://

4.2 Sub-theme 1: Fuel pre-treatment

syngas produced from solid hydrocarbons to thermal energy, with

4.3 Sub-theme 2: Conversion

SO3 conversion. The project will work on minimising investment and

4.5 Sub-theme 4: Advanced firing

more opportunities to take advantage of high-temperature waste

4.6 Sub-theme 5: Polygeneration

4.7 Sub-theme 6: Steam conditions

High-temperature materials research programmes in Europe are

Advanced firing systems

Steam conditions and materials of construction

• increase working steam temperature and pressure in new USC

There are plans in Europe to build a full-scale demonstration plant

5.2 R&D challenges for future

Economics of AUSC technology

Reduction of efficiency penalty associated with CCS

Coal 0.015 0.210 10.436

7.1 Coal-fired generation

Figure 2: Coal-fired power generation by region in the IEA New

The average efficiency of coal-fired generation worldwide will improve

• Australia’s Energy Efficiency Opportunities Programme;

Figure 3: Share of coal-fired power generation by technology and

7.2 Gas-fired generation

Figure 4: Gas-fired power generation for selected regions in the IEA

7.3 AUSC materials research

Based on the previous chapters, the following conclusions and

• In the EU the combination of low electricity demand growth,

Annex 1: Acronyms and abbreviations

Technical and related to the theme

Annex 2: Complete list of projects relevant to the theme

Sub-theme 2: Conversion efficiency

• increase working steam temperature and pressure in new USC

• In the EU the combination of low electricity demand growth,