Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents
1 ST LAB SESSION......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Steam Turbine Power Plant.............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Major Components in STPP ..................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Flow Diagram of Cycle............................................................................................. 2
1.1.3 Temperature-Entropy (T-S) Diagram of Cycle......................................................... 2
1.1.4 Rankine Cycle Processes .......................................................................................... 3
1.2 Power plant....................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Classification of Power plants .................................................................................. 3
1.3 Formulas and Derivation .................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Thermal Efficiency and Work Ratio ......................................................................... 5
1.4 Improvement in Efficiency............................................................................................... 5
1.4.1 Ireversibilities in Rankine Cycle............................................................................... 6
1.4.2 Reheat Rankine Cycle ............................................................................................... 6
1.4.3 Regenerative Rankine Cycle ..................................................................................... 7
1.5 Specifications ................................................................................................................... 8
2 ND LAB SESSION ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Apparatus: ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Specifications: ................................................................................................................ 12
2.3 Theory: ........................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Procedure:....................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Observations:.................................................................................................................. 14
2.6 Specimen Calculation..................................................................................................... 14
2.7 Comments: ..................................................................................................................... 15
3 RD LAB SESSION ...................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Specifications: ................................................................................................................ 16
3.3 Theory: ........................................................................................................................... 16
3.4 Procedure:....................................................................................................................... 17
3.5 Observations:.................................................................................................................. 17
3.6 Specimen Calculation..................................................................................................... 18
3.7 Comments: ..................................................................................................................... 19
ii
The fuel used in heat generator can either be a fossil fuel (coal, natural gas, HFO, etc.)
or in case of nuclear power plant, a fissile fuel (uranium, etc.).
1.1.1 Major Components in STPP
The STPP is based on the Rankine cycle. There are four major components involved
STPP cycle:
1. Pump
The pump is used to raise the saturated liquid to the high pressure subcooled liquid
and delivers it to the boiler.
2. Boiler
In the boiler, the temperature of high pressure, subcooled liquid is raised to convert
the fluid from liquid to wet vapor and then to super-heated vapors. Usually, the
boiler has three components:
1. Economizer: converts subcooled liquid to saturated liquid.
2. Evaporator: converts saturated liquid to wet vapors and then to saturated vapors.
3. Super heater: converts saturated vapors to super-heated steam.
2
3. Turbine
The high pressure and temperature super-heated steam from the boiler expands in
the turbine and drive the blades of the turbine and runs to generator. The fluid
leaves the turbine as high quality wet vapors with recommended dryness fraction
of above 85% to avoid damaging and rusting of turbine blades.
4. Condenser
Finally, the wet vapors from the turbine are converted to saturated liquid via heat
exchanger with cooling water from ocean, river, lakes, etc. or by using cooling
tower. The saturated liquid is then transferred to the pump and the process
continuous.
These four major components operate in a cyclic manner to generator work from the
heat energy of the fuel and run the steam turbine power plant.
1.1.2 Flow Diagram of Cycle
As steam engine and steam turbines in which steam is used as working medium follow
Rankine cycle. The flow diagram of four pieces of equipment, used in this cycle, joint
by pipes for conveying working medium as shown in Figure 1-3.
The power plants that fall in these two categories have been shown in the Figure 1-1.
The Steam Power Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and Nuclear
Power Plants are called THERMAL POWER PLANTS, because they convert heat
energy into electric energy. According to the survey of 2015-16, the power generation
capacity of Pakistan is 22000 MW. This constituent 67.8 % (15454 MW) thermal
power plants, 28.8 % (6556 MW) hydel power plants and 3.4 % (787 MW) Nuclear
power plants output.
1.3 Formulas and Derivation
The energy balance across each component of steam turbine can be determined by
applying the first law of thermodynamics also known as law of conservation of energy
across the inlet and outlet of each component.
(𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸)𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄 = (𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸)𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊 … … … … 1
(𝐻 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸)𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄̇ = (𝐻 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸)𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊̇ … … … … … 3
In change in potential and kinetic energies of the fluid in power plant processes is
usually very small compared to change in enthalpy of the fluid. So, that’s why they
are neglected for the sake of simplicity. The equation 3 then becomes,
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = (𝐻)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − (𝐻)𝑖𝑛 … … … … . .4
Equation 4 can be used to determine the energy balance across each component of the
Rankine cycle.
1. Energy balance across turbine
In turbine (process 1-2) work is done by the system (positive) and heat supplied to the
system is zero. Hence,
𝑊̇1 −2 = (𝐻)1 − (𝐻)2 … … … 5
2. Energy balance across condenser
In the condenser (process 2-3) work done is zero and heat is supplied by the system
(negative). Hence,
𝑄̇2−3 = (𝐻)2 − (𝐻)3 … … … … 6
3. Energy balance across pump
In the pump (process 3-4) work is done on the system (negative) and heat supplied to
the system is zero.
𝑊̇3 −4 = (𝐻)4 − (𝐻)3 … … … 7
4. Energy balance across boiler
In the boiler (process 4-1), work done is zero and heat is supplied to the system
(positive).
The temperature entropy diagram of the process is shown in figure 1-8. The Feed
Water heaters used for regeneration can either by Open FWH or Close FWH. OPEN
FWH also called the deaerator is a direct contact heat exchanger where CLOSE FWH
is an indirect heat exchanger.
1.5 Specifications
1) Boiler (Steam Generating Device)
Boiler
Maximum Pressure 10 kg/cm2
Equivalent Evaporative Quantity 150 kg/h
Heat Transmission Area 3.06 m2
Rated Heat Output 80, 850 kcal/h
Potential Water Quantity 54 L
Fuel Consumption 10.8 L/h (Kerosene)
Fuel Tank 90 L
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2
Steam Thermometer
J Thermocouple, Digital Thermometer (with analog output)
Fuel Flowmeter
Cumulative flowmeter (with analogue output)
Feed Water Flowmeter
Cumulative flowmeter (with analogue output)
Feed Water Thermometer
Resistance Bulb Temperature Detector
Digital thermometer (with analogue output)
Pressure Reducing Valve
9
3) Steam Superheater
Inlet Pressure and Temperature 5 Kg/cm2 Sat. steam at 150ᴼC
Outlet Temperature 250ᴼC
Fuel Kerosene
Power Source AC 220V 50/60 Hz 3-Phase
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2
Steam Thermometer
J-Thermocouple digital thermometer (with analog output)
Fuel Flow Measuring Device
Cumulative flowmeter (with analogue output)
4) Steam Turbine
Output Max. 0.6 kW
Rotational Speed 3000 rpm
Governor Electromagnetic Rotational Speed
Detector with Digital PID controller
Inlet/outlet Pressure Gauge 10 kg/cm2 , 5 kg/cm2
Inlet/outlet Pressure Detector and Converter (with analogue output)
Inlet/outlet thermometer
J-Thermocouple digital thermometer (with analog output)
6) Steam Flowmeter
Orifice type Max. Flowrate 120 kg/hr.
Diff. Pressure Gauge 0 ~ 0.5 kg/cm2
Diff. Pressure Detector (with analogue output)
7) Condenser
Type Shell and tube type
Exchanged Heat Quantity 105, 000 kcal/hr.
Steam Flow rate 180 kg/hr.
Heat transmission area 1.0 m2
Outlet Thermometer Resistance Bulb Temp. Detector
Digital thermometer (with analogue
output)
Cooling Water Outlet/inlet Thermometer Resistance Bulb Temp. Detector
Digital thermometer (with analogue
output)
Cooling Water Flowmeter Screw Type Flowmeter
Digital indicator
Water Receiving Tank 100 L
8) Throttling Calorimeter
Pressure gauges 10 kg/cm2 , 2 kg/cm2 , Class 0.5
Thermometer Resistance Bulb Temp. Detector
Digital Thermometer
Throttle Needle Valve
10) Dimensions
Main unit approx. 4000 mm (Length) x 1300 mm (Width) x 2300 mm (Height)
11
(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑠)
𝑥= … … …… 1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑠 + 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 )
Its value varies from 0 to 1. For saturated liquid, x = 0 and for saturated vapors or
superheated steam x = 1. On the other hand, wetness fraction can be defined as amount
of water within steam. If it is donated by x’. then,
𝑥 ′ = 1 − 𝑥 … … … .2
Calorimeter:
Calorimeter is an instrument used to determine the amount of heat (enthalpy of
process) involved in chemical reaction or other process (melting, boiling, etc.).
𝑄 = 𝑚(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 ) … … … … 3
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) … … … … .4
In a steam plant it is at times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet steam,
this entails finding the dryness fraction. When the steam is very wet, we make use of
a calorimeter. The calorimeter used to determine the dryness fraction of the steam can
be separating calorimeter or throttling calorimeter. The basic principles of both
instrument have been discussed below.
13
1. Separating calorimeter
Construction of separating calorimeter is as shown in figure 2.1:
The steam is collected out of the main steam supply and enters the separator from the
top. The steam is forced to make a sharp turn when it hits the perforated cup (or any
other mechanism that produces the same effect). This results in a vortex motion in the
steam, and water separates out by the centrifugal action. The droplets then remain
inside the separator and are collected at the bottom, where the level can be recorded
from the water glass. The dry steam will pass out of the calorimeter into a small
condenser for the collection of the condensate. However, not all the water droplets
remain in the collector tank. Some water droplets pass through to the condenser, and
hence this calorimeter only gives a close approximation of the dryness fraction of the
steam.
From the results obtained from the two collectors, the dryness fraction may then be
found from
the expression:
𝑀
𝑥= … …… … 5
𝑚 +𝑀
Where, M is the mass of dry steam and m is the mass of suspended water separated
in the calorimeter in the same time.
2. Throttling calorimeter:
Throttling is an iso-enthalpic process in which the enthalpy of initial and final state is
constant. The work done and heat transfer to or from the system are zero and the
process is irreversible and adiabatic in nature. If we have steam that is nearly dry, we
make use of the throttling calorimeter as shown in the figure 2.2.
This calorimeter is operated by first opening the stop valve fully so that the steam is
not partially throttled as it passes through the apparatus for a while to allow the
pressure and temperature to stabilize. If the pressure is very close to atmospheric
pressure, the saturation should be around 100°C, it may be assumed that the steam is
superheated. When the conditions have become steady, the gauge pressure before
throttling is read from the pressure gauge. After throttling, the temperature and gauge
pressure are read from the thermometer and manometer respectively.
14
As h1 = h2,
ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑝1 = ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 . 𝑎𝑡 𝑝2
Further solving,
ℎ𝑓1 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔1 = ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
And thus,
2.4 Procedure:
Open needle valve to induce steam to the throttling calorimeter. Then reduce the
pressure after the expansion by means of needle valve and valve down to designated
pressure. Designated pressure means the value where to stem becomes superheated
steam in combination with the temperature after the throttle. After the temperature
becomes steady, note the pressure before and after the throttle on respective pressure
gauge and note the temperature of outlet superheated steam.
2.5 Observations:
No. of obs. P1 P2 T2 h1 = h2 x
(bar) (bar) (ᴼC) (kj/kg)
1 5.97 1.17 104.5 2682.8 0.965
2 5.97 1.17 105.5 2719.8 0.983
3 5.93 1.22 108 2689.5 0.968
4 5.92 1.32 110 2692.5 0.969
2.6 Specimen Calculation
For 4th reading,
At p2 = 1.32 bar and T2 = 110ᴼC, from steam table;
15
h1 = h2 = 2692.5 kj/kg
At p1 = 5.92 bar, from steam table
hf = 668.22 kj/kg
hfg = 2086.33 kj/kg
using equation 6,
2692.5 − 668.22
𝑥= = 0.969
2086.33
2.7 Comments:
1) To reduce the no. of interpolation, the p 2 was assumed to be equal to atmospheric but for
1st reading the exact pressure was used to determine the enthalpy value and the error was
found to be less than 0.1%. which is negligible.
2) The initial temperature determined from the steam table, before throttling, is 168ᴼC which
indicates reduction in temperature, due to Joule-Thomson effect that is, Energy required
for superheating of gas (at high pressure) comes at the expense of reduction in temperature
of gas (at low pressure).
3) Thermal expansion co-efficient (μ) for the throttling process is calculated approximate ly
-0.0147 K -1 .
4) Throttling calorimeter is more accurate to determine the steam quality close to 1 than
separating calorimeter.
16
hf = 730.4 kj/kg
at x = 0.965;
ℎ1 = 730.4 + 0.965 × 2039.9 = 2698.9 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔
hf = 730.2 kj/kg
at x = 0.968;
ℎ1 = 730.2 + 0.968 × 2040.1 = 2705.0 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔
3.7 Comments:
1) The steam to fuel ratio seems to be nearly constant with minor fluctuation between 11.7 to
12 And for this ratio the efficiency of boiler seems to be constant over the decrease in inlet
temperature of water. But to obtain a better understanding of this pattern more data points
will be required.
2) The Specific steam consumption for the boiler is calculated to be 1.35 kg/kWh.
3) The enthalpy value of inlet water is taken as that of saturated liquid at inlet temperature
which may not be the case and the sensible heating of water may take place in the boiler.
4) To get the better the better estimate of efficiency of boiler the pressure of the fluid to must
be determined to get the better estimate of enthalpy.
20
4.3 Procedure:
Close respective valves of the superheater and wait for steam generation from boiler.
Induce steam which goes up to the designated pressure by opening valve super heater
inlet. Open drain valve of super heater. After drained thoroughly, when steam comes
out, close the drain valve. Turn the switch ON. Burner starts function and steam is
superheated. Note the readings of pressure and temperature before and after the
superheater. Note the reading of the volume of the fuel consumed in superheater by
the integral flow meter on the panel.
4.4 Observations:
No.
p1 p2 T2 ms T3 mf h2 h3 η
of x
(bar) (bar) (ᴼC) (kg/hr.) (ᴼC) (kg/hr.) (kj/kg) (kj/kg) (%)
Obs.
1 5.82 5.62 159.9 43.8 184.5 0.44 0.964 2762.0 2817.3 12.9
2 5.82 5.62 159.9 56.3 187.6 0.50 0.964 2762.0 2824.3 16.4
3 5.77 5.42 159.6 80.3 190.8 0.63 0.969 2760.0 2831.4 21.3
4 5.82 5.52 159.7 67.6 189.4 0.61 0.968 2759.8 2828.3 17.7
h2 = 2762.0 kj/kg
h3 = 2817.3 kj/kg
21
h2 = 2760.0 kj/kg
h3 = 2831.4 kj/kg
4.6 Comments:
1) There seems to be minor throttling of steam leaving the boiler and entering the super heater
due to losses in pipes and measuring and control devices.
2) The superheater operation seems to be unsteady as the flow rates of fuel and steam are
varying randomly.
3) Due to unsteady nature of process, the efficiency and SSC values for are not converging to
specific value.
4) But it can be observed that the increase in ratio of steam to fuel mass the boiler efficie nc y
and boiler output seems to be increasing.