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Table of Contents
1 ST LAB SESSION......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Steam Turbine Power Plant.............................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Major Components in STPP ..................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Flow Diagram of Cycle............................................................................................. 2
1.1.3 Temperature-Entropy (T-S) Diagram of Cycle......................................................... 2
1.1.4 Rankine Cycle Processes .......................................................................................... 3
1.2 Power plant....................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Classification of Power plants .................................................................................. 3
1.3 Formulas and Derivation .................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Thermal Efficiency and Work Ratio ......................................................................... 5
1.4 Improvement in Efficiency............................................................................................... 5
1.4.1 Ireversibilities in Rankine Cycle............................................................................... 6
1.4.2 Reheat Rankine Cycle ............................................................................................... 6
1.4.3 Regenerative Rankine Cycle ..................................................................................... 7
1.5 Specifications ................................................................................................................... 8
2 ND LAB SESSION ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Apparatus: ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Specifications: ................................................................................................................ 12
2.3 Theory: ........................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Procedure:....................................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Observations:.................................................................................................................. 14
2.6 Specimen Calculation..................................................................................................... 14
2.7 Comments: ..................................................................................................................... 15
3 RD LAB SESSION ...................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Specifications: ................................................................................................................ 16
3.3 Theory: ........................................................................................................................... 16
3.4 Procedure:....................................................................................................................... 17
3.5 Observations:.................................................................................................................. 17
3.6 Specimen Calculation..................................................................................................... 18
3.7 Comments: ..................................................................................................................... 19
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4 T H LAB SESSION ...................................................................................................................... 20


4.1 Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 20
4.2 Specifications: ................................................................................................................ 20
4.3 Procedure:....................................................................................................................... 20
4.4 Observations:.................................................................................................................. 20
4.5 Specimen Calculation..................................................................................................... 20
4.6 Comments: ..................................................................................................................... 21
1

1ST LAB SESSION


To demonstrate the Steam Turbine Power Plant (STPP) Experimental
Apparatus
1.1 Steam Turbine Power Plant
In a steam turbine power plant, thermal energy is used to generate high pressure steam
which is used to drive the steam turbine which in turn, runs the generator to produce
electric energy. The basic flow diagram of steam turbine power plant is shown in
Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-1 Steam Turbine Power Plant

The fuel used in heat generator can either be a fossil fuel (coal, natural gas, HFO, etc.)
or in case of nuclear power plant, a fissile fuel (uranium, etc.).
1.1.1 Major Components in STPP
The STPP is based on the Rankine cycle. There are four major components involved
STPP cycle:
1. Pump
The pump is used to raise the saturated liquid to the high pressure subcooled liquid
and delivers it to the boiler.
2. Boiler
In the boiler, the temperature of high pressure, subcooled liquid is raised to convert
the fluid from liquid to wet vapor and then to super-heated vapors. Usually, the
boiler has three components:
1. Economizer: converts subcooled liquid to saturated liquid.
2. Evaporator: converts saturated liquid to wet vapors and then to saturated vapors.
3. Super heater: converts saturated vapors to super-heated steam.
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3. Turbine
The high pressure and temperature super-heated steam from the boiler expands in
the turbine and drive the blades of the turbine and runs to generator. The fluid
leaves the turbine as high quality wet vapors with recommended dryness fraction
of above 85% to avoid damaging and rusting of turbine blades.
4. Condenser
Finally, the wet vapors from the turbine are converted to saturated liquid via heat
exchanger with cooling water from ocean, river, lakes, etc. or by using cooling
tower. The saturated liquid is then transferred to the pump and the process
continuous.
These four major components operate in a cyclic manner to generator work from the
heat energy of the fuel and run the steam turbine power plant.
1.1.2 Flow Diagram of Cycle
As steam engine and steam turbines in which steam is used as working medium follow
Rankine cycle. The flow diagram of four pieces of equipment, used in this cycle, joint
by pipes for conveying working medium as shown in Figure 1-3.

Figure 1-2 Flow Diagram of Rankine Cycle

1.1.3 Temperature-Entropy (T-S) Diagram of Cycle


The processes involved in the Rankine cycle can be represented on the T-S diagram
as shown in Figure 1-4. C.P represents the critical point (22 MPa, 374 C) beyond
which enthalpy of vaporization is and liquid directly converts in to dry vapors without
passing through the wet vapor phase. The power plant operating below this point are
called SUB-CRITICAL POWER PLANT and plants operating above this point are
called SUPER-CRITICAL POWER PLANT. The efficiency of subcritical power
plant ranges between 35-40% and for supercritical power plants it is above 45%. Also,
as fluid does not pass through the wet vapor stage in supercritical plant so the
evaporator part of boiler can be removed.
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Figure 1-3 Rankine Cycle T-S diagram

1.1.4 Rankine Cycle Processes


The processes involved in the Rankine cycle can be tracked using TS diagram shown
in figure 4 above as follow:
1. Process (1-2) is isentropic expansion in the turbine from super-heated steam to wet
vapors. To avoid the damaging and rusting of blades of turbine it is recommended that
the dryness fraction of the vapors should not be less than 85 % at turbine exit.
2. Process (2-3) is isothermal and isochoric heat rejection at the condenser which
converts the wet vapors from the turbine to saturated liquid.
3. Process (3-4) is isentropic pressurization of saturated liquid to sub-cooled liquid in
the pump.
4. Process (4-5-6-1) is the constant pressure heat addition in the boiler to convert the
sub-cooled liquid to superheated steam. The process can be further classified as
follow:
a. Process (4-5) is heating of subcooled liquid to saturated liquid in the economizer.
b. Process (5-6) is evaporation of saturated liquid to dry vapors in the evaporator.
c. Process (6-1) is the heating of dry vapors to super-heated steam in the super-heater.
1.2 Power plant
A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates
and delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy. The main equipment for the
generation of electric power is generator. When coupling it to a prime mover runs the
generator, the electricity is generated. The type of prime move determines, the type of
power plants, for example in a steam turbine power plant the prime mover that runs
the generator is a steam turbine.
1.2.1 Classification of Power plants
The power plants are generally classified as conventional and non-conventional power
plants that are distinguished based on the following differences:
Conventional PP Non-conventional PP
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1. The technology is well established. 1. The technology is under-developed.


2. Power production is on large scale. 2. Power production is on smaller scale.

The power plants that fall in these two categories have been shown in the Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-4 Classification of Power Plants

The Steam Power Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and Nuclear
Power Plants are called THERMAL POWER PLANTS, because they convert heat
energy into electric energy. According to the survey of 2015-16, the power generation
capacity of Pakistan is 22000 MW. This constituent 67.8 % (15454 MW) thermal
power plants, 28.8 % (6556 MW) hydel power plants and 3.4 % (787 MW) Nuclear
power plants output.
1.3 Formulas and Derivation
The energy balance across each component of steam turbine can be determined by
applying the first law of thermodynamics also known as law of conservation of energy
across the inlet and outlet of each component.
(𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸)𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄 = (𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸)𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊 … … … … 1

Where U = internal energy, P = pressure, ΔV = change in volume, K.E = kinetic energy,


P.E = potential energy, Q = heat supplied to system, W = work done by the system.
As,
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 … … … … .2

Where H = enthalpy of fluid, then,


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(𝐻 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸)𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄̇ = (𝐻 + 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸)𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊̇ … … … … … 3

In change in potential and kinetic energies of the fluid in power plant processes is
usually very small compared to change in enthalpy of the fluid. So, that’s why they
are neglected for the sake of simplicity. The equation 3 then becomes,
𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = (𝐻)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − (𝐻)𝑖𝑛 … … … … . .4

Equation 4 can be used to determine the energy balance across each component of the
Rankine cycle.
1. Energy balance across turbine
In turbine (process 1-2) work is done by the system (positive) and heat supplied to the
system is zero. Hence,
𝑊̇1 −2 = (𝐻)1 − (𝐻)2 … … … 5
2. Energy balance across condenser
In the condenser (process 2-3) work done is zero and heat is supplied by the system
(negative). Hence,
𝑄̇2−3 = (𝐻)2 − (𝐻)3 … … … … 6
3. Energy balance across pump
In the pump (process 3-4) work is done on the system (negative) and heat supplied to
the system is zero.
𝑊̇3 −4 = (𝐻)4 − (𝐻)3 … … … 7
4. Energy balance across boiler
In the boiler (process 4-1), work done is zero and heat is supplied to the system
(positive).

𝑄̇4−1 = (𝐻)1 − (𝐻)4 … … … … 8

1.3.1 Thermal Efficiency and Work Ratio


Thermal efficiency and work ratio of the Rankine cycle are given by equation 9 and
10 below, respectively.
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (𝐻)2 − (𝐻)3
𝜂𝑡ℎ = =1−
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (𝐻)1 − (𝐻)4
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝐻)4 − (𝐻)3
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 1−
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝐻)1 − (𝐻)2

1.4 Improvement in Efficiency


The Area enclosed by the T-S diagram represents the net heat supplied to the system.
The greater the enclosed area greater will be the efficiency of steam turbine. The area
enclosed by the Rankine cycle can be increased using following methods:
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1. Heat the steam to higher temperature


The super heating of steam in boiler to higher average temperature increases the
thermal efficiency of the steam turbine but the higher temperature is limited by the
metallurgical limit of material of steam turbine.
2. Lower the condenser pressure
By decreasing the condenser pressure, the average saturation temperature at the
condenser is lowered and the efficiency of steam turbine is increased but it is limited
by the low dryness fraction of the steam at turbine near the outlet.
3. Increase the boiler pressure
By increasing the boiler pressure, the average temperature at which heat is supplied is
increased and hence the efficiency of the system is increased but it is limited by the
cavitation that might occur at the pump and also metallurgical limit of material is an
important factor.
4. Higher dryness fraction
The higher dryness increases thermal efficiency of steam turbine. Higher dryness
fraction can be obtained by applying high degree of superheat or using reheat Rankine
cycle.
1.4.1 Ireversibilities in Rankine Cycle
Due to the heat loss due to friction, heat exchange with the surrounding the processes
involved in the Rankine cycle are irreversible in nature. The ireversibi lities involved
in the steam turbine can be classified as follow:
1. Internal Irreversibility is due to the heat losses due to friction and other factors
within the system. Reheat cycle is used to minimize these losses.
2. External Irreversibility is due to heat exchange with the environment due to
temperature difference between system and surrounding. Regeneration cycle is used
to minimize these losses.
1.4.2 Reheat Rankine Cycle
In this cycle steam is extracted from a suitable point in the turbine and reheated
generally to the original temperature by flue gases. Reheating is generally used when
the pressure is high say above 10 MPa. The figure 1-5 shows the flow diagram of
reheat cycle.

Figure 1-5 Reheat Rankine Cycle


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The temperature entropy diagram of the process is shown in figure 1-6.

Figure 1-6 T-S diagram of reheat cycle

The various advantages of reheating are as follows:


1. It increases dryness fraction of steam at exhaust so that blade erosion due to
impact of water particles is reduced.
2. It increases thermal efficiency.
3. It increases the work done per kg of steam and this results in reduced size of
boiler.
The disadvantages of reheating are as follows:
1. Cost of plant is increased due to the reheater and its long connections.
2. It increases condenser capacity due to increased dryness fraction.
1.4.3 Regenerative Rankine Cycle
The process of extracting steam from the turbine at certain points during its expansion
and using this steam for heating for feed water is known as Regeneration or Bleeding
of steam. The arrangement of bleeding the steam at one stage is shown in figure 1-7.

Figure 1-7 Regenerative Rankine Cycle


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The temperature entropy diagram of the process is shown in figure 1-8. The Feed
Water heaters used for regeneration can either by Open FWH or Close FWH. OPEN
FWH also called the deaerator is a direct contact heat exchanger where CLOSE FWH
is an indirect heat exchanger.

Figure 1-8 T-S diagram of regeneration cycle

1.5 Specifications
1) Boiler (Steam Generating Device)
Boiler
Maximum Pressure 10 kg/cm2
Equivalent Evaporative Quantity 150 kg/h
Heat Transmission Area 3.06 m2
Rated Heat Output 80, 850 kcal/h
Potential Water Quantity 54 L
Fuel Consumption 10.8 L/h (Kerosene)
Fuel Tank 90 L
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2
Steam Thermometer
J Thermocouple, Digital Thermometer (with analog output)
Fuel Flowmeter
Cumulative flowmeter (with analogue output)
Feed Water Flowmeter
Cumulative flowmeter (with analogue output)
Feed Water Thermometer
Resistance Bulb Temperature Detector
Digital thermometer (with analogue output)
Pressure Reducing Valve
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Pilot Type 10 kg/cm2


Secondary Pressure 5 kg/cm2 (3~8 kg/cm2 )
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2
Pressure Detector and Converter (with analogue output)

2) Feed Water Device to Boiler


Feed Water Device Automatic Feed Water Device
Water Softener
Ion Exchange Resin Quantity 6L
Max. Water Quantity 0.36 m3 /h
Operating Water Pressure 1.5~5.0 kg/cm2
Average Salt Consumption 1.5 kg/lt. reclaim
Regenerating Time 120 min.

3) Steam Superheater
Inlet Pressure and Temperature 5 Kg/cm2 Sat. steam at 150ᴼC
Outlet Temperature 250ᴼC
Fuel Kerosene
Power Source AC 220V 50/60 Hz 3-Phase
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2
Steam Thermometer
J-Thermocouple digital thermometer (with analog output)
Fuel Flow Measuring Device
Cumulative flowmeter (with analogue output)

4) Steam Turbine
Output Max. 0.6 kW
Rotational Speed 3000 rpm
Governor Electromagnetic Rotational Speed
Detector with Digital PID controller
Inlet/outlet Pressure Gauge 10 kg/cm2 , 5 kg/cm2
Inlet/outlet Pressure Detector and Converter (with analogue output)
Inlet/outlet thermometer
J-Thermocouple digital thermometer (with analog output)

5) Generator, Load Resistance Device


Type Single Phase, AC Generator
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Output AC100V 0.4 kW


Rotational Speed 3000 rpm
Tachometer Electromagnetic Rotational Speed
Detector with Digital Indicator
Load Resistor 200W x 8, change over switch
Output Electricity Measuring Device Voltmeter, Ammeter

6) Steam Flowmeter
Orifice type Max. Flowrate 120 kg/hr.
Diff. Pressure Gauge 0 ~ 0.5 kg/cm2
Diff. Pressure Detector (with analogue output)

7) Condenser
Type Shell and tube type
Exchanged Heat Quantity 105, 000 kcal/hr.
Steam Flow rate 180 kg/hr.
Heat transmission area 1.0 m2
Outlet Thermometer Resistance Bulb Temp. Detector
Digital thermometer (with analogue
output)
Cooling Water Outlet/inlet Thermometer Resistance Bulb Temp. Detector
Digital thermometer (with analogue
output)
Cooling Water Flowmeter Screw Type Flowmeter
Digital indicator
Water Receiving Tank 100 L

8) Throttling Calorimeter
Pressure gauges 10 kg/cm2 , 2 kg/cm2 , Class 0.5
Thermometer Resistance Bulb Temp. Detector
Digital Thermometer
Throttle Needle Valve

9) Data Processing System


Personal Computer Compaq 633c/3.2/COS/W
Display monitor Compaq V55
Printer HP Deskjet 1120C
Data Processing Software PC-TMS-W

10) Dimensions
Main unit approx. 4000 mm (Length) x 1300 mm (Width) x 2300 mm (Height)
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11) Service Required


AC 400V 50 Hz 3-Phase 1.5 kW
AC 220V 50 Hz S-Phase 0.5 kW
Water Supply and Draining Facility
Exhaust Duct (boiler 150 ϕ, superheater 120 ϕ)
Ventilation Fan
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2ND LAB SESSION


To determine the dryness fraction of steam ‘x’ with the help of throttling
calorimeter.
2.1 Apparatus:
Steam Generating device
Throttling Calorimeter
2.2 Specifications:
Pressure Gauges 10 kg/cm2 , 2 kg/cm2
Throttle type Needle Valve
2.3 Theory:
Dryness fraction:
Dryness fraction or quality of the steam is defined as the ratio of the mass of vapors
in the mixture of vapor and liquid. It is normally represented by the symbol ‘x’.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑠)
𝑥= … … …… 1
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑠 + 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 )

Its value varies from 0 to 1. For saturated liquid, x = 0 and for saturated vapors or
superheated steam x = 1. On the other hand, wetness fraction can be defined as amount
of water within steam. If it is donated by x’. then,

𝑥 ′ = 1 − 𝑥 … … … .2

Calorimeter:
Calorimeter is an instrument used to determine the amount of heat (enthalpy of
process) involved in chemical reaction or other process (melting, boiling, etc.).

𝑄 = 𝑚(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 ) … … … … 3

For sensible heating,

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) … … … … .4

In a steam plant it is at times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet steam,
this entails finding the dryness fraction. When the steam is very wet, we make use of
a calorimeter. The calorimeter used to determine the dryness fraction of the steam can
be separating calorimeter or throttling calorimeter. The basic principles of both
instrument have been discussed below.
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1. Separating calorimeter
Construction of separating calorimeter is as shown in figure 2.1:

Figure 2-1 Separating Calorimeter

The steam is collected out of the main steam supply and enters the separator from the
top. The steam is forced to make a sharp turn when it hits the perforated cup (or any
other mechanism that produces the same effect). This results in a vortex motion in the
steam, and water separates out by the centrifugal action. The droplets then remain
inside the separator and are collected at the bottom, where the level can be recorded
from the water glass. The dry steam will pass out of the calorimeter into a small
condenser for the collection of the condensate. However, not all the water droplets
remain in the collector tank. Some water droplets pass through to the condenser, and
hence this calorimeter only gives a close approximation of the dryness fraction of the
steam.
From the results obtained from the two collectors, the dryness fraction may then be
found from
the expression:
𝑀
𝑥= … …… … 5
𝑚 +𝑀
Where, M is the mass of dry steam and m is the mass of suspended water separated
in the calorimeter in the same time.
2. Throttling calorimeter:
Throttling is an iso-enthalpic process in which the enthalpy of initial and final state is
constant. The work done and heat transfer to or from the system are zero and the
process is irreversible and adiabatic in nature. If we have steam that is nearly dry, we
make use of the throttling calorimeter as shown in the figure 2.2.
This calorimeter is operated by first opening the stop valve fully so that the steam is
not partially throttled as it passes through the apparatus for a while to allow the
pressure and temperature to stabilize. If the pressure is very close to atmospheric
pressure, the saturation should be around 100°C, it may be assumed that the steam is
superheated. When the conditions have become steady, the gauge pressure before
throttling is read from the pressure gauge. After throttling, the temperature and gauge
pressure are read from the thermometer and manometer respectively.
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Figure 2-2 Throttling Calorimeter

As h1 = h2,
ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑝1 = ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝 . 𝑎𝑡 𝑝2

Further solving,
ℎ𝑓1 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔1 = ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 )

And thus,

ℎ𝑔2 + 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑝 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) − ℎ𝑓1


𝑥= … … …… 6
ℎ𝑓𝑔1

2.4 Procedure:
Open needle valve to induce steam to the throttling calorimeter. Then reduce the
pressure after the expansion by means of needle valve and valve down to designated
pressure. Designated pressure means the value where to stem becomes superheated
steam in combination with the temperature after the throttle. After the temperature
becomes steady, note the pressure before and after the throttle on respective pressure
gauge and note the temperature of outlet superheated steam.
2.5 Observations:
No. of obs. P1 P2 T2 h1 = h2 x
(bar) (bar) (ᴼC) (kj/kg)
1 5.97 1.17 104.5 2682.8 0.965
2 5.97 1.17 105.5 2719.8 0.983
3 5.93 1.22 108 2689.5 0.968
4 5.92 1.32 110 2692.5 0.969
2.6 Specimen Calculation
For 4th reading,
At p2 = 1.32 bar and T2 = 110ᴼC, from steam table;
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h1 = h2 = 2692.5 kj/kg
At p1 = 5.92 bar, from steam table
hf = 668.22 kj/kg
hfg = 2086.33 kj/kg
using equation 6,
2692.5 − 668.22
𝑥= = 0.969
2086.33
2.7 Comments:
1) To reduce the no. of interpolation, the p 2 was assumed to be equal to atmospheric but for
1st reading the exact pressure was used to determine the enthalpy value and the error was
found to be less than 0.1%. which is negligible.
2) The initial temperature determined from the steam table, before throttling, is 168ᴼC which
indicates reduction in temperature, due to Joule-Thomson effect that is, Energy required
for superheating of gas (at high pressure) comes at the expense of reduction in temperature
of gas (at low pressure).
3) Thermal expansion co-efficient (μ) for the throttling process is calculated approximate ly
-0.0147 K -1 .
4) Throttling calorimeter is more accurate to determine the steam quality close to 1 than
separating calorimeter.
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3RD LAB SESSION


To determine the thermal efficiency (ηth) of steam boiler and measure
the evaporating rate.
3.1 Apparatus
Boiler (Steam generating device)
3.2 Specifications:

Maximum Pressure 10 kg/cm2


Equivalent Evaporative Quantity 150 kg/h
Heat Transmission Area 3.06 m2
Rated Heat Output 80, 850 kcal/h
Potential Water Quantity 54 L
Fuel Consumption 10.8 L/h (Kerosene)
Fuel Tank 90 L
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2
3.3 Theory:
Boiler efficiency
Thermal efficiency of the boiler is given by the relation:
𝑚 ( ℎ − ℎ6 )
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑠 1
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉
Where,
ℎ1 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
ℎ6 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤
𝑚 𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 =
𝑡
𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 =
𝑡
𝜌𝑓 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 820 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝐶. 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 42.7 𝑀𝑗/𝑘𝑔


Calorific value
C.V is the calorific value of fuel which is the amount of energy obtained by burning 1
kilogram of fuel. Gross or high calorific value (H.C.V) is the amount of heat release
when products of combustion are cooled down to the normal temperature. Net or low
calorific value is the amount of heat release when heat absorbed by product of
combustion is not recovered and steam formed during the combustion is not
condensed.
17

𝐿. 𝐶. 𝑉 = 𝐻. 𝐶. 𝑉 − ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Heat Losses in Boiler


The heat losses in the boiler are due to various reason some of them are as follow:
1. Due to unburnt fuel
2. Due to combustion of hydrogen
3. Due to radiation heat transfer
4. Due to dry flue gas
5. Due to moisture in fuel
Due to these reasons, boiler efficiency is less than 100% and the normal efficiency of
the boiler is round about 85%.
Boiler Loading and Efficiency
Boiler loading is the in-use capacity of boiler to boil water. The boiler efficiency is
maximum at 2/3 of its capacity and decreases on either side of this value.
Boiler Blowdown
Boiler blow down is the removal of water from boiler to maintain the water parameters
(water chemistry) within acceptable range to minimize scale, corrosion, carryover, and
other specific problems of power plant components. It is use to remove suspended
solids in the system. Depending upon various parameters like size of plant blowdown
can be continuous (daily bases) and intermittent (monthly bases).
3.4 Procedure:
Boiler Starting up
Open water supply valve and turn the main power supply ON. Open air purging valve.
Open the drain valve. After total blow off, close the air purging valve and drain valve.
Open fuel valve and press feed water switch. Press the combustion button.
Steam pressure goes up and when it gets set value, combustion stops automatica lly.
Open main stream valve gradually. Note feed water inlet temperature from the panel
and note the pressure of the generated steam from the outlet pressure gauge. Note the
volume of feed water fed to the boiler and fuel consumed in the specific time interva l,
from integral flow meters on control panel, to determine their volume flow rate.
3.5 Observations:
No. p1 T6 Dryness Vw Vf t ms mf h1 h6 ηth
of (bar) (ᴼC) Fraction (L) (L) (mins) (kg/min) (kg/min) (kj/kg) (kj/kg) (%)
Obs. x
1 8.42 21.4 0.965 24.23 2.414 30 0.807 0.066 2698.9 89.8 74.7
2 8.11 15.4 0.983 28.87 3.038 30 0.962 0.083 2734.1 64.7 72.4
3 8.41 12.4 0.968 35.05 3.675 30 1.168 0.100 2705.0 52.1 72.5
4 8.36 11.3 0.969 40.71 4.162 30 1.357 0.114 2706.8 47.47 74.1
18

3.6 Specimen Calculation


For 1st reading,
At p1 = 8.42 bar, from steam table;

hf = 730.4 kj/kg

hfg = 2039.9 kj/kg

at x = 0.965;
ℎ1 = 730.4 + 0.965 × 2039.9 = 2698.9 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

At T6 = 21.4 ᴼC, from steam table;


h6 = 89.8 kj/kg
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤 1000 × 24.23
𝑚𝑠 = = = 0.807 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 30
𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓 820 × 2.414
𝑚𝑓 = = = 0.066 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 30
𝑚 𝑠 (ℎ1 − ℎ6 ) 0.807 × (2698.9 − 89.8)
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 74.7%
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉 0.066 × 42700

For 3rd reading,


At p1 = 8.41 bar, from steam table;

hf = 730.2 kj/kg

hfg = 2040.1 kj/kg

at x = 0.968;
ℎ1 = 730.2 + 0.968 × 2040.1 = 2705.0 𝑘𝑗/𝑘𝑔

At T6 = 11.3 ᴼC, from steam table;


h6 = 52.1 kj/kg
𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑤 1000 × 35.05
𝑚𝑠 = = = 1.168 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 30
𝜌𝑓 𝑉𝑓 820 × 3.675
𝑚𝑓 = = = 0.100 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 30
𝑚 𝑠 (ℎ1 − ℎ6 ) 1.168 × (2705.0 − 52.1)
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 72.5%
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉 0.1 × 42700
19

3.7 Comments:
1) The steam to fuel ratio seems to be nearly constant with minor fluctuation between 11.7 to
12 And for this ratio the efficiency of boiler seems to be constant over the decrease in inlet
temperature of water. But to obtain a better understanding of this pattern more data points
will be required.
2) The Specific steam consumption for the boiler is calculated to be 1.35 kg/kWh.
3) The enthalpy value of inlet water is taken as that of saturated liquid at inlet temperature
which may not be the case and the sensible heating of water may take place in the boiler.
4) To get the better the better estimate of efficiency of boiler the pressure of the fluid to must
be determined to get the better estimate of enthalpy.
20

4TH LAB SESSION


To determine the efficiency (ηth) of superheater and evaluate its performance
4.1 Apparatus
Steam Super Heater
4.2 Specifications:

Inlet Pressure and Temperature 5 Kg/cm2 Sat. steam at 150ᴼC


Outlet Temperature 250ᴼC
Fuel Kerosene
Power Source AC 220V 50/60 Hz 3-Phase
Pressure Gauge 15 kg/cm2

4.3 Procedure:
Close respective valves of the superheater and wait for steam generation from boiler.
Induce steam which goes up to the designated pressure by opening valve super heater
inlet. Open drain valve of super heater. After drained thoroughly, when steam comes
out, close the drain valve. Turn the switch ON. Burner starts function and steam is
superheated. Note the readings of pressure and temperature before and after the
superheater. Note the reading of the volume of the fuel consumed in superheater by
the integral flow meter on the panel.
4.4 Observations:
No.
p1 p2 T2 ms T3 mf h2 h3 η
of x
(bar) (bar) (ᴼC) (kg/hr.) (ᴼC) (kg/hr.) (kj/kg) (kj/kg) (%)
Obs.
1 5.82 5.62 159.9 43.8 184.5 0.44 0.964 2762.0 2817.3 12.9
2 5.82 5.62 159.9 56.3 187.6 0.50 0.964 2762.0 2824.3 16.4
3 5.77 5.42 159.6 80.3 190.8 0.63 0.969 2760.0 2831.4 21.3
4 5.82 5.52 159.7 67.6 189.4 0.61 0.968 2759.8 2828.3 17.7

4.5 Specimen Calculation


For 1st reading,
At p2 = 5.62 bar, T2 = 159.9 ᴼC, from steam table;

h2 = 2762.0 kj/kg

At p2 = 5.62 bar, T3 = 184.5 ᴼC, from steam table;

h3 = 2817.3 kj/kg
21

𝑚 𝑠 (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) 43.8 × (2817.3 − 2762.0)


𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 12.9%
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉 0.44 × 42700

For 3rd reading,


At p2 = 5.42 bar, T2 = 159.6 ᴼC, from steam table;

h2 = 2760.0 kj/kg

At p2 = 5.42 bar, T3 = 190.8 ᴼC, from steam table;

h3 = 2831.4 kj/kg

𝑚 𝑠 (ℎ3 − ℎ2 ) 80.3 × (2831.4 − 2760.0)


𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 21.3%
𝑚𝑓 × 𝐶. 𝑉 0.63 × 42700

4.6 Comments:
1) There seems to be minor throttling of steam leaving the boiler and entering the super heater
due to losses in pipes and measuring and control devices.
2) The superheater operation seems to be unsteady as the flow rates of fuel and steam are
varying randomly.
3) Due to unsteady nature of process, the efficiency and SSC values for are not converging to
specific value.
4) But it can be observed that the increase in ratio of steam to fuel mass the boiler efficie nc y
and boiler output seems to be increasing.

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