Minor Instruments

1. HAND LEVEL

A hand level is a simple, compact instrument used for reconnaissance and preliminary survey, for
locating contours on the ground and for taking short cross-sections.
It consists of a rectangular or circular tube, 10 to 15 cm long, provided with a small bubble tube
at the top.
The bubble is reflected through this opening on to a mirror, which is inside the tube inclined at 45
degree to the axis, and immediately under the bubble tube. The mirror occupies half the width of
the tube and the objects are sighted through the other half. The line of sight is horizontal when the
centre of the bubble appears opposite the cross-wire, or lies on a line ruled on the reflector.

2. ABNEY CLINOMETER (ABNEY LEVEL)

(i) Abney level is one of the various forms of clinometers used for the measurement of slopes,
taking cross-sections, tracing contours, setting grades measuring vertical angles and all
other rough levelling operations, It is a light, compact and hand instrument with low
precision as compared to engineer's level.

The Vernier is of extended type having least count of 5' or 10'

If the instrument is to be used as a hand level the vernier is set to read zero on the graduated arc
and the level is then used as an ordinary hand level.

3. INDIAN PATTERN CLINOMETER (TANGENT CLINOMETER)

Indian pattern clinometer is used for determining difference in elevation between points and is
specially adopted to plane tabling. The clinometer is placed on the plane table which is levelled
By estimation.

4. BUREL HAND LEVEL

This consists of a simple frame carrying a mirror and a plain glass.The mirror extends half-way
across the frame. The plain glass extends to the other half. The frame can be suspended vertically
in gimbles. The edge of the mirror forms vertical reference line. The instrument is based on the
principle that a ray of light after being reflected back from a vertical mirror along the path of
incidence, is horizontal. When the instrument is suspended at eye level, the image of the eye is
visible at the edge of the mirror, while the objects appearing through the plain glass opposite the
image of the eye are at the level of observer’s eye.

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5. DE LISLE'S CLINOMETER
This is another form of clinometer, similar to that of Burel hand level, used for measuring the
vertical angles, determining the slope of the ground, and for setting out gradients. This consists of
the following

6. FOOT-RULE CLINOMETER
A foot-rule clinometer consists of a box wood rule having two arms hinged to each other at one
end, with a small bubble tube on each arm. The upper arm or part also carries a pair of sights
through which the object can be sighted. A graduated arc is also attached to the hinge, and angles
of elevations and depressions can be measured on it. A small compass is also recessed in the lower
arm for taking
.
7, CEYLON GHAT TRACER
It is very useful instrument for setting out a gradicnts

8 FENNEL'S CLINOMETER

a precise clinometer for the measurement of slopes,

9. THE PANTAGRAPH

A pantagraph is an instrument used for reproducing, enlarging or reducing the maps. It is based on
the principle of similar triangles.

10. THE SEXTANT

The distinguishing feature of the sextant is the arrangement of mirrors which enables the observer
the observer to sight at two different objects simultaneously and thus to measure an angle
in a single observation. A sextant may be used to measure horizontal angle. It can also be used to
measure vertical angles. Essentially, therefore, a sextant consists of fixed glass (H) which is
silvered to half the height while the upper half is plain. Another glass (P) is attached to a movable
arm which can be operated by means of a milled head. The movable arm also carries a vernier at
the other end. The operation of the sextant depends on bringing the image of one point (R), after
suitable reflection in two mirrors, into contact with the image of a second point (L) which is viewed
direct, by moving the movable mirror (P), Since the Vernier and the movable mirror are attached
to the same arm, the movement of the vernier from the zero position gives PIO 1413。the required
angle subtended by the two objects at the instrument station The sextant is based on the principle
that when a from two mirrors, the angle between the Arst and laws between the planes of the two
mirrors

Optical Requirements of the Sextant

1. The two mirrors should be perpendicular to the plane of the graduated arc.

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2. When the two mirrors are parallel, the reading on the index should be zero.The optical axis
should be parallel to the plane of the graduated arc and pass through the top of the horizon mirror.
If only a peep sight is provided in place of telescope the peep sight should be at the same distance
above the are as the top of the mirror

There are mainly three types of sextants

(1) Box Sextant
(2) Nautical Sextant
(3) Sounding Sextant. (Use in hydrographic surveying)

(a) Nautical Sextant

A nautical sextant is specially designed for navigation and astronomical purposes and is fairly
large instrument with a graduated silver arc of about 15 to 20 cm radius let into a gun metal casting
carrying the main parts. With the help of the Vernier attached to the index mirror, readings can be
taken to 20" or 10". A sounding Sextant is also very similar to the nautical sextant, with a large
index glass to allow for the difficulty of sighting an object from a small rocking boat in
hydrographic survey.
.
(b) Box Sextant
The box sextant is small pocket instrument used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles,
measuring chain angles and locating inaccessible points. By setting the Vernier to 90, it may be
used as an optical square.

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 Hydrographic Surveying

1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrographic survey is that branch of surveying which deals with the measurement of water
bodies. It is the art of delineating the submarine levels, contours and features of seas, gulfs, rivers
and lakes.
Application :
 making nautical charts for navigation and determination of rocks, sand bars, lights and
buoys.
 making subaqueous investigations to secure information needed for the construction of port
facilities.
 measurement of areas subject to scour or silting and to ascertain the quantities of dredged
material
 controlling and planning of engineering projects like bridges, tunnels, dams, reservoirs
docks and harbor’s
 establishing mean sea level and observation of tides;
 determination of shore lines
 Measurement of discharge of rivers.

Horizontal and Vertical Control

The main operation in hydrographic surveying is to determine the depth of water at a certain point.
The measurement of depth below the water surface is called sounding Thus, to take the sounding,
a vertical control is necessary and to locate the sounding (i.e. the point where the sounding is
taken), a horizontal control is necessary. The horizontal control may consist of either a
triangulation or a traverse. When the soundings are recorded, it is essential to know the gauge
reading. I.e. the level of water which continuously goes on changing.

2. SHORE LINE SURVEY

The shore, line surveys consist of
 determination or delineation of shore lines,
 location of shore details and prominent features to which soundings may be connected,
 Determination of low and high water lines for average spring tides.

3. SOUNDINGS
The measurement of depth below the water surface is called sounding. This corresponds to the
ordinary spirit levelling in land surveying where depths are measured below a horizontal line
established by a level. Here, the horizontal line or the datum is the surface of water the level of

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which continously goes on changing with time. The object of making soundings is thus to
determine the configuration of the subaqueous source. As stated earlier, soundings
are required for:
 making nauticai charts for navigation
 measurement of areas subject to scour or silting and to ascertain the quantities of dredged
material
 Development and improvement of port facilities.
 making sub-aqueous investigations to secure information needed for the construction,
For most of the engineering works, soundings are taken from a small boat. The equipment needed
for soundings are

The
 Sounding boat
 Lead lines
 Fathometer
 Sounding rods or poles
 Sounding machine
1) Sounding boat
A row-boat for sounding should be sufficientdy roomy and stable. For quiet water a flat bottom
boat is more suitable, but for rough water round-bottomed boat is more suitable. For regular
soundings, a row boat may be provided with a well through which soundings are taken. A sounding
platform should be built for use in smaller boat. It should be extended far enough over the side to
prevent the line from striking the boat. If the currents are strong, a motor or stream launch may be
used with advantage
2) Sounding rods or poles
A sounding rod is a pole of a sound straight-grained well seasoned tough timber usually 5 to 8 cm
in diameter and 5 to 8 metres long. They are suitable for shallow and quiet waters. An arrow or
lead shoe of sufficient weight is fitted at the end. This helps in holding them upright in water. The
lead or weight should be of sufficient area so that it may not sink in mud or sand. Between
soundings it is turned end for end without removing it from the water. A pole of 6 m can be used
to depths upto 4 metres.
3) Lead lines
A lead line or a sounding line is usually a length of a cord, or tiller rope of Indian hemp or braided
flax or a brass chain with a sounding lead attached to the end.
Sounding lead is a weight (made of lead) attached the line. The weight is conical in shape and
varies from 4 to 12 kg depending upon the depth of water and the strength of the current. The
weight penetrates in the mud and stops where the board strikes the mud surface.

4) Sounding Machine
Where much of sounding is to be done, a sounding machine as very useful.

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 Weddele's sounding machine is example (Hand driven).
The lead weight is carried at the end of a flexible wire Swivel & Hook cord attached to the barrel
and can be lowered at any desired rate, the speed of the drum being controlled by means of a brake.
The readings are indicated in two dials- A handle is used to raise the Lead weightlevel which can
be suspended at any height by means of a paul and ratchet. The sounding is mounted in a sounding
boat and can be used up to a maximum depth of 100 ft.
5) Fathometer : Echo-sounding
A fathometer is used for ocean sounding where the depth of water is too much, and to make a
continuous and accurate record of the depth of water below the boat or ship at which it is installed.
It is an echo-sounding instrument in which water depths are obtained by determining the time
required for the sound waves to travel from a point near the surface of the water to the bottom and
back. It is adjusted to read depth in accordance with the velocity of sound in the type of water in
which it is being used.
A fathometer may indicate the depth visually or indicate graphically on a roll which continuously
goes on revolving and provide a virtual profile of the lake or sea.
The main parts of an echo-sounding apparatus are:
1. Transmitting and receiving oscillators.
2. Recorder unit.
3. Transmitter/Power unit
It consists in recording the interval of time between the emission of a sound impulse direct to the
bottom of the sea and the reception of the wave or echo, reflected from the bottom. If the speed of
sound in that water is v and the time interval between the transmitter and receiver is t, the depth
h is given by h = 0.5 x v x t
5. METHODS OF LOCATING SOUNDINGS

The soundings are located with reference to the shore traverse by observations made entirely from
(i) the boat, (ii) entirely from the shore or (iii) from both.
The following are the methods of location
a) By conning the survey vessel
 By cross rope
 By range and time intervals
(b) By observations with sextant or theodolite
 By range and one angle from the shore
 By range and one angle from the boat
 By two angles from the shore
 By two angles from the boat
 By one angle from shore and one from boat
 By intersecting ranges
 By tachometry.

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