Introduction To World Religions and Belief Systems PDF

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T H E P A D A Y O N S E R I E S
Introduction to World Religions

and Belief Systems
a •>.
A u t h o r : N A P O L E O N M . M a b a q u ia o JR ., P h D
Project Director: RONALDO B. MACTAL, PhD
1 0 ! TABLE OF CONTENTS
Series Introduction, v
Preface, vii
| Unit )
T he N ature of R eligion and the A brahamic F aiths

Chapter The Nature of Religion, 6-40
Lesson 1: Understanding Religiion
Section 1: Etymology and Key Elements
Section 2: Spirituality and Divine Absolutes
Lesson 2\ Studying Religions

Section 1: Approaches to the Study of Religion
Section 2: The Value of Studying Religion
Chapter Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, 41-133

Lesson 3: Judaism
Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts
Section 2: Doctrines and Practices
Section 3: Denominations and Challenges
Lesson 4\ Christianity
Lesson 5: Islam
PADAYON iii
Cs l D
R eligions O riginating in I ndia , C hina , and J apan
Chapter Hinduism and Buddhism, 137-198
Lesson 6: Hinduism
Lesson 7: Buddhism
Chapter^ Confucianism, Taoism, and Shintoism, 199-276

Lesson &. Confucianism
Lesson 9\ Taoism
Lesson 10. Shinto

References, 277
iv INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Overarching Questions
■sr What is the nature of religion?

■a? What are the main features of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam?
Content Performance
Demonstrate your understanding of Perform the activities specified in

religion in terms of its etymology, key the chapters and lessons under this
elements, spirituality, approaches, and unit, which will enable you to use
value; and of the main features of the your learning and reflect on your own
Abrahamic Faiths (Judaism, Christian spirituality.
ity, and Islam) in terms of their origins,
doctrines, practices, denominations,
and challenges.
LEA R N IN G OUTCOME
The unit generally aims to introduce the nature of religion and the Abrahamic
faiths consisting of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These three are generally
referred to as Abrahamic faiths or religions since they all trace their spiritual roots
to Abraham’s belief in one God. After going through the various lessons under
this unit, you are expected to come up with a reflection paper about how these
lessons have broadened your view of life and have deepened your spiritual life.
UNIT I 1
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
Chapter Content Competencies
1 The Nature of Religion «• How did the word religion come

about?
■® What are the key elements of
religion?
■® What is the relationship between
religion and spirituality?
«*■ What are the different forms of
absolutes in religion?
i®- What are the different approaches
in studying particular religions?
i® What is the value of studying
religions?
2 Judaism, Christianity, How did Judaism, Christianity,

and Islam and Islam originate? Who were
their founders?
What are the sacred texts of
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam?
•® What are the basic doctrines and
practices of Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam?
«*■ What are the denominations
and challenges of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam?
P relearning C oncept C heck

Direction: Mark the level of your knowledge or understanding of the
statements in the table on the succeeding page using the following signs:
0 no knowledge
+ low level of knowledge
++ average or moderate level of knowledge
+++ high level of knowledge
At this point, answer only the left column (Before Studying Unit!). Answer
the right column {After Studying Unit I) after you have studied all the lessons
in the unit.
2 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Before After Studying
Statements
Studying Unit 1 Unit 1
1. Based on its root words, the word
religion, means “to join again” or “to
reconnect.”
2. Religion contains a worldview that
involves spirits, sacred things, ethical
codes, community, central stories,
rituals, and artistic expressions (music,
paintings, dances, and sculptures,
among others).
3. While one can be spiritual without being
religious, one cannot be religious without
being spiritual.
4. It is possible to have a religion even
without a belief in God.
5. Sacredness can be inherent (when
one’s sacredness is not derived from
something else) or derived (when one’s
sacredness is derived from something
else).
6. The divine absolute, the inherently
sacred, can be in the form of a god or
gods or some other form such as the
soul, principles, or teachings of a revered
teacher.
7. God’s relation with nature can be one
of transcendence (outside nature),
immanence (within nature), or both.
8. Approaches to the study of religions,
which come in the form of “theories of
religion,” can be internal (the approach of
a particular religion to the understanding
of its own doctrines and practices) or
external (the approach of a certain
academic discipline to the understanding
of a religion’s doctrines and practices).
9. External approaches to religion include
the approaches of theology, comparative
religion, philosophy, psychology,
sociology, and anthropology.
10. The value of studying world religions can
be theoretical (as it cultivates a better
understanding'of human civilization and
cultures, among others), practical (as it
provides different models of spirituality
and answers to our big questions in
life, among others), and artistic (as
it cultivates a better appreciation of
artworks that are religiously inspired).
11. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
originated from the family of Abraham.
12. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are
monotheistic religions (religions that
believe in just one God).
13. One can be a Jew in a biological and
religious way.
14. Abraham and Moses were the founders

of Judaism.
15. The Hebrew or Jewish Bible, called the

Tanakh, generally corresponds to the
Old Testament of the Christian Bible.
16. For the Jews, God gave His
commandments to Moses in written and
oral forms.
17. The Jews are still waiting for their
Messiah.
18. Sects of Judaism range from ancient and
medieval forms to modern ones.
19. The major challenges of Judaism include
anti-Semitism and the Arab-lsraeli
conflict.
20. Christianity was founded by Jesus
Christ.

21. While Christians generally believe in the
doctrine of the Holy Trinity (that the one
God has three persons: the Father, the
Son, and the Holy Spirit), there are some
Christian sects that do not.
22. The Christian Bible consists of an Old
Testament and a New Testament. The
New Testament is taken as the fulfillment
of the Old Testament.
23. The Gospels are divided into the
synoptic and nonsynoptic kinds.
24. The Christian Churches are generally
divided into Western and Eastern
Churches. The Western Churches
are divided into Catholic, Protestant,
Anglican, and Nontraditional Churches
25. Muslims call their god “Allah.”
26. Islam was founded by Mohammad, who

regarded himself as the last messenger
of God.
27. The sacred text of Islam is called the
Qur’an.
28. Muslims have five obligatory activities
called the Five Pillars of Islam,
consisting of a testimony of faith, prayer,
charity for the poor, fasting during
Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca.
29. The division between Sunni Muslims
(or Sunnis) or Shia Muslims (or Shiites)
resulted from issues concerning who
should succeed Mohammad as the
spiritual leader of Islam after his death.
30. Islam has a mystical version called
Sufism, which has produced great
poets.
UNIT I 5
—
T he N ature of R eligion
Overarching Question
What is the nature of religion?
EXPECTED LEA R N IN G OUTCOME
The chapter aims to explain the nature of religion by clarifying its

meaning, specifying its significance, and examining the different ways
of studying various religions. The meaning of religion is clarified by
looking into its etymology (that is, its meaning based on the history of its
linguistic form), key elements (its basic components), and the nature of
spirituality and divine absolute. Examining the ways of studying particular
religions would require examining the various disciplinal approaches to
the study of religions and ascertaining the value of studying religions on
theoretical, practical, and artistic levels.
At the end of the chapter, you must write a research paper on a
certain influential religious leader. The paper should: (1) provide a brief
biography of the religious leader, (2) identify and explain the teachings
of the religious leader, and (3) reflect on the ideas of the religious leader
concerning the nature of religion.
LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES
Learning Competency
Lesson 1. Understanding «■ Explain the meaning of religion in terms of its

Religion etymology and basic elements.
>«• Explain the relation between religion and
spirituality and the different forms of the divine
absolute.

Lesson 2. Studying ■a- Differentiate the various ways of studying
Religions religion.
Explain the value of studying religions.
EX PLORING IN IT IA L IDEAS A N D V IEW S
1. How would you define religion?
2. What characteristics do you think are common to all religions?
3. What do you think is the value of studying the different religions in

the world?
4. Identify three benefits of having a religion.
5. Identify three benefits of studying the different religions in the

world.
6 . What do you think is the relationship between spirituality and

religiousness/religiosity?
UNDERSTANDING RELIGION
TOPICS
♦ Section 1: Meaning and Key Elements

♦ Section 2: Spirituality and Divine Absolutes
Key Concepts religion 1® materialism

>® “religare” 1®* spirituality
» “relegare” 1® religiousness
<® “religio” 1® divine absolute
■® worldview 1® god-centered sacredness
<® spiritual world 1® nongod-centered sacredness
■® sacredness 1® theism
■® inherent sacredness 1® atheism
>® derived sacredness 1® agnosticism
i® community 1® nontheism
i® rituals 1® traditional pantheism
i® central stories 1® panentheism
«® artistic expressions I® transcendence
■® supernaturalism 1® immanence

EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G COMPETENCIES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

«■ Explain the etymological meanings of the term religion.
<® Identify and explain the key elements of religion.
■a- Explain the difference between religiousness and spirituality, as well
as their relationships.
■a- Distinguish between god-centered and nongod-centered forms of
sacredness.
i® Distinguish between theism, atheism, agnosticism, and nontheism,
i® Distinguish between traditional theism, pantheism, and panentheism.
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions on page 27.
This can be done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
; j Knowledge and Skills
MEANING AND KEY ELEMENTS
What does the word religion mean? .

What are the key elements of religion?
In examining the meaning of religion, we shall look into the etymology

(the origin of the linguistic form of the said word) of the word religion, the
definitions given to religion by some scholars from different disciplines, and
the key elements of religion (the common characteristics of religions).
ETYMOLOGY
There are at least three closely related accounts on the etymology of
the term religion. According to the first account, the term comes from a Latin
UNIT I 9
word that means “to tie or bind.” Some identify this Latin word as religare
(Palmer 2004, 14) while some identify it as religio (Saucier and Skrzypiska
2006, 1259). In any case, this etymological meaning of religion, to tie or
bind, indicates the two objectives of religion: first, to bind humanity and the
divine together; and second, to bind humans into a community that is bound
with the divine. The second account states that the term religion consists of
two Latin words, namely, re, which means “again,” and lig-, which means to
“join” or “connect” (Molloy 2010, 5). Religion, based on the combination of
these two Latin words, therefore means “to join again” or “to reconnect.” And
what is being joined again or being reconnected, in this context, is humanity
and the divine, or the human world and the sacred world. This meaning of
religion suggests that there was originally a unity between the human world
and the sacred world which was somehow lost or strained; and religion is
the way for humans to recover or reestablish that unity.
According to the third account, the word religion derives from the Latin
word relegare which literally means “to tread carefully” and which indicates
“respect and care for both the natural and supernatural worlds” (Palmer 2004,
14). This further suggests that a primary concern of religion is to provide
guidance on how humans ought to live.
It can be observed in these three etymological accounts of the meaning
of the word “religion” that religion serves as a bridge between the human
world and the sacred world. Accordingly, the etymological accounts suggest
that a higher purpose in human living is unity with the divine, and religion
provides the necessary way or guidance to accomplish this purpose.
D efinitions from S ome S cholars

Scholars from different disciplines have defined religion in varying
ways, though some similarities and intersections can easily be observed in
these definitions. These definitions resulted from their studies of religions
using the lens or perspectives of their own respective disciplines, which
include sociology, anthropology, philosophy, theology, and religious studies.
Examining these definitions will give us an idea of the different aspects of
religion, as well as of what is essential in a religion. Here are some of these
definitions (as quoted in House 2006, 15):
1. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834): “The essence of religion
consists in the feeling of absolute dependence.”
2. James Martineau (1805-1900): “Religion is the belief in ... a Divine
mind and will ruling the universe and holding moral relations with
mankind.”

3. C. P. Tiele (1830-1902): “Religion is . . . that pure and reverential
disposition or frame of mind which we call piety.”
4. F. H. Bradley (1846-1924): “Religion is ... the attempt to express the
complete reality of goodness through every aspect of our being.”
5. James Frazier (1854-1941): “[Religion is] . . . a propitiation or
conciliation of powers superior to man.”
6 . Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): “[Religion i s ] . . . a unified system of
beliefs and practices relative to sacred things . . . which unite into
one single moral community.”
7. Rudolf Otto (1869-1937): “Religion is that which grows out of, and
gives expression to, experience of the holy in its various aspects.”
8 . Paul Tillich (1886-1965): “Religion is the state of being grasped by
an ultimate concern, a concern which qualifies all other concerns
as preliminary and which itself contains the answer to the question
of the meaning of our life.”
9. J. Milton Yinger (1916-2011): “Religion is a system of beliefs and
practices by means of which a group of people struggle with the
ultimate problem of human life.”
10. John Hick (1922-2012): “ Religion constitutes our varied human
response to transcendent reality.”
11. Ninian Smart (1927-2001): The six characteristics or dimensions of
religion are: “the ritual, the mythological, the doctrinal, the ethical,
the social, and the experiential.”
12. Peter Berger (1929- ): “[Religion is] ... the establishment through
human activity of an all-embracing sacred order, that is, of a sacred
cosmos that will be capable of maintaining itself in the ever-present
face of chaos.”
13. James C. Livingston (1930- ): “Religion is that system of activities
and beliefs directed toward that which is perceived to be sacred in
value and transforming power.”
14. Roy A. Clouser (1937-): “A religious belief is any belief in something
or other as divine. ‘Divine’ means having the status of not depending
on anything else.”
15. Roland Robertson (1938- ): “[Religion pertains] to a distinction
between an empirical and a super-empirical, transcendental reality:
the affairs of the empirical being subordinated in significance to the
nonempirical.”
UNIT I 11
THE KEY ELEMENTS
Though the human desire and effort to unite or reconnect with some
sacred or divine reality may be an essential feature of religion, as indicated
by its etymology and the definitions of some scholars, religion, as commonly
understood and practiced, has other important features. In identifying the
key elements of religion, two things need to be noted. First, these elements
are limited to those shared by the particular religions that we shall examine
in this textbook (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism,
Confucianism, and Shinto). This means that there is no claim that these key
elements are final and complete, for once we include other religions, other
elements may have to be included or some of the elements in our list may
no longer be applicable. Second, not all of these key elements are essential
in the sense that not all particular religions have all of them in the same
degree. Most of these elements are shared by these religions, but some of
these elements are shared only by most of them. (For instance, while most
religions have a definite set of ethical codes, Shinto does not.) In any case,
in what follows, we shall look into the following key elements of religion:
worldview, spiritual world, sacredness, community, central stories, rituals,
ethical codes, and artistic expressions.
W orldview
Religion contains a worldview. A worldview refers to a set of beliefs that
is both coherent and comprehensive. As a coherent set of beliefs forms a
belief system, another way of saying the same is that a worldview refers
to a comprehensive belief system. First, religion consists of beliefs. Beliefs
generally refer to assertions, claims, or thoughts about things that are held
to be true. Beliefs are, strictly speaking, mental states that advance claims
or knowledge about the world, and are expressible in the form of statements
(or propositions). Examples of religious beliefs are the beliefs that humans
have immortal souls, that there is a God or gods, and that there is universal
justice in the world in which wrongdoings shall be appropriately punished
and good deeds shall be appropriately rewarded, if not in this world, in the
afterlife.
Second, a set of beliefs forms a system when these beliefs are coherent;
and they are coherent when they are consistently interrelated. Being
interrelated, the beliefs in a system influence or affect one another. For
instance, the belief that humans are free and thus are accountable for their
actions is related to the belief that there is universal justice; or the belief

that human life is sacred, as it is a creation of God or animated by a soul, is
related to the ethical principle that it is wrong to destroy a human life. And
being coherent, these beliefs do not contradict one another. An example of
two incoherent beliefs are the belief that there is universal justice and the
belief that there is no life after death. For without an afterlife, there would be
no guarantee that universal justice will be served in that all wrongdoings will
be appropriately punished and all good deeds will be appropriately rewarded.
Being coherently interrelated, a worldview thus has the function of giving order
to our experiences and the realities in our world.
Lastly, a belief system is comprehensive when it accounts for a wide range
of phenomena (or events in the world) or when it deals with a wide range of
human concerns. Religious belief systems are comprehensive in this light for
they address a wide range of human concerns. For instance, they address
concerns about what makes life meaningful, what happens after death, how
the world began and how it would end, how humans ought to deal with one
another, why there are various human races and languages, how humans
ought to regard their natural environment or its nonhuman members, and
what is the right attitude towards wealth, authorities, spouses, money, sex,
worries, knowledge, sufferings, and so many others. A set of beliefs that is
not comprehensive is not a worldview.
S piritual W orld
Religion believes or assumes that there is a spiritual world or a
transcendent reality (see Hick’s and Robertson’s definitions of religion on
page 11), in addition to the physical, natural world that we live in. By spiritual,
we simply mean nonphysical or nonnatural. As such, the spiritual world refers
to what is sometimes also called the transcendental world or supernatural
world (by “transcendental” and “super,” we mean “outside the physical or
natural”). Being nonphysical, the spiritual world is known or accessed not by
means of scientific methods (generally the methods of sense observation and
quantification), but by other means of knowing such as visions, revelations,
and mystical (or religious) experiences. Moreover, the acceptance of its
reality or truth is not a matter of having some objective evidence or method of
verification; rather, it is a matter of having faith. Religion is therefore opposed
to materialism (sometimes also called physicalism or naturalism), which
is the belief that reality is just physical and nothing more, or that the only
real world is the world that is known through the methods of the sciences.
Depending on the particular religions being considered, the spiritual world
of religion usually includes a God, gods, souls, angels, principles (like the
law of karma), and values, among others.
UNIT I 13
We earlier noted that religion contains a worldview or a comprehensive
belief system. It shall, however, be noticed that it is not only religion that
contains a worldview. Science, some philosophies, and ideologies (like
Marxism) also contain worldviews, for they too hold a set of beliefs that are
coherent and comprehensive. One essential difference, however, between
the religious worldview and these other worldviews is that the religious
worldview includes a spiritual world.
S acredness
Religion regards certain things as sacred (on page 11, see Livingston’s,
Durkheim’s, and Clouser’s definitions of religion). The sacred is contrasted
with the ordinary, secular, or profane. While ordinary things can be used as
mere instruments to satisfy human interests, sacred things are treated with
respect or reverence. Also, the value of ah ordinary thing depends on human
interests (it is “mind-dependent”), while the value of a sacred thing does
not (it is “mind-independent”). A sacred thing either has its own (intrinsic or
inherent) value or it derives its value from association with a sacred thing
which has value on its own. In this consideration, we can distinguish between
two kinds of sacredness, which we shall call inherent sacredness and derived
sacredness. Something has inherent sacredness if it has value on its own (or
it is valuable by itself), while something has derived sacredness if its value
is derived from something that has inherent sacredness. Accordingly, we
respect the inherently sacred because it is worth respecting on its own; and
we also respect the derivatively sacred because we respect the inherently
sacred that is associated with it.
Our division of the sacred into the inherent and the derived can be gleaned
from the following remarks by Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005, 34) on the
nature of the sacred in consideration of the views of Durkheim (1915) and
Pargament and Mahoney (2002): “As stated by Durkheim (1915, 52), by
sacred things one must not understand simply those personal beings which
are called Gods or spirits; a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood,
a house— in a word, anything can be sacred. Thus, the designation is not
limited to higher powers or imminent forces, but includes other aspects of life
that take on divine character and meaning through their association with or
representation of the holy.” These remarks indicate that the inherently sacred
are usually spiritual in nature, such as God or gods, souls, principles, and
values; while the derivatively sacred are usually physical in nature, such as
spaces (like the places of worship and the places where important events
or turning points in the development of a religion occurred—which may be a

place in nature like under a certain tree, a certain river, a certain mountain,
and others), symbols, statues, relics, scrolls, and clothing. Moreover, this
explains why the spiritual world is given a value higher than the physical world
(see Robertson’s definition of religion). A typical way of showing respect to
sacred things is by following the ethical codes associated with these things,
saying prayers, offering flowers, tithing, and others. And when respect is
accorded by a person to sacred things, the belief is that this person has
done something good which will merit some form of reward, either in this
world or in the world beyond.
Ethical C odes
Religions have ethical or moral codes (see Martineau’s, Durkheim’s, and
Smart’s definitions of religion on pages 10 and 11), referring to guidelines
concerning how humans ought to relate to the divine, treat one another, or
behave towards one another, God, gods, and revered teachers. In some
cases, these codes also include rules about what types of food to refrain
from eating generally, what type of clothes to wear on specific occasions,
and others. Some of these ethical codes are revealed by a God to chosen
messengers; while some are realized through a heightened form of spiritual
activity like meditation.
C ommunity
Religions have communities. A religious belief system is shared and
practiced by a community of believers (see Durkheim’s and Otto’s definitions
of religion). The community of believers usually involves an organization
consisting of a hierarchy of authorities. Each level in the hierarchy has
designated rights and duties. How people get to occupy the higher positions
vary in different religions.The ways include revelations, reincarnations, blood
relations, and election by revered members of the religious community.
S acred W ritings
Religions have sacred writings, which contain their main teachings or
doctrines, central stories, ethical codes, and prophecies. Sacred writings
are divinely inspired. Their contents are usually revealed by a God or gods
through chosen messengers. In some cases, they are arrived at by revered
teachers as realizations during spiritual activities like meditation. Sometimes
the mere recitation of passages in the sacred writings can already produce
religious effects like blessings, forgiveness, spiritual calmness, and power to
UNIT I 15
overcome sin and fear or to exorcise evil spirits. Sometimes, too, the mere
presence or sight of a sacred book is enough to produce these religious
effects.
C entral S tories
Religions have central stories. Some scholars refer to these stories as
“myths,” but due to a connotation of the term “myth” as being a story that is
purely imaginary or that is historically untrue, we shall use the (hopefully)
neutral term “story.” The central stories of religions include accounts of how
the world and the human race (or a chosen human race) began; how God
was personified or manifested in the world; how a great teacher came to a
realization of religious truths or received messages and instructions from
God, the gods, or the heavens; how the important events in the life of a
great teacher came about; and how some actions of faithful followers (like
acts of martyrdom) became worthy of emulation or sources of religious
inspiration. ^ "
R ituals
Religions have rituals (see Smart’s, Durkheim’s, and Yinger’s definitions
of religion on page 1 1 ), which include ceremonies that reenact sacred stories,
and various activities, such as songs and dances that express praise or
thanksgiving to God, gods, or a revered teacher or prophet.
A rtistic E xpressions
Religions engage in various artistic expressions for their beliefs. These
artistic expressions can be in the form of music, dance, architectural design,
sculpture, poetry, drama, and others. Many of the world-renowned artistic
works were religiously inspired.
scussion Questions
1. Take a look again at the definitions of religion given by some scholars.

Among these definitions, which for you best captures the meaning of
religion. Why?
2. Which among the key elements of religion do you think is the most
important and the least important? Explain your answers.

IÂctivityl
Choose a world-renowned work of art considered to be religiously

inspired. Make a presentation of it in class. (This can also be a written
requirement.) Explain the specific religious inspiration of the artist behind
the artwork.
SPIRITUALITY AND DIVINE ABSOLUTES
»*■ How does spirituality relate to religiousness?

•a- What are the different forms of divine absolutes?
We noted that among the key elements of religion are the belief in a
spiritual reality and the sacredness of certain things. In this section, we
shall discuss concepts related to these two elements, which are important
considerations in understanding the meaning of religion. Related to the belief
in the spiritual world is the concept of spirituality, while related to sacredness
is the concept of the divine absolute. Concerning spirituality, we shall examine
how it relates to and differs from religiousness (or “religiosity”). Concerning
the divine absolute, we shall look into the nature of its existence and how it
relates to the natural or secular world.
I. SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGIOUSNESS

In two large-scale studies examined by
Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005, 28) (see
also Saucier and Skrzypiska 2006) about
how people perceive the relationship between
spirituality and religiousness, the respondents
classified themselves into three categories:
1 . those who considered themselves as
both religious and spiritual (around 69%);
2 . those who considered themselves as spiritual but not religious (around
2 1 %); and
3. those who considered themselves as religious but not spiritual (4%).
UNIT I 17
These findings, among others, point to a difference between the concepts
of spirituality and religiousness. Some of the questions that arise, in this
consideration are: Is spirituality opposed to religiousness? Is it possible to
be religious without being spiritual? Is spirituality not an essential component
of religion such that we can have a religion without spirituality? How do we
make sense of the expressions “spiritual but not religious” and “religious but
not spiritual”? What is the role of spirituality in religion?
Zinnbauer and Pargament (2005) identify two general perspectives on
the relationship between spirituality and religiousness. Both perspectives
assume that religiousness and spirituality are not identical concepts; but while
the first perspective regards the two concepts as incompatible opposites
(or mutually exclusive, that is, they cannot go hand in hand), the second
one does not. For the first perspective, it is not possible to be religious and
spiritual at the same time. A religious person, in this regard, is not a spiritual
person, and a spiritual person is not a religious person. On the other hand,
the second perspective maintains that it is possible to be religious and
spiritual at the same time. A religious person can be a spiritual person,
and a spiritual person can be a religious person. What makes them different
or not identical is simply that one is a form or version of the other. That is,
either religiousness is a form of spirituality or spirituality is a form of
religiousness.
A . O n the I ncompatibility of S pirituality and R eligiousness

The first perspective, which sees religiousness and spirituality as
incompatible opposites, is based on certain views, opinions, or observations
about what makes religiousness and spirituality different. These views result
from separating (or polarizing) certain features of religion into two opposing
features. Let us then analyze the following two main views (see Zinnbauer
and Pargament 2005):
Separating the Substantive and Functional Aspects of Religion
First is the view that religiousness is substantive (or substance-oriented)

while spirituality is functional (or function-oriented). Substance here refers to
beliefs (doctrines) and practices (such as rituals), while functionality refers
to the goals of uniting with the sacred, living a meaningful life, and having
harmonious social relationships. Actually, substance and functionality are
both features of religion. Through its beliefs and practices, one hopes to
attain unity with the sacred, live a meaningful life, and have a harmonious
relationship with other people. But some people have divided these two

features, and they have thought that religiousness was solely about the
substance of religion while spirituality was solely about the functionality of
religion.
Separating the institutional and Subjective Aspects of Religion
Second is the view that religiousness is institutional and objective, while

spirituality is personal and subjective.That is to say, religious persons express
their faith in the context of a community or an organized group, while spiritual
persons express their faith as individuals. Again, like the first view, religion
actually has both communal worship and individual worship, but some people
have separated these two kinds of worship into two incompatible opposites.
Consequently, they have associated religiousness with communal worship
while spirituality with individual worship.
Analysis
The question with these two views is, are they right in separating the
substantive and the functional features of religion, as well as its institutional and
personal features? The answer, of course, is no. First, limiting religiousness
to substance alone does not explain how religion affects the personal lives of
believers or what religion does to make the lives of the believers meaningful.
On the other hand, limiting spirituality to functionality alone without any basis
on substance will not explain what makes spirituality different from other ways
of attaining unity with the divine or living a meaningful life. There are different
ways to address the existential questions of humans (questions concerning
the meaning and purpose of human existence), and what makes a spiritual
response to these questions different from nonspiritual ones must be based
on some beliefs and doctrines. The substance and functionality of religion,
in short, cannot be separated from one another.
Second, inasmuch as religiousness involves communal or organizational
activities, the end goal is still a personal relationship with the divine. The
communal activities, in certain respects, are ways by which the believers
strengthen or enhance one another’s personal relationship with the divine.
On the other hand, inasmuch as some forms of spirituality are antireligious
institutions, spirituality cannot occur in a vacuum. Spirituality exists in the
context of a tradition or culture; and so while it can be practiced individually, it
is still community-dependent. Moreover, there are also spiritual organizations
where those practicing spirituality of some form organize themselves into
groups. This implies that there is nothing contradictory in being individually
spiritual and being part of an organized group of fellow spiritual persons.
UNIT I 19
In short, we cannot separate the communal and the personal features of
religion.
B. On the C ompatibility of S pirituality and R eligiousness

Let us now examine the second perspective which claims that
religiousness and spirituality are compatiole. That is, though being spiritual
is not the same as being religious, one can still be spiritual and religious at
the same time. As earlier noted, this is because their difference lies only in
the fact that one is a broader concept than the other. There are two competing
views here. One claims that it is spirituality which is the broader concept,
while the other claims that it is religiousness.
Religiousness as a Form of Spirituality

The view that claims that spirituality is the broader concept is based on
the observation that it is possible to distinguish between a kind of spirituality
that occurs within the context of a religious tradition (by “religious tradition”
we simply mean the tradition of a particular religion such as Christianity,
Islam, and others) and a kind of spirituality that does not (such as the
spirituality of the so-called “spiritual mystics”). We may call the former kind
religious sp iritu a lity, and the latter kind nonreligious sp iritu a lity.
Because spirituality can be religious or not, then spirituality is a broader
concept than religiousness.
Spirituality as Part of Religiousness

On the other hand, the view that claims that religiousness is the broader
concept is based on the consideration that while spirituality is an essential
part of religion whose goal is unity with the divine, religion has other important
goals too. For instance, “social connection, community service, education,
healthy lifestyle promotion, or financial assistance may also be pursued by
religious organizations, families, and cultures in order to support the spiritual
development of its members” (Zinnbauer and Pargament 2005,36). Because
religiousness involves things other than spirituality, then religiousness is a
broader concept than spirituality.
Analysis
These views show that regardless of which concept is regarded as
broader, spirituality or religiousness, spirituality and religiousness can ramain
compatible with one another.The possibility that one can be spiritual without

being religious and the fact that being religious involves more than being
spiritual do not prevent one from being spiritual while being religious at the
same time. More importantly, however, even given the same conditions, one
can still maintain the idea that spirituality is an essential component of (not
just compatible with) religiousness such that one cannot be religious without
being spiritual in some way. For while there can be nonreligious spirituality
and religiousness involves more than spirituality, it can be maintained that
spirituality in the context of religious spirituality is essential to religiousness.
We just have to qualify that the kind of spirituality that is essentially involved
in religiousness is the religious kind.
II. FORMS OF DIVINE ABSOLUTES

We noted earlier that a key element in religion is sacredness. We further
noted that what is sacred can be a lot of things. It can be a spiritual being,
a rock, a place, or a scroll. One way to understand this is to distinguish
between the inherently sacred (those that are sacred by themselves) and the
derivatively sacred (those that are sacred by association with other sacred
things, usually the inherently sacred). The inherently sacred is described in
different ways, one of which is its being the divine absolute, the source (or
sources if the divine absolute is thought to be more than one) of all positive
values. In religion, humans achieve ultimate happiness through their unity
with the primary source or sources of all positive values. Thus to achieve
that unity is the very goal of religious spirituality. The divine absolutes,
however, take various forms in different religions. And so to have a deeper
understanding of the different religions, we need to have an overview of the
various forms that divine absolutes may take.
G od-C entered and N ongod-C entered F orms of S acredness

In most religions, the divine absolute usually takes the form of a God
or gods. We shall refer to this form of the divine absolute as god-centered
sacredness. There are, however, some religions where the divine absolute
does not take the form of a God or gods. Instead, sacredness is centered
on either the soul, certain principles, or the teachings of a revered teacher,
among others. And we shall refer to this form of the divine absolute simply
as nongod-centered sacredness. God-centered sacredness, however, takes
different forms depending on the following considerations: (a) reality, that is,
whether there really is a God or gods; (b) quantity, that is, whether there is
UNIT I 21
just one God or there are many gods; and (c) relation with nature, that is,
whether God or the gods exist outside or within the natural world.
V iews on the E xistence of G od/ s

With regard to the reality of God or gods, there are three basic views
or positions. First is theism, which asserts the reality of God or gods.
Consequently, theism subscribes to god-centered sacredness. Second is
atheism, which rejects the reality of God or gods. Consequently, atheism
does not subscribe to god-centered sacredness. It may either subscribe
to a non-god-centered type of sacredness or altogether reject any form
of sacredness. Sometimes an atheistic belief system, while categorically
rejecting belief in God (or the necessity of this belief), would attribute god
like qualities to certain personalities. Third is agnosticism, which claims that
there is no certainty whether or not God or gods exist. Agnosticism is thus
opposed to the certainty assumed in the positions of theism and atheism—
theism assumes certainty with regard to the existence of God or gods,
while atheism assumes certainty with regard to the nonexistence of God or
gods. And fourth is nontheism, which simply makes no position about the
existence of God or gods. The best way to describe the view of nontheism
is its attitude of indifference to the very question of the existence of a divine
being.
V iews on the N umber of G od/ s

With regard to whether there is just one God or there are many gods, the
opposing views are called monotheism, the belief that there is only one God,
and polytheism, the belief that there are many gods. How many gods does
a polytheistic religion believe in? There can be thousands or millions of
them.There usually is hierarchy of gods in a polytheistic religion. Sometimes
there is one supreme god among the gods. Sometimes there is a set of
supreme gods, often numbering in three (a trinity). Sometimes there is one
highest god and then next to him is a set of supreme gods (again usually a
trinity), and below them are the rest of the gods. The gods can be abstract
entities (entities with super powers but which cannot be identified with
anything in this world). They can also represent forces of nature (including
biological ones such as fertility) or ideal values or traits (such as wisdom,
compassion, and mercy), or they can be historical figures (including
emperors, venerable teachers, and ancestors) who have somehow achieved
immortality.

Polytheism takes the form of henotheism when it serves and worships
a single god while recognizing the existence of other gods that can equally
be served and worshipped. It can also take the form of kathenotheism when
it worships a single god at a time, or when it worships different gods at
different times, depending on the person’s needs and/or which god becomes
supreme over another at a certain time. As henotheism is a specific form of
polytheism, kathenotheism is a specific form of henotheism.
V iews on G od’ s /G ods’ R elation with N ature

Lastly, with regard to the relation of God or gods with the natural world,
there are three basic views. First is traditional theism, which views God or
gods as transcendent beings as they exist outside the natural world. Second
is pantheism, which views God or gods as immanent beings as they exist
within the natural world. Pantheism further claims that God or gods have no
identity outside the natural world, or that the natural world is God Himself or
the gods themselves. A person who says “I am God” or that “Everything is
God” is usually a pantheist; and what the person means by his/her utterance
is that since everything that exists is part of God (for God is nothing but the
totality of everything that exists), everything bears the qualities of God, and
thus, in a certain sense, is God. Third is panentheism, which sees God or
gods as both transcendent and immanent. Meaning, while God or gods exist
within the natural world, their identity is independent of the natural world.
While God or gods are not the totality of everything that exists, they are
nonetheless present in everything that exists.
Discussion Questions
1. Does a person need to be religious in order to have spirituality in his/

her life? Explain your answer.
2. Is the belief in God necessary in a religion? Is it possible to have a
religion even without the belief in God? Explain your answer.
Activity
Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map.
Worldview relegare Rituals to tie or bind
Sacred Writings Spirituality Monotheism Religiousness
Pantheism Theism Sacredness Religion
Review Questions
Encircle the letter of your answer.

1. Based on the etymology of the word, “religion” means:
a. to tie or bind d. all of the above
b. to join again or to reconnect e. none of the above
c. to tread carefully

2. Religion contains___________________, which refers to a set of
beliefs that is both coherent and comprehensive.
a. a worldview c. a philosophy
b. an ideology
3. For believing in a spiritual or nonphysical world, religion is therefore
opposed to:
a. idealism c. spiritualism
b. materialism
4. Religion regards certain things a s _______________, which are
contrasted with ordinary or secular things.
a. practical c. useful
b. sacred
5. If something has value on its own, its sacredness is said to b e ___
a. derived c. inherent
b. figurative
6 . This is usually understood as referring to the functional and subjective
aspects of religion.
a. spirituality c. faithfulness
b. religiousness
7. This refers to the belief that rejects the reality or existence of God or
gods.
a. atheism c. theism
b. agnosticism d. nontheism
8 . This views God or gods as transcendent in that they exist outside
the natural world.
a. traditional theism c. panentheism
b. pantheism
9. This claims that there is only one God.
a. monotheism c. polytheism
b. dualism
10. This view is accepted by someone who serves and worships a single
God while recognizing that there are other gods that can equally be
served and worshipped.
a. nontheism c. henotheism
b. pantheism
UNIT I 25
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about the meaning What 1want to know about the
of religion meaning of religion
L
What 1have learned about the meaning of religion
(Write at least the five most important ones.)

STUDYING RELIGIONS
Guide Question
How and why should we study religions?
♦ Section 1: Approaches to the Study of Religions

♦ Section 2: The Value of Studying Religions
Key Concepts theology »

B3F sacred
B® comparative religion «*■ Calvinism
I® philosophy of religion «■ animism
b® psychology of religion religious symbols
B® sociology of religion »*■ theoretical value of studying
anthropology of religion religion
B® mystical experience ISF practical value of studying
religion
B® unconscious mind
interpersonal/ethical value
B® collective unconscious
of studying religion
I® 5 archetypes
B® personal/existential value of
US’ alienation
studying religion
B® totems „
artistic value of studying
religion
UNIT I 27

is- Identify and elaborate on the different approaches to the study of
religions.
«*■ Explain the different religious theories that result from certain
approaches to the study of religions,
ns- Elaborate on the theoretical, practical, and artistic values of studying
world religions.
IÂ ctivit^l
Fill in the KWL Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be
done individually or as a class.
CULTIVATING
Knowledge and Skills
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS
What are some of the main approaches to the study of religions?
There are many ways of studying religions. How a believer of a certain

religion (an “insider”) will study his/her own religion, for instance, will differ from
how a nonbeliever of that religion (an “outsider”) will study it. Their motivations
and methods will be different. For our purposes, we shall examine certain
approaches to the study of religions that are based on certain academic
disciplines. Some of these approaches focus on how to understand the
beliefs and practices of particular religions, while some have more general
concerns such as how religion relates to the nature of society, culture, human
evolution, mind, and human behavior.
Most approaches come up with what are called “theories of religion,”
referring to accounts or explanations of the origins and functions of religion. A
theory of religion may be internal or external. An internal theory of religion is a
particular religion’s account of its own origins and functions (e.g., Christianity’s

own account of the origins and functions of the Christian religion); while
an external theory of religion is an account of the origins and functions
of particular religions, or religion in general, using the methods of certain
academic disciplines. As we examine the different disciplinal approaches to
the study of religion, we shall briefly touch on some of the external theories
of religion. Some of these theories may be controversial, or questionable,
for some people; nonetheless, knowing them broadens our understanding
of the meaning and nature of religion.
THEOLOGY
The etym ological meaning of
the word theology— based on its
Greek origin, namely theo, which
means “God,” and logos which means
“discourse” or “study,”— is “study of
God.” Theology, however, is not just
limited to the study of the nature of
God, for it also studies in a systematic way the main doctrines of a particular
religion. In addition to the main scriptures of a particular religion, theology
often involves the study of the works of recognized theologians who are
usually believers of the religion. These theologians, through their works,
systematically explain the main doctrines of their own respective religions.
For instance, Christian theologians explain the doctrines of Christianity, and
their works constitute Christian theology. The term “theology,” though often
used to refer to Christian theology, also applies to the systematic study of
the other monotheistic religions, standardly referring to Judaism and Islam.
Hence, we also have Jewish theology (and Jewish theologians) and Islamic
theology (and Islamic theologians).
For other religions, the systematic study of their doctrines is usually
referred to as “philosophy” instead of “theology.” One obvious reason is that
the term theology implies a belief in one God but other religions may not
subscribe either to the belief in God or gods or to the belief that there is only
one God. Consequently, the systematic study of the doctrines of Buddhism
and Hinduism, for instance, are respectively called Buddhist philosophy
and Hindu philosophy, and not Buddhist theology and Hindu theology. We
also have Confucian, Taoist, and Shinto philosophies; instead of Confucian,
Taoist, and Shinto theologies.
UNIT I 29
Religious Studies and Comparative Religion
If theology focuses on a particular religion, religious studies examine the
different religions of the world. In particular, a student of theology intends
to deepen his/her understanding of a particular religion, while a student of
religious studies intends to understand the different religions of the world.
Furthermore, if theology studies a particular religion always from the inside,
religious studies study different religions mostly from the outside. This means
that a student of theology is a follower of the particular religion he/she is
studying; whereas a student of religious studies is usually not a follower of
the religions he/she is studying. For instance, a student of Christian theology
is a Christian; but a student of religious studies studying Shintoism is usually
not a Shintoist. Still another difference is that while theology limits itself to its
own internal theory of religion (its own account for its origins and functions),
religious studies considers external theories of religion (accounts of the
origins and functions of religion by other academic disciplines). On the
other hand, comparative religion refers to a branch of religious studies that
is concerned with the systematic comparison of the doctrines and practices
of two or more particular religions.
In light of these considerations, our approach in examining the different
world religions in the subsequent chapters mainly falls under religious studies.
Given this, we, however, also use other approaches especially comparative
religion and philosophy of religion—which we will discuss next.
The most influential proponent of comparative religion in the nineteenth
century was Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900). Muller, an authority of
Sanskrit (the classical religious language of India), urged that the study
of religion should not be limited to the religions of the Mediterranean
(Christianity, Judaism, and Islam) and that the great religions of the East
should also be seriously studied. He also introduced a broad program and
methodology of comparing religions, which “included principles like gaining
knowledge of others through their own writings, grouping religions according
to their regional, linguistic contexts, and avoiding the common distortion of
comparing the positive aspects of one religion with the negative aspects
of another” (Paden 2005, 212-213). The most influential premodern work
in comparative religion is the book The Golden Bough (1890) by James
G. Frazer (1854-1941). The book is a vast collection of rituals, myths, and
religions organized by patterns and themes, which made extensive use of
sources from primitive and folk cultures (Paden 2005, 213). And the best-
known scholar of comparative religion of the last generation was Mircea

Eliade (1907-1986), whose studies included the concepts of sacred space
and mythic time, and the sacredness of nature (Paden 2005, 215).
P hilosophy of R eligion
Philosophy of religion deals with philosophical issues found in religion.
These philosophical issues include, among many others, whether we can
adequately prove the existence of God, reconcile the existence of evil
with the existence of a God who is wholly good and all-powerful, reconcile
God’s omniscience (the power to know everything) and foreknowledge
(the power to know future events) with human freedom, explain the nature
of miracles, determine the meaningfulness of religious language (how
religious linguistic expressions acquire their meanings), and many others.
Philosophy of religion tries to settle issues in religion solely by means of the
human power of reasoning. This means, among others, that the philosophy
of religion justifies claims by the strength and coherence of arguments.
Some theologians also engage in philosophy of religion to show that
what is believed by faith can also be demonstrated by reason.
Two famous and highly influential Christian theologians who also engaged
in philosophy of religion were St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. One
contribution of St. Augustine was his theory that evil is the absence of good
(which he adopted from the view of the Greek philosopher Plotinus on the
nature of light and darkness). St. Augustine used this theory to resolve the
philosophical question, “If everything comes from God, where does evil
come from?” According to him, evil exists in the world but it does not come
from God, for what only comes from God is good. The absence of good (the
moral kind) is caused by our disobedience to the will of God.
Aquinas is famous for his five proofs for the existence of God: his arguments
from causation, motion, necessity, design, and degrees of protection. Briefly,
the arguments from causation and motion claim that the series of causes and
effects, and movements in the world, must begin with God being the first cause
and mover; the argument from design claims that the intricate design of the world
cannot be attributed to mere chance but only to God as the divine intelligence;
the argument from necessity claims that there must be a God who is a necessary
being (one who has always been existing) to explain how contingent beings
(those that presently exist but previously did not) have come to exist; and the
argument from degrees of perfection claims that there must be a God whose
perfection serves as the standard for determining the degrees of qualities that
we attribute to things (like that they are good or better).
i
UNIT I 31
Psychology of Religion
Psychology, in general, is defined as the study of “psychological
and biological processes and behavior in humans and other animals”
(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013). Psychology of religion is the application
of the different psychological theories and methods to explain religious
phenomena, which include the belief in God, religious experiences and
behaviors, and spirituality. In brief, it is the study of religious phenomena in
so far as they may be understood psychologically (Merkur 2005,165).
Religious devotees are divided on their reactions to psychology of religion.
On the one hand, some view psychology of religion as a program that reduces
religious phenomena believed to be real to mere psychological phenomena.
On the other hand, some view it as a way of purifying religion from the
idolatry or worship of human-made objects. Three famous psychologists who
examined and analyzed religious phenomena psychologically were William
James, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Jung.
William James (1842-1910) focused on the psychological process that
occurs in a religious conversion, when a nonreligious person becomes
religious (Merkur 2005, 172). Some of the contributions of William James
were his distinction between institutional religion and personal religion, his
analysis of religious experiences as mystical experiences, and his pragmatic
approach to the value of religion—that the truth and value of a religious
belief for an individual depend on the beneficial effects of the belief on the
life of the individual.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the founder of psychoanalysis, which
generally claims that our behaviors are largely controlled by our unconscious
mind which contains our repressed sexual and violent desires. Freud viewed
religion negatively. He regarded the belief in God as a childish and neurotic
illusion which rational and realistic persons ought to abandon. It is an illusion
because it is just a product of the human imagination. It is a childish illusion
for, as Freud remarked, “religion originates in the helplessness and anxiety
of childhood and early manhood” (quoted in Merkur 2005,166). Accordingly,
God is just the projected ultimate father image that helps humans deal with
their feelings of helplessness and guilt. God, in this regard, serves as a
source of security and forgiveness.
Carl Jung (1875-1961) was the founder of analytic psychology, the
name given to Jung’s psychological-therapeutic system which divides
the unconscious mind into the personal and the collective. Related to
Freud’s concept, the personal unconscious mind contains all our personal
experiences that we are not aware of (because we have suppressed them);

while the collective unconscious mind contains universal experiences of
mankind and the archetypes (the basic universal images that recur in various
forms in different cultures) which we have inherited from our ancestors. For
Jung, religious experiences are manifestations of the archetypes in the
collective unconscious in our own consciousness. Since becoming aware
of our unconscious makes us a whole person (a fully realized Self), religion
is thus seen by Jung as something positive (Merkur 2005, 177).
S ociology of R eligion
Sociology “studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes
that preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of the
constituent parts of societies such as institutions, communities, populations,
and gender, racial, or age groups” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013). Sociology
of religion, on the other hand, studies religious beliefs, practices, and
organizations using the theories and methods of the discipline of sociology.
Sociologists are primarily interested in examining the effects of religion on
society. Influential sociological theories of religion came from Karl Marx
(1818-1893), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), and Max Weber (1864-1920).
During his time, Marx observed that the capitalists, in their pursuit of
profits, eventually exploited the workers. The goods that the workers helped
produced by means of their labor (using the materials and machines owned
by the capitalists) were sold in the market at a certain value. But what the
capitalists gave back to the workers as payment for their labor were merely
their subsistence wages that were just enough for the workers to survive.
Aside from being exploited, the workers were also dehumanized or alienated
in the workplace. For the workers to bear their miserable and unfulfilling life,
the capitalists created various belief-systems, foremost of which was religion,
for the working class to see their state as something positive and justified.
In this regard, Marx described religion as “the opium of the masses.”
Durkheim was more interested in the unifying effect of religion among
members of a society. After studying the indigenous Australians, Durkheim
claimed that the totems (sacred objects used as emblems or symbols of a
group of people, family, clan, or tribe) that the aborigines worship represented
their own conceptions of a unified group or society. Durkheim further claimed
that more complex societies had more complex religious systems, but they
were all same in that they had religions as ways of unifying their societies.
One of the significant sociological findings of Max Weber was the
significant contribution of that the Calvinist religious ideas had on the
development of the economic system of capitalism. While for Marx religion
UNIT I 33
is a creation of capitalism, for Weber it is the other way round—capitalism is
largely due to religion, more specifically, the Calvinist religion. Accordingly,
Calvinists believed in predestination, the view that God has already decided
on who will enter heaven or not. But because they wanted to know who would
eventually be saved and enter heaven, they thought that financial success
was one good indicator. The idea is that one who experiences financial
success is blessed and is thus favored by God. This idea led Calvinists to
engage in activities that would increase their wealth, paving the way for the
development of capitalism.
A nthropology of R eligion
The word “anthropology” means science of human beings or humanity.
As an academic discipline, anthropology “studies human beings in aspects
ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of Homo sapiens to the
features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other
animal species.” Anthropology has two major fields: physical anthropology,
which studies the “the origin, evolution, and diversity of people,” and cultural
anthropology, which studies “culture in all of its aspects and uses the methods,
concepts, and data of archaeology, ethnography and ethnology, folklore,
and linguistics in its descriptions and analyses of the diverse peoples of the
world” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013).
Anthropology of religion, on the other hand, “explores the ways religious
practices are embedded in .. . specific forms of sociality, regimes of power,
historical struggles, and modes of production” (Lambek 2008, 5). It studies
religion in relation to other social institutions and compares religious beliefs
and practices across cultures. Most of the major thinkers recognized in this
area are also those recognized in the sociology of religion like Durkheim
and Weber. This suggests that the works of these thinkers cut across the
disciplines of sociology and anthropology. For this reason, let us examine
the ideas of another pioneering anthropologist of religion, namely Edward
Burnett Tylor (1832-1917).
Tylor, in his work Primitive Culture (1871), claimed that the essence
of religion or the minimum defining property of religion, is “the belief in
Spiritual Beings,” which he called animism. Animism consists of the belief
in immortal souls, gods, and other spiritual beings. It is present in varying
forms in the religions of the lower races up to the civilized races of mankind.
In fact, the religions of civilized races evolved from the animism of the lower
races. Tylor cited the association of morality with animism which was little
represented in the lower races but became an integral part of the religions

of the civilized races. The belief in the soul as something separate from the
body though residing in the body resulted from dealing with certain biological
questions such as those concerning the difference between a living body
and a dead one; the causes of waking, sleep, trance, disease, and death;
and the origin of dreams and visions involving human images. From the
belief in human souls grew the belief in other spirits, like those that inhabit
nature and those venerated as gods.
Discussion Question
Which among the theories of religion discussed do you find most

appealing? Why?
IÂctivityl
Choose one from the theories of religion we have discussed. Do further

research on it and write a critical analysis of it. What for you are its strengths
and weaknesses?
THE VALUE OF STUDYING RELIGIONS
What is the value of studying world religions?
In this section, we elaborate on the theoretical, practical, and artistic

value of studying religions. We begin with a brief discussion of Ninian Smart’s
reasons for why it is important to study world religions. Then we proceed
to an elaboration of the theoretical, practical, and artistic value of studying
world religions.
T hree R easons for S tudying W orld R eligions

In his book The World’s Religions (1992,9), Ninian Smart identifies three
reasons why it is important to understand the world’s religions. First, “they
are a vital ingredient in the varied story of humankind’s various experiments
in living.” The idea is that we need to understand religions if we want to
have a better understanding of human civilization, for these religions are a
vital component of how humans have lived their lives throughout the ages.
UNIT I 35
Second, “is the fact that in order to grasp the meanings and values of the
plural cultures of today’s world, we need to know something of the worldviews
which underlie them.” Meaning, the world’s religions contain the worldviews
that underlie the different cultures of the present. Therefore if we want to
understand the meanings and values of these cultures, or the practices
and behaviors of people of different cultures, we need to understand the
religions associated with these cultures. As Smart (1992, 9) remarks, “To
understand the Middle East, you need to know something about Islam, not
to mention Christianity and Judaism; and to understand Japan, you need
some insight into Buddhism, Shinto, and the Confucian heritage.” And third,
“we may as individuals be trying to form our own coherent and emotionally
satisfying picture of reality, and it is always relevant to see the great ideas
and practices of various important cultures and civilizations.” Meaning, the
different religions of the world provide different models of spirituality from
which we can learn or which we can eventually follow as we desire to improve
our own spiritual lives.
T he T heoretical, P ractical , and A rtistic V alues

We can gather from the points of Smart that understanding the religions of
the world has both theoretical and practical benefits. Theoretically, it provides
us with a better picture of human civilization as religions are an integral
component of the development of human civilization. This, among other
things, enables us to understand current world events better. Furthermore,
understanding religions helps us deal with fundamental questions about life
such as those concerning our place in the universe, where we come from,
the purpose of our existence, and how the world will end. We need to address
these questions to appease our mind, and religions provide us answers to
these questions. Practically then, understanding religions has two levels—we
can call the first the interpersonal level of practicality, and the second the
personal level of practicality.
On the interpersonal level, studying religions enables us to better deal
or interact with people of different cultures. We get along with others better
when we understand the bases of their worldviews and the attitudes that go
with them. In studying the world’s religions, we gain insights into the religious
and family traditions and the everyday lives of people of different cultures,
which will enable us to better interact with them.This is especially important
in light of the fact that we are now living in a globalized and multi-cultural
world, wherein people of different nationalities can freely move from one
country to another and interaction between people of different countries

is easier (brought about in large part by the convenience of travelling and
by the Internet). Thus if we are Christians and we are to deal or interact
with Buddhists and Muslims, it would be good to know something about
Buddhism and Islam. For instance, if we are hosting them in a gathering,
we need to consider the kind of food that we will offer to them. We may also
need to provide them a place where they can say their prayers at certain
times during the day.
Still connected to the interpersonal level, studying the world’s religions
also helps cultivate the attitude of tolerance and the appreciation of human
differences among people. We can observe that at their most essential level,
all religions promote world peace or universal harmony among humans; but
why is it that religious differences are said to be a major cause of certain
conflicts and wars? In addition to the fact that these conflicts and wars are
usually due to the mixture of politics with religion, or the use of religion for
political reasons (for the acquisition of earthly power and dominance), they
are perhaps also due to a misunderstanding of the peculiarities or uniqueness
of each religion. The case is similar to the fact that it is only when we have
a deeper understanding of a certain person that we become more tolerant
and appreciative of how he/she differs from us.
Second, on the personal level, studying the world’s religions will enable
us to personally understand better the kind of spirituality that we would want
to pursue. Such a study will help us in our own spiritual quest. This holds
true even to those who are not inclined to involve themselves in traditional
religions but have a strong interest in spirituality, for knowing the stories of
other persons’ spiritual journey may provide them with valuable insights for
their own spiritual journey.
In addition to these points identified by Smart regarding the value of
studying world religions, we can add a point identified by Michael Molloy in his
book Experiencing the World’s Religions: Tradition, Challenge, and Change
(2010, 28). Molloy said that studying world religions will help us cultivate a
better appreciation for the arts. Different religious traditions provide us with
some of the most beautiful works of art in the fields of painting, sculpture,
music, dance, poetry, and architecture. Studying these religions will thus
pave the way for discovering and appreciating these magnificent works of art.
Discussion Question
Aside from your own religion, what other religion or religions are you
most interested in studying? Why?
UNIT I 37
I. Write a reflection paper on the value of religion on your personal life. In
what way has your religion helped you become a better person?
II. Concept Mapping. Put the following in their proper places in the concept
map. ■
Anthropology Practical Theology Artistic Theoretical
Philosophy James Frazer Karl Marx Psychology Sigmund Freud
Studying Religions

eview Questions
Encircle the letter of your answer.

1. Based on its etymology, this word means “the study of God.”
a. Theology c. Comparative Religion
b. Religious Studies
2. This studies different religions of the world usually “from the outside.”
a. Comparative Religion c. Religious Studies
b. Theology
3. This is a branch of religious studies that systematically compares
the doctrines and practices of the different world religions.
a. Theology c. Comparative Religion
b. Religious Studies
4. This deals with issues like whether the existence of God can
be adequately proven and whether the existence of evil can be
adequately demonstrated to be compatible with the goodness and
power of God.
a. psychology of religion c. philosophy of religion
b. sociology of religion
5. This person is the most influential proponent of comparative religion
in the nineteenth century.
a. Friedrich Max Muller c. Mircea Eliade
b. James G. Frazer
6. The following is a Christian theologian and philosopher famous for
his five proofs for the existence of God:
a. St. Augustine c. St. Anselm
b. St. Thomas Aquinas
7. He is the founder of psychoanalysis who saw religion as a childish
illusion that serves as a mechanism for people to deal with their
helplessness and anxiety.
a. William James c. Carl Jung
b. Sigmund Freud
8. He saw religion, particularly the Protestant Church of Calvinism, as
the one that created capitalism.
a. Karl Marx c. Max Weber
b. Emile Durkheim
9. He saw the essence of religion, or the minimum defining property of
religion, as “the belief in Spiritual Beings,” which he called animism.
a. Karl Marx c. Edward Burnett Tylor
b. Emile Durkheim
10. He was the founder of analytic psychology who saw religion as a
way of making persons whole.
a. Sigmund Freud c. William James
b. Carl Jung
KWL Chart
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about the methods and What 1want to know about the methods
value of studying religions and value of studying religions
L
What 1have learned about the methods and value of studying religions

J udaism ,, Ch r is tia n ity and, Islam .
What are the main features of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam in

terms of their origins, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations,
and challenges?
EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G OUTCOME
The chapter aims to examine the basic elements of the three

Abrahamic religions, namely Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Specifically, the chapter looks into the origins, sacred texts, doctrines,
practices, denominations, and challenges of these religions. At the
end of the chapter, you must write and submit a paper that does a
comparative analysis of these three religions on certain themes which
are to be specified by the teacher. Such themes may include the
religions’ founders, sacred texts, notions of the absolute, views on the
essential human condition, morality, and liberation (or way to achieve
ultimate happiness), practices (which include rituals and celebrations),
denominations, and challenges (which include issues concerning
gender, relation with the state, modernization and technology, and the
expanding understanding of human rights). The following is a sample
template for this activity—the teacher is free to make changes as he/she
sees fit or appropriate.
Religion Judaism Christianity Islam

Founder(s)
Sacred Texts
The Absolute
The Human
Condition
UNIT I 41
Morality
Liberation and
Ultimate Happiness
Practices
Denominations
Challenges
Learning Competency
r
Lesson 3. Judaism «s- Trace the origins of Judaism and identify its
sacred texts.
Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Judaism.
"3s Distinguish the different denominations of
Judaism and discuss some of its challenges.
Lesson 4. Christianity ■s- Trace the origins of Christianity and identify its
sacred texts.
is- Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Christianity.
•a- Distinguish the different denominations
of Christianity and discuss some of its
challenges.
Lesson 5. Islam •s- Trace the origins of Islam and identify its
sacred texts.
«3= Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Islam.
«*• Distinguish the different denominations of
Islam and discuss some of its challenges.

EX PLORING IN IT IA L IDEAS A N D V IEW S
1. List concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you associate

with Judaism.

with Christianity.3

with Islam.
UNIT 43
JUDAISM
Guide Question
What are the basic features of Judaism?
TOPICS
♦ Section 1: Origins and Sacred Texts

♦ Section 2: Doctrines and Practices
♦ Section 3: Denominations and Challenges
B33 Judaism C33 Pentateuch

Key Concepts Moses Maimonides/
Jews
1SF Abraham Rambam
B33 Moses US’ Thirteen Principles of Faith
B33 Sarah B33 YHVH/Yahweh
B33 Hagar B33 Adonai
B33 Isaac B33 Olam Ha-Ba
K33 Ishmael C33 Messiah
d r' Jacob K33 Minyan
KT Esau I® 3 Sabbath
B33 Rebekah B33 Pesah (Passover), Shavu’ot
Leah and Rachel (Pentecost), Sukkot
B33 Joseph (Booths)
B33 Twelve Tribes of Israel I® 3 Ro’sh ha-Shanah, Ten Days
1®* Tanakh of Repentance, Yom Kippur
B33 Talmud and Midrash K33 Ancient denominations:
I® 5 Mishnah and Gemara Pharisees, Sadducees,
B33 Torah, Nevi’im, and Essenes, Zealots
Kethuvim B33 Medieval denominations:
B33 613 Mitzvot Karaites, Rabbinical
I® ’ Ten Commandments Judaism, Hasidism,
Mitnagdism

ps- Modern denominations: Orthodox, Reform, Conservative,
Chasidic, Reconstructionist, Messianic Judaism
w Holocaust, Anti-Semitism
Diaspora, Zionism
■a- Arab-lsraeli Conflict

ps- Narrate central events in the lives of Abraham and Moses as founders
of Judaism.
ps- Identify and distinguish between the different sacred texts of Judaism:
the primary ones (the Tanakh, consisting of the Torah, Nevi’im, and
Kethuvim) and the supplementary ones (the Talmud, consisting of the
Mishnah and Gemara).
»*■ Identify and explain the basic doctrines and practices of Judaism:
monotheism, the commandments, the thirteen principles of faith, rituals
and festivals, and others.
ps- Distinguish the various denominations of Judaism: the Ancient/Hellenistic
denominations (Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots), Medieval
denominations (Kariate Judaism, Rabbanical Judaism, Hasidism,
and Mitnagdism), and the modern denominations (Orthodox, Reform,
Conservative, Chasidic, and Reconstructionist Judaism).
ps- Discuss some of the challenges faced today by Judaism.
IÂ ctivit^l
CULTIVATING
ORIGINS AND SACRED TEXTS

Guioe Questions
How did Judaism originate? What are its sacred texts?
UNIT I 45
In this section, we shall examine the origins and sacred texts of Judaism.
We shall begin with a short historical account of the terms “Judaism” and
“Jews.” This is intended to clarify how we shall use these terms in our
discussion. After which, we shall trace the history of Judaism and briefly
discuss the central events in the lives of Abraham and Moses. Lastly, we shall
examine the different sacred texts of Judaism, the primary and secondary
ones, and the various books that constitute the Hebrew Bible.
JUDAISM AND THE JEWS

The followers of Judaism (literally, Judah-ism) are
called Jews. Based on a recent estimate by Deming
(2015, 270-71), there are about 14 million Jews in the
world. The majority of the Jews reside in Israel and
the United States, each having about 6.2 million Jews.
Next to these two countries is France, which has about
600,000 Jews (many of whom were migrants from Algeria,
Morocco, and Tunisia). Canada has around 420,000 Jews and the United
Kingdom has around 360,000. The rest of the Jews are scattered in other
areas of the world. On another account, Matthews (2010, 237) estimates
the population of Jews in the following areas: Worldwide: 15,118,000; North
America: 6,169,000; Africa: 238,000; Asia: 5,350,00; Europe: 2,017,000;
Latin America: 1,137,000.
The terms “Judaism” and “Jew” were derived from the word Judah, which
was the name of the fourth of the 12 sons of Jacob. Each of the 12 sons of
Jacob became the ancestor of a certain tribe. The tribe of Judah, therefore,
was one of the 12 tribes of Israel (for Jacob was also called Israel). Originally,
the term “Jews” (“Yehudi,” in Hebrew) thus referred to the members of
the tribe of Judah. But later on, the tribe of Judah, along with some other
tribes (those of Benjamin and Levi, brothers of Judah), became part of the
Kingdom of Judah when the Kingdom of Israel was split into the Northern
Kingdom, which became the Kingdom of Israel, and the Southern Kingdom,
which became the Kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Israel was later on
conquered by Assyria (in 721 BCE) and the 10 tribes constituting it were
exiled from the land. They dispersed and were consequently assimilated
by other peoples. The Kingdom of Judah, whose tribes traced their lineage
to Israel, was left (though after a century and a half this kingdom was
conquered by the Babylonians). In any case, from then on, the term “Jews”
was used to refer to the members of the Kingdom of Judah, and no longer
just to the specific tribe of Judah.

While the followers of Judaism are called Jews, it must be noted, however,
that in the present usage of the term, “Jews” does not necessarily refer to
followers or converts of Judaism. There are Jews nowadays who belong to
another religion (say Christian Jews) or who do not belong to any religion at
all (some are even atheists). This is because one becomes a Jew either by
ancestry or by religious affiliation or conversion. In terms of ancestry, one
is automatically a Jew if both one’s parents are Jews. In the case of mixed
marriages, there are traditional and liberal views.Traditionally, one becomes
a Jew if one’s mother is a Jew regardless of whether one’s father is a Jew
or not. Liberally, one can also be a Jew if one’s father is a Jew even if one’s
mother is not, so long as one chooses to be a Jew. In terms of ancestry, one
becomes a Jew regardless of whether one follows the teachings of Judaism
or not. On the other hand, in terms of religious affiliation or conversion, one
is a Jew if one professes to the faith of Judaism or if one is converted to
Judaism through a formal process. Thus it can happen that one becomes
a Jew even if one has no Jewish ancestry (see De Lange 2000,1-25; Rich
2012 for a more thorough discussion of this topic). In our discussion, we
shall, however, limit our use of the term “Jews” to mean followers or converts
of Judaism.
Jews are also called Hebrews and Israelites. They are called Hebrews
because they are descendants of Abraham (the grandfather of Jacob) who
was called a Hebrew. They are also called Israelites because they are
descendants of Jacob, who was also called Israel (see below how he got
this name). In this light, the term “Israelites” means “Children of Israel,” but
Jews also take this term to mean “God’s chosen people.” Non-Jews, on the
other hand, are called Gentiles in the Hebrew Bible.
ABRAHAM AND HIS DESCENDANTS

Two persons are considered founders of Judaism, Abraham (2000
BCE) and Moses (1391-1271 BCE). It was with Abraham that God made
a covenant or contract that would define the relationship of the Jews with
God. Basically, the covenant was that God would bless and protect the lives
of those who would obey Him. And it was through Moses that God made his
commandments known to the people, the specific rules that God wanted
his people to obey for their part of the covenant. These rules make up a
significant part of the Torah, the sacred text of Judaism. In what follows, let
us go over the highlights of the lives of Abraham and Moses in relation to
their significant roles in the development of Judaism.
UNIT I 47
Abraham was the first patriarch (which originally means “father-source”)
among the three patriarchs of the Jewish people. The second was Abraham’s
son, Isaac, and the third was Isaac’s son, Jacob. Abraham was first called
Abram but he was later on called Abraham by God after God made his
covenant with him and his descendants. His wife was first called Sarai but
was later on called Sarah by God also after this covenant. Abraham lived
in Ur of the Chaldeans (in present-day Iraq). His family included Terah (his
father), Sarah (his wife), Nahor (his brother), Milcah (Nahor’s wife), and Lot
(his nephew, the son of Haran, his deceased brother).
God’s covenant was revealed to Abraham in several occasions. The first
encounter of Abraham with God was when God spoke with him in Harran
(where he was settled at the time along with his family), asking him to leave
Harran and go to Canaan to be the father
of a nation. God said to him (Gen.12:
2), “Go from your country, your people,
and your father’s household to the land
I will show you. I will make you into a
great nation, and I will bless you; I will
make your name great, and you will be
a blessing. I will bless those who bless
you, and whoever curses you I will curse;
and all the people on earth will be blessed through you.” Abraham followed
without any question and he brought with him his wife Sarah, his nephew
Lot, and all his possessions. In return for his obedience, God would make
him the father of a great nation and God would bless and protect him and
his descendants.
There was, however, one big problem. How would Abraham be the
father of a great nation when he was childless? Sarah could not conceive
a child. Abraham told God that if that were the case, his only heir would
be his servant. But God assured him that he would later on have his own
son who would be his heir, and that his descendants would be as many as
the stars in the sky. Meanwhile, Sarah urged Abraham to have a child with
her Egyptian slave or maidservant named Hagar. Hagar got pregnant with
Abraham and gave birth to a boy whom they named Ishmael. Ishmael would
later on grow to become the patriarch of the Arab nations.
God expressed his covenant again with Abraham, but this time he made
it clear that this covenant would be everlasting between him and Abraham,
along with Abraham’s descendants. As a sign of obedience for this covenant,
God required every male in the family of Abraham and his descendants in
the generations to come to be circumcised (Gen. 17:1-16). It was after this

event that God changed the name of Abraham (from Abram to Abraham),
and Sarah (from Sarai to Sarah). In obedience to God, Abraham, Ishmael,
and all the males in Abraham’s household were circumcised. But later on,
Abraham and Sarah, though already very old, conceived their own child,
whom they named Isaac. Being the son promised by God to Abraham and
Sarah, Isaac became the heir of Abraham in his covenant with God. But,
God also blessed Ishmael, Isaac’s brother, and also made him a father of a
great nation (the Arab nations).
God tested Abraham’s obedience, presumably to see whether he was
worthy of the covenant, by asking him to sacrifice Isaac. Abraham obeyed but
when he was about to slay Isaac with the sacrificial knife, an angel appeared
and asked Abraham to stop. Then Abraham saw a ram whose horns were
caught in a thicket. He took the ram and offered it to God as a sacrifice instead
of his son. Then God, upon proving the faithfulness of Abraham, reiterated
his promise that Abraham would be the father of a great nation and that his
descendants would be blessed and protected by him (Gen. 22:1-18).
Isaac married Rebekah and they had twins, Esau and Jacob. Esau was
older than Jacob and was the favorite of Isaac, while Jacob was the favorite
of Rebekah. Esau, being the eldest, was the rightful heir of Isaac, but due to
the connivance of Rebekah and Jacob, Jacob was able to get the blessings
of Isaac to be his heir. But though Jacob acquired the blessings of Isaac in
this way, he had a dream in which God approved of him being the heir of
Isaac. In Gen. 28:12-15, this dream is told this way:
He had a dream in which he saw a stairway resting on the earth,
with its top reaching to heaven, and the angels of God were ascending
and descending on it. There above it stood the Lord, and he said: “I am
the Lord, the God of your father Abraham and the God of Isaac. I will
give you and your descendants the land on which you are lying. Your
descendants will be like the dust of the earth, and you will spread out
to the west and to the east, to the north and to the south. All people on
earth will be blessed through you and your offspring. I am with you and
will watch over you wherever you go, and I will bring you back to the land.
I will not leave you until I have done what I have promised you.”
And so Jacob became the third patriarch to whom the covenant was
passed on. Jacob had two wives, Leah and Rachel. With his two wives and
with the maidservant of each of his two wives, Jacob had a total of twelve
sons (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebelun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher,
Naphtali, Joseph, and Benjamin) and one daughter named Dinah. Each of
his sons would later be the patriarch of a tribe, and their tribes would later be
UNIT I 49
known as the twelve tribes of Israel. The name “Israel” here refers to Jacob
for he was given that name, which means “he who struggles with God,” after
wrestling with a man till daybreak and overcoming him (see Gen. 32:22-29).
The man did not give his own name when Jacob asked for it, but the man
is traditionally considered to be either an angel or God himself. The man
said to Jacob: “Your name will no longer be Jacob, but Israel, because you
have struggled with God and with humans and have overcome.” And the
man blessed Jacob.
So God entered into a covenant with Abraham, and through his son
Isaac and grandson Jacob, the covenant extended to all their descendants.
God promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation,
giving them land and prosperity. In return, Abraham pledged that he and
his descendants would be loyal to God, following all of his commandments.
During the time of Abraham and his sons and grandsons, God made His
desires known to them by directly communicating with them and appearing
in their dreams. It was during the time of Moses that God gave the Jews
his commandments, which would constitute the Jews’ specific part of the
covenant.
MOSES
Moses was born during the time when the
Israelites were living in Egypt as slaves. How
did the Israelites become slaves in Egypt? It all
started when Joseph, one of Jacob’s twelve sons,
was sold as a slave by his own brothers because
they envied Joseph for being the favorite of Jacob.
Joseph was taken to Egypt by his masters. But
Joseph, because of his talent for interpreting
dreams, intelligence, and character, was well-liked
by the pharaoh and became a powerful leader in Egypt. Joseph was later on
reunited with his brothers when they, upon the advice of Jacob, travelled to
Egypt to buy grains because of food shortage in Canaan. Upon the request
of Joseph, all of his family to his brothers along with their families and his
father Jacob—settled in Egypt. Their numbers grew and they lived a good
life. But when Joseph died, things turned bad for the Israelites because they
were forced to become slaves in the Egyptian empire. When the Israelites
called on God for help, God chose Moses to lead them out of Egypt and
return them to the promised land of Canaan.
Moses was himself an Israelite but he spent the first half of his life as an
Egyptian prince. The growing population of the Israelites became a threat to

the Egyptian empire, so one day the pharaoh ordered that all male Israelite
newborns be killed. To save the life of Moses, his mother and elder sister
put the baby Moses in a basket and placed the basket in the Nile River. It
happened that the pharaoh’s daughter was about to bathe in the river. Upon
seeing baby Moses, the Pharaoh’s daughter decided to adopt Moses and
treat him as one of her own. So Moses grew up living a life of an Egyptian
prince while his fellow Israelites were suffering. One day, Moses killed an
Egyptian foreman while protecting an Israelite slave from the harsh treatment
of the foreman. The pharaoh ordered Moses to be killed, but Moses was able
to escape. He lived in Midian, a place outside Egypt. Moses got married and
lived a quiet and simple life as a herdsman. One day, through a burning bush,
God called Moses and asked him to return to Egypt to lead the Israelites
out of Egypt.
Despite a series of peaceful negotiations with Moses, and along with
the plagues that God sent to Egypt to demonstrate His power, the pharaoh
would not allow Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt until the tenth
plague, in which the angel of death killed all firstborn sons of Egyptians but
spared the firstborn sons of Israelites. This event, called the Passover, is
an important event in the history of the Jews and is still being recalled as
a Jewish holiday. On their way out of Egypt, the Israelites were chased by
the pharaoh’s army. God helped them cross the Red Sea on dry land by
making the waters subside, but the waters returned in time to drown the
pharaoh’s pursuing army. The Israelites were guided by a pillar of cloud by
the day and a pillar of fire by night as they crossed the Red Sea or the Sinai
Peninsula. God provided them manna and quail for food as well as water on
a daily basis during this episode.
The highlight of this experience for the Israelites was the receiving
of God’s commandments, given to Moses by God on top of Mount Sinai.
This essentially was a renewal of God’s covenant with them, being the
descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. If they would obey, serve, and be
faithful to God, he would make them a great nation in a land God promised
to them, bless their lives, and protect them from harm. They, however, had to
fulfill their part of the contract. They needed to fulfil their obligations, which
now God had stated clearly for them.
The Israelites first wandered for 40 years before being able to enter
Canaan. After Moses died, Joshua led the new generation to enter Canaan.
After the entry into Canaan, three major periods of Hebrew history followed:
(1) the age of the judges (the judges were appointed by God to lead the
people in particular situations); (2) the age of the kings (the first of the kings
was Saul, followed by David, and then by Solomon); and (3) the age of the
UNIT I 51
prophets (the prophets included Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, among others,
who were messengers or spokespersons of God).
THE HEBREW BIBLE AND OTHER SACRED WRITINGS
T he T anakh
The sacred writings of the Jews are divided into the primary (or
foundational) and the supplementary ones. The primary ones are those found
in the Hebrew Bible (or Hebrew Scriptures), known in Hebrew as the Tanakh
(orTanak).The supplementary ones are called the Talmud (which contains
the Mishnah and Gemara) and Midrash. The Hebrew Bible is a collection of
particular books which were once separate scrolls. The word Bible, in fact,
was derived from the Greek word biblia, which means books. Thus a bible,
strictly speaking, means a collection of books. The particular books of the
Hebrew Bible are classified into three groups: (1) theTorah (TheTeachings),
(2) Nevi’im (The Prophets), and (3) Kethuvim or Ketuvim (The Writings).The
name Tanakh is actually an acronym for these three particular books. The
vowel “a” was added to the first Hebrew letter of each of the names of these
particular books, namely T-N-K. (See Molloy 2010, 292-94 and Matthews
2010, 238-39 for a discussion of the Hebrew Bible.)
T he T orah
The word Torah means “teachings and instructions.” The Torah is the set
of laws that God gave to Moses on Mount Sinai. This set of laws is believed
to have been given to Moses in two forms: the written form, known as the
Written Torah, and the oral form, known as the Oral Torah. The Written Torah
consists of 613 rules (m itzvot in Hebrew), which include the ten
commandments written on two stone tablets. The Oral Torah (which Moses
transmitted to Aaron, his brother, who in turn transmitted to his sons and
others), which supplements the Written Torah, was originally intended
toremain as an “oral tradition” and to be passed on from parent to child
throughout the generations. It was only later (fourth century BCE, after the
destruction of the second temple of Jerusalem) that the Oral Torah was
written to ensure its preservation during the times of war. What the Tanakh
contains is the Written Torah; the Oral Torah is what is contained in the
Talmud, which consists of the books of Mishnah and Gemara (previously
these books were separate until they were combined to form the Talmud).

The Written Torah is considered the most important part of the Tanakh
because it contains God’s covenant with the Jews and God’s instructions to
them in fulfilling their part of the covenant. The Torah in the Tanakh contains
five books, namely Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deutoronomy.
These five books are also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Books of
Moses, for they are widely believed to be written by Moses (some
contemporary scholars, though, question thinking).
T he N evi ’ im
The Nevi’im consists of materials from what are called former prophets
(or major prophets) and latter prophets (or minor prophets). There are in total
22 books comprising the Nevi’im. Each book is named after its respective
prophet.
T he K ethuvim
The Kethuvim consists of materials that are generally based on human
knowledge and experiences, some of which reflect Greek, Persian, and
Egyptian influences that greatly influenced the Israelites.
T he P articular B ooks
The following are the books under the three particular books of the
Tanakh.
Torah Nevi’im Kethuvim

(The Teachings) (The Prophets) (The Writings)
Genesis, (Former Prophets) Psalms, Proverbs, Job,

Exodus, Joshua, Judges, First and Second and the Festal Scrolls:
Leviticus, Samuel, and First and Second Song of Songs, Ruth,
Numbers, and Kings Lamentations,
Deuteronomy Ecclesiastes, and
(Latter Prophets) Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Esther, Daniel, Ezra,
Ezekiel, and The Twelve (treated
Nehemiah, and
as one book) consisting of Hosea,
Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, First and Second
Chronicles
Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah,
Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi
UNIT I 53
The Tanakh generally corresponds to the Old Testament of the Christian
Bible with some minor differences in the order of the books. The name “Old
Testament,” however, is not acceptable to some Jewish scholars because of
its connotation that it is meaningful only in relation to the “New Testament.”
T he T almud
As noted above, the Talmud is a set of books consisting of the Mishnah
and Gemara, which are commentative and interpretative writings. The
Mishnah is a collection of writings that were originally oral instructions
intended to supplement the laws of the Written Torah. The Mishnah thus
refers to the Oral Torah. The Gemara, on the other hand, is a collection
of legal and ethical commentaries on the Mishnah. The Talmud has two
versions, the Babylonian Talmud and the Palestinian Talmud, produced by
the rabbis (Jewish teachers) from Babylonia and Palestine, respectively.
The Babylonian Talmud is considered the more authoritative version and
thus is what is standardly referred to when one speaks of the Talmud. The
Palestinian Talmud is considered incomplete and not clearly written.
T he Midrash
The Midrash examines the nonliteral meanings of the Tanakh. Midrash
writings are ordered around the layout of the Tanakh. They are mostly stories
that relate to words, themes, or stories in the Tanakh, which aim to make
these words, themes, or stories more understandable and applicable to a
person’s life. Sometimes a midrash changes the general understanding of
a biblical story. For example, many people familiar with the story of Adam
and Eve in the Garden of Eden will say that Eve ate an apple. The idea of
the apple came from a midrash, for in the biblical story the name of the fruit
is not mentioned.
lA ctivit^l
Watch a movie about the life of either Moses or Joseph (this can be
arranged as a class activity). After watching the movie, write a short reflection
paper about the movie.
DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES
Guide Question
What are the basic doctrines and practices of Judaism?

The Basic Doctrines
The 613 Mitzvot
The basic doctrines and practices of Judaism are mainly defined by the
Torah, which contains the commandments Moses received from God on
Mount Sinai. The most familiar among these commandments are the so-called
Ten Commandments, which are expressed in Exodus 20:1-17 as follows:
“I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the
land of slavery. You shall have no other gods before me.”
“You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in
heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not
bow down to them or worship them; for I, the Lord your God, am a jealous
God, punishing the children for the sin of the parents to the third and
fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing love to a thousand
generations of those who love me and keep my commandments.”
“You shall not misuse the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord
will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name.”
“Remember the Sabbath day by keeping it holy. Six days you shall
labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is a sabbath to the Lord
your God. On it you shall not do any work, neither you, nor your son
or daughter, nor your male or female servant, nor your animals, nor
any foreigner residing in your towns. For in six days the Lord made the
heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but he rested
on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and
made it holy.”
“Honor your father and your mother, so that you may live long in the
land the Lord your God is giving you.”
“You shall not murder.”
“You shall not commit adultery.”
“You shall not steal.”
“You shall not give false testimony against your neighbor.”
“You shall not covet your neighbor’s house. You shall not covet your
neighbor’s wife, or his male or female servant, his ox or donkey, or
anything that belongs to your neighbor.”
One simplification of the Ten Commandments is as follows (see Altman

1985, 21; quoted in Urubshurow 2009, 102):
1. lam the L-rd your G-d. There is only one G-d, The L-rd.
2. You will have no other gods, neither in belief nor through an act of
worship.
UNIT I 55
3. You shall not pronounce the Holy Name of G-d needlessly.
4. Remember the Sabbath day to sanctify it, by ceasing productive
labor and dedicating it to spiritual rest.
5. Honor your father and mother.
6. Do not murder.
7. Do not commit any act of adultery.
8. Do not steal.
9. Do not testify as a false witness against your neighbor.
10. Do not covet your neighbor’s possessions.
(Note: the vowel “o” in the words referring to God and the Lord was
intentionally omitted so as to be faithful to the original Hebrew word referring
to Yahweh, namely “YHVH,” which does not contain any vowel. See discussion
below.)
The Jews, however, believe that the rules or commandments, or mitzvot
in Hebrew, that God revealed to Moses are much more than these 10 rules.
Traditionally, they believe that these commandments, all found in the Torah,
amount to 613. Accordingly, what the Jews refer to when they speak of the
“Mosaic Law” or the “Law of Moses” are not just the Ten Commandments
but the entire 613 mitzvot. The 613 mitzvot were identified and itemized by
the Jewish philosopher and rabbi and Torah scholar Moses Maimonides
(1135-1204). Maimonides’s full name was Moses ben Maimon, but he is
known in the Hebrew world as Rambam, an acronym of his title as “Rabbi
Moses ben Maimon.” Maimonides is considered to be the first person to write
a systematic code of all Jewish law which he laid down in his book Mishneh
Torah (Deming 2015, 289-90). He itemized the mitzvot as consisting of 248
positive rules and 365 negative rules (Rich 2012).
While the Ten Commandments (Aseret ha-Dibrot in Hebrew) are also
part of the 613 mitzvot, Jewish scholars refer to the 10 Commandments
as the 10 category commandments, meaning, the ten general (or generic)
rules under which the particular rules in the 613 mitzvot can be classified.
They further note that the first five of these 10 commandments, written on
the first tablet, all concern love of God (the fifth, love of mother and father is
considered under love of God for a person’s mother and father are regarded
as God’s co-creators of the person); whereas the next five, written on the
second tablet, all concern love of neighbor. In any case, based on the list
identified by Maimonides, the 613 mitzvot concern the following themes:
(1) God, (2) Torah, (3) signs and symbols, (4) prayer and blessings, (5) love
and brotherhood, (6) the poor and unfortunate, (7) treatment of Gentiles,

(8) marriage, divorce, and family, (9) forbidden sexual relations, (10) times
and seasons, (11) dietary laws, (12) business practices, (13) employees,
(14) servants and slaves, (15) vows, (16) oaths and swearing, (17) the
Sabbatical and Jubilee years, (18) the court and judicial procedure, (19)
injuries and damages, (20) property and property rights, (21) criminal laws,
(22) punishment and restitution, (23) prophecy, (24) idolatry, idolaters, and
idolatrous practices, (25) agriculture and animal husbandry, (26) clothing,
(27) The Firstborn, (28) Kohanim and Levites, (29) T’rumah, Tithes, and
taxes, (30) the temple, the sanctuary, and sacred objects, (31) sacrifices
and oferings, (32) ritual purity and impurity, (33) lepers and leprosy, (34) the
king, (35) Nazarites, and (36) wars.
T he T hirteen P rinciples of Faith

In addition to itemizing the 613 mitzvot, another extremely important
contribution of Maimonides to Judaism was his formulation of the Thirteen
Principles of Faith in his book The Guide to the Perplexed, which have become
the credo of Judaism (De Lang 2000, 63-65). They contain the core beliefs
of Judaism, which include monotheism (the belief in one God), the Mosaic
Law, God’s rewards and punishments for human deeds, the coming of the
Messiah, and the resurrection of the dead (see Urubshurow 2009, 113).
The following is one translation of these principles from the original Hebrew:
1. God exists.
2. God is one and there is nothing else like him.
3. God is spiritual in nature; he does not have corporeal aspects (physical
form).
4. God is an everlasting God, without beginning or end.
5. God alone is the appropriate object of worship and prayer.
6. The Hebrew prophets spoke the truth from God.
7. Moses was the greatest of God’s prophets.
8. God gave Moses both the Written and Oral Torah.
9. There is and will be no other Torah other than the one revealed to
Moses.
10. God is aware of every thought and action of human beings.
11. The righteous will receive a reward from God; he will punish the
wicked.
12. The promised Messiah will come at the proper time.
13. All human beings who have ever lived will be raised from the dead.
UNIT I 57
The following is another translation (Urubshurow 2009, 113-114):
1. The Creator is the Author and Guide of everything that exists.
2. The Creator is a Unity.
3. The Creator is not corporeal.
4. The Creator is first and last.
5. It is right to pray to the Creator, but to no other being.
6. All the words of the prophets are true.
7. The prophecy of Moses is true and he was the father (criterion) for
all prophecy.
8. The Torah now in our possession is the one given to Moses.
9. The Torah will not be changed, nor will the Creator give any other
Torah.
10. The Creator knows the deeds and thoughts of people.
11. He rewards those who keep his commandments and punishes those
who disobey.
12. Though the Messiah delays, one must constantly expect his coming.
13. The dead will be resurrected.
Monotheism
Thus the Jews believe that there is only one God, the creator of the world
and the author of the divine laws, both written and oral, which were given to
Moses. God is pure spirit and has no beginning and end. He is wholly good
and all-powerful. As there is only one God, then all praises, prayers, and
worship should be directed to him alone. God is also just, for he rewards
those who do good (those who follow his divine laws) and punish those
who do evil (those who do not follow his divine laws). The Jews refer to God
as Yahweh or YHVH. Hebrew was traditionally not written with vowels, so
the name of the Lord that is translated as “Yahweh,” which was revealed to
Moses, was originally written as “YHVH.” When Moses asked the Lord his
name so he would know what to tell the Israelites if they asked who sent
him to deliver them from slavery in Egypt, the Lord replied, “Ehyeh asher
Ehyet3' (translated as “I am who I am.”). “YHVH” and the phrase “Ehyeh
asher Ehyef’ are related in terms of their grammatical roots. It is, however,
customary for Jews never to speak the name YHVH aloud. Instead, they
use the word Adonai (meaning “Lord”) as a substitute when reading
the Hebrew scriptures. It is only the high priest of the temple of Jerusalem
who is allowed to say “YHVH” and only during the celebration of the holy
Day of Atonement.

The Afterlife
The Jewish belief in an afterlife is called Olam Ha-Ba, translated as “The
World to Come.” The expression Olam Ha-Ba, incidentally, is also used to
refer to the messianic age, the period in which the Messiah that the Jews
are waiting for will come. The world to come thus means both the kind of
world that one will live in after one’s bodily death and the kind of world that
will be established by the Messiah when he finally comes.
While believing in an afterlife, the Jews have no precise doctrines
indicating the specific nature of the afterlife. Consequently there are Jews
who believe in reincarnation, while there are some who believe in something
similar to the Christian heaven and hell (the difference, however, is that the
Jews believe that punishment in hell is only temporary—there is a specified
time for the punishment after which the soul is either completely destroyed
or goes to a state of remorse). The lack of precise doctrines in this mater
is a result of the Jewish emphasis and focus on how to live life in the
here and now according to the laws of God, and not on how to get into
heaven.
T he Messianic A ge
Regarding the Messianic Age, the Jews believe in the coming of the
Messiah and the resurrection of the righteous dead (dead Jews who lived a
righteous life).The Messiah, from the Hebrew word mashiach which literally
means “the anointed one,” is conceived by some Jews as a human being,
not a god or a demigod, who will be a great political and military leader. They
believe he will deliver the Jews all over the world from oppression, establish
peace on earth, create a world government based in Israel, and rebuild the
Temple of Jerusalem, among others.The Jews (except those affiliated with a
form of Judaism called Messianic Judaism) do not believe that Jesus Christ
is the Messiah. Before Christ, there were in fact others who also claimed
to be the Messiah, all of whom the Jews also rejected. They also believe
that the prophet Elijah, who did not die but simply ascended to heaven, will
someday return to the world to announce the coming of the Messiah. And
when the Messiah comes, the dead Jews who faithfully obeyed God will be
resurrected and will live among those still living.
RITUALS AND MAJOR FESTIVALS

The following are some of the basic Jewish rituals and major festivals (see
Molloy 2010, 323-330; Matthews 2010, 270-74 for a thorough discussion
of these rituals and festivals).
UNIT I 59
Daily P rayers
Jewish males observe three daily prayer services during the day—in the
morning, afternoon, and evening. When making their prayers either in their
home or synagogue, they must face the direction of the site of the temple in
Jerusalem. A minyan, consisting of 10 Jewish male adults, was traditionally
required for a public service or any public reading of the Torah. After the
ruling by the Rabbinical Assembly Committee in 1973, women may now be
part of the minyan if agreeable to the presiding rabbi.
T he S abbath Day (S habbat)

The Sabbath occurs every sunset on Friday until sunset on Saturday.
Strictly no work is to be done on Sabbath for it is the most sacred day
of the week for the Jews, dedicated solely to prayer and rest from the
usual everyday activities. The observation of Sabbath honors the day when
God, after seeing that all that He created was good, rested on the seventh
day, and most importantly, God’s commandment to keep the Sabbath day
C ircumcision and R ite of P assage

On the eighth day after their
birth, male infants are circumcised,
which signals their entry into the
covenant between God and their
Jewish patriarchs. When boys reach
the age of 13, they undergo a rite-of-
passage ceremony that marks their
entry to adulthood. One who has
undergone such a ceremony is called
Bar Mitzvah a bar mitzvah, meaning, “son of the
commandment.” It signals their acceptance of their religious duties. In some
forms of Judaism, girls also undergo the same ritual when they reach the age
of 12. A girl who has undergone such a ceremony is called a bat mitzvah.
Major J ewish F estivals

The major festivals Jews celebrate are classified into two kinds: the
Pilgrim Festivals and the Days of Awe. The Pilgrim Festivals consist of the
festivals of Pesah (Passover), Shavu’ot (Pentecost), and Sukkot (Booths).
These festivals are called Pilgrim Festivals because the ancient Israelites

living in the Kingdom of Judah would make pilgrimages to the temple in
Jerusalem, as commanded in the Torah, to celebrate them. Days of Awe
or the Days of Repentance, also called the High Holy Days, consist of the
Ro’sh ha-Shanah, Ten Days of Repentance, and Yom Kippur. It is a period for
serious introspection, a time for deep reflection on one’s life as one considers
one’s sins of the previous year, repent on them, and seek reconciliation with
those one has done wrong.
The festival of Pesah (Passover) recalls the Lord’s liberation of the
Hebrews, led by Moses, from bondage in Egypt. There are eight days of
Pesah, the first of which occurs on the Sabbath. This day begins the cycle
of Jewish festivals according to the lunar calendar sometime in April or May.
Pesah opens with a Seder meal partaken at home. A Seder meal consists
of symbolic foods, foremost of which is the unleavened bread (bread without
yeast) symbolizing how there was no time for the Israelites to wait for the
bread to rise in their rush to leave Egypt. An additional place is set at the
table for the prophet Elijah, and a cup of wine is reserved for him—these
are actions representing the hope that Elijah will return to earth to announce
the coming of the Messiah. A book called the Haggadah provides detailed
guidance for the celebration.
The festival of Shavu’ot or Shavuot (Pentecost) is a celebration of the
spring harvest season and God’s gift of the Torah—God’s giving of the Law
to Moses on Mount Sinai. Harvesting the first fruits symbolizes receiving the
Law from God, which will now guide them in starting a new life after years of
slavery. Generally, no work is done during this celebration which, depending
on the form of Judaism, can last either for several days or just one day.
Sukkot (Booths) is the festival during which Jews build temporary booths
where they take their meals for one week. This reminds the Jews of the time
when they lived in booths in the desert after being delivered by God from
their slavery in Egypt. The booths were traditionally made of olive, myrtle,
and palm branches; but nowadays, these booths come in the form of huts
which can be made of bamboo whose leaves serve as roofing. Generally,
no work is done during this holiday.
The Ro’sh ha-Shanah or Rosh Hashanah celebrates the Jewish New
Year and God’s creation of the world as described in the Torah. It signals
the beginning of time. The celebration, which is now observed for two days,
is started with the blowing of the shofar, a ram’s horn (except if the day falls
on a Sabbath), to remind the Jews that they stand before God and that they
therefore need to repent for their sins of the past year. Work is not done
during the celebration.
UNIT I 61
Yom Kippur is the Day of Atonement and is considered the holiest day
among Jewioh i .tuals. To atone means to make up for one s faults, and this
day has traditionally been kept by prayer and strict fasting, with no food or
drink during the entire day. Yom Kippur begins around sunset of that day and
continues into the next day until nightfall, lasting about 25 hours. Observant
Jews will fast throughout Yom Kippur and many attend synagogue services
for most of the day. The ten days in between the Rosh Hashanah and the
Yom Kippur are referred to as the Ten Days of Repentance.
I^ A c tiv it^ l
Choose two stories in the Old Testament that demonstrate the Jewish
belief in one God. Write a short reflection paper on these stories.
DENOMINATIONS AND CHALLENGES
Guide Question
What are the denominations of Judaism and some of its challenges?
GENERAL FORMS OF JUDAISM

Just like most world religions, Judaism has many denominations (sects,
kinds, forms, or movements). For purposes of presentation, we classify
these forms of Judaism into three historical groups. The first are the Ancient
Forms (or the Hellenistic Sects, for they flourished during and after the
war with the Greeks), consisting of the forms of Judaism practiced by the
Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots.The second are the Medieval
Forms, consisting of Karaite Judaism, Rabbinical Judaism, Hasidism, and
Mitnagdism. And the third are the Modern Forms, of which the major ones
are the Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative forms of Judaism (minor ones
include the Reconstructionist and Messianic forms of Judaism).
A ncient D enominations
After the war with the Seleucid Greeks for about 25 years, the Jews
were divided into four groups: the Essenes, Sadducees, Pharisees, and
Zealots (see Molloy 2010, 312-313; Matthews 2010, 251-52; Urubshurow
2009, 111-112). The Essenes were ascetics (living in the mountains,
isolating themselves from the world) who engaged in mysticism and devoted

themselves to strict discipline. They were said to be the authors of the Dead
Sea Scrolls, which were discovered in 1947 near the Dead Sea. Among
others, their beliefs included the coming of the Messiah, whom they were
eagerly awaiting.
The Sadducees consisted of the priests and the aristocrats of Jewish
society. They were conservative when it came to religious matters, but they
were liberal when it came to social matters, adopting the ways of Greek
culture. They only accepted the Written Torah (they did not believe that the
Oral Torah came from God), and their religious life revolved around the
Temple. They rejected popular belief in angels, the apocalypse, and the
resurrection of the body in the afterlife.
The Pharisees, on the other hand, believed that both the Written Torah
and Oral Torah came from God, and they were open to the interpretations
of the rabbis of these sacred writings. Their religious life centered on the
study of the Torah.
The Zealots appeared after Rome conquered Judea. They were
nationalists who waged war against the Romans to defend Judea, and they
would rather commit suicide than be taken as prisoners by the Romans.
After the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, only the form of Judaism
practiced by the Pharisees survived and this became the common form of
Judaism for many centuries. There were only some minor differences in
practices and customs between the Ashkenazic Jews, the Jews residing in
Eastern Europe, and the Sephardic Jews, the Jews residing in Spain and
the Middle East. Moses Maimonides, the author of the thirteen Principles
of Faith, was the most notable Sephardic Jew.
Medieval D enominations
The Medieval Forms of Judaism consisted of Karaite Judaism, Rabbinical
Judaism, Hasidism, and Mitnagdism (see De Lang 2000,67-71; Molloy 2010,
314-15; Matthews 2010, 252-58). During the ninth century, a distinction
between Karaite Judaism and Rabbanical Judaism arose. The Karaites,
followers of Karaite Judaism, revived the position of the Sadducees. They
did not accept the Oral Torah for they believed that the teachings of the
rabbis, which formed part of the Oral Torah, were subject to human errors.
For them, only the Written Torah came from God. In contrast, the Rabbanites
maintained the position of the Pharisees, who believed that both the Written
and Oral Torah came from God, and that the interpretations and teachings
of the rabbis were inspired by God. It was Rabbinical Judaism, the kind
practiced by the Rabbanites, that became the dominant form of Judaism.
UNIT I 63
Hasidism, also called Chasidism, developed in Europe around the
1700s as a reaction to the formalistic ritualism of Rabbinical Judaism and its
emphasis on the study of the Torah to get closer to God. It sought to develop
a personal spiritual life in terms of experiencing the mystical presence of
God in everything. It believed that God is present in everything (the belief
called panentheism, see Chapter 1) and that we need to experience God in
everything we do. The Hasidic movement was founded by Israel ben Eliezer
(c. 1700-1760), a mystic and faith healer. He believed that devout practice
and obedience to the laws of the Torah and Talmud should be accompanied
by a direct personal experience of God who is present everywhere. Chasidism
encountered opposition from tradition-minded Jews whose practice of
Judaism was called Mitnagdism (meaning “opponents”). At first, the disputes
between followers of Chasidism and Mitnagdism were heated but later on
they were relatively unified in opposing liberal forms of Judaism.
Modern D enominations
Nowadays, there are many Jews living in the United States. It is even
said that there are at present more Jews living in the United States than in
Israel. While in Israel the only accepted form of Judaism is what is called
Orthodox, in the United States there are three major movements: the
Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox movements (De Lang 2000, 72-83;
Molloy 2010, 330-35; Matthews 2010, 259-61). Minor movements include
Reconstructionist Judaism and Messianic Judaism.
Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism,
seeks to modernize and make Judaism and its traditions compatible with the
surrounding culture. Some of the reforms that it introduces are the use of the
vernacular language of the country (thus abandoning the use of Hebrew in
religious ceremonies), equal role of women in religious activities (women can
participate in all forms of rituals), ordination of women as rabbis, participation
of Jews in the cultural and political activities of the country in which they find
themselves, interfaith marriage, and consideration of LGBT issues. Reform
Judaism began in Germany and later on became dominant in America. In
1854, Rabbi Isaac Mayer came to America from Germany and introduced
radical reforms in the practice of Judaism. For instance, he advocated the
abandonment of dietary restrictions and other practices such as covering
the head during synagogue services.
Orthodox Judaism was a reaction to Reform Judaism. It insisted on the
old ways.The German-Hungarian rabbi Moses Sofer (1762-1839), a strong
proponent of Orthodox Judaism, once taught that “anything new is forbidden

by the Torah.” Orthodox Judaism is characterized by its maintenance of the
traditional forms of worship in the Hebrew language, and of the traditional
observances prescribed by the Torah, such as men and women sitting
separately in Orthodox synagogues and women not participating in some
of the rituals.
Conservative Judaism is basically a middle-ground position between
Reform Judaism and Orthodox Judaism. While it preserves Jewish tradition,
it is also open to the modern historical scholarship in analyzing the Written
Torah and Oral Torah. Conservative Judaism was founded by Solomon
Schecter in the mid-nineteenth century as a response to Reform Judaism.
Schecter found Reform Judaism extremely liberal, so he made Conservative
Judaism a blend of Reform Judaism and Orthodox Judaism. For instance,
while Conservative Judaism preserves the use of Hebrew in religious
ceremonies and other traditions, it gives women equal rights to participate
in all religious activities and even become rabbis.
Reconstructionist Judaism developed from Conservative Judaism and
from the ideas of Mordecai Kaplan (1881-1983). Reconstructionist Judaism
does not see Judaism as a religion whose doctrines and laws are fixed and
binding for all generations. It sees Judaism as the evolving religious civilization
of the Jewish people. Thus it rejects any beliefs that confer a fixed, absolute,
or unchanging status to the Jewish religious practices and beliefs. Such
beliefs include the beliefs that God chose the Jews as his people and that
God once and for all gave all his laws to Moses. The Reconstructionists,
however, may still engage in certain usual Jewish religious practices, but
only because they see these practices as cultural activities of the Jewish
people that are still applicable to the present generation. For them, Judaism
needs to be reconstructed to be relevant to the times.
Another notable form of Judaism is what is called Messianic Judaism,
which believes that Jesus Christ is the Messiah that the Jews have been
waiting for while adhering to the usual Jewish religious practices like the
Sabbath and others.
SOME MAJOR CHALLENGES
A nti -S emitism and the H olocaust

The Jews have faced great challenges, foremost of which are anti-
Semitism which led to persecutions like the Holocaust, Zionism, and the
Arab-lsraeli conflict. Anti-Semitism refers to a negative attitude toward the
Jews. In particular, it refers to hatred toward Jews either as a religious or
UNIT I 65
racial group. A person who holds such an attitude is called an anti-Semite.
There are many ways in which anti-Semitism is manifested such as social
and legal discrimination, verbal attacks, and violent acts against individual
Jews or Jewish communities. The attitude of hatred results from certain
prejudices or negative beliefs about the Jews. These prejudices can be
classified socially, economically, religiously, and racially.
Social prejudice against the Jews sees Jews as “corrupting a’ given
culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred
culture with a uniform, crude, “Jewish’ culture” (see Harap 1987,76). Religious
prejudice against the Jews is directed at the religious views of Judaism.
Jews are hated for holding on to Judaism. The reasons for this hatred
can involve religious practices such as the practice of no work during the
Sabbath day or Jewish actions that have religious implications, like the belief
of some previous Christians that it was the Jews who killed Jesus Christ.
Economic prejudice against Jews perceives them to be
performing activities that are harmful to the economy
of the country in which they happen to live. Some think
that powerful Jews control the economy of a certain
country for the benefit not of the country but of the.
Jews, and that Jews are greedy and manipulative
and cheat non-Jews in business transactions. Racial
prejudice against the Jews, on the other hand, does
not concern their religion but their racial or ethnic
group. Jews, in this regard, are believed to belong
to an inferior race relative to the race of their host
country. Racial anti-Semitism culminated in the rise
of Nazism in the twentieth century. Finally, political
prejudice against the Jews is based on the belief that
Holocaust Memorial, the Jews would like to dominate the country in which
Miami Beach, Florida, they happen to live, if not the whole world itself. Jews,
USA in this regard, are seen as power seekers. These
prejudices led to persecutions of the Jews. Some of the major persecutions
were the following.
First, when the Kingdom of Judah or Judea fell under the Seleucid
Empire of Babylonia in 167 BCE, the Jews were forced to embrace the
Greek gods. Jewish practices such as the observance of the Sabbath day
and circumcision were banned and outlawed. Statues of Zeus and other
Greek gods were placed in the altar of the Temple of Jerusalem. Possession
of Jewish religious writings was considered a capital offense. Any Jew not
conforming to these forced laws was persecuted.

Second, thousands of Jews were killed during the series of Crusades:
the First Crusade (1096), Second Crusade (1147), and Shepherds’ Crusade
(1251-1320). The Crusades were military expeditions organized by Western
Christians to recover the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from the Muslims and to
prevent the spread of Islam. But in the process, the crusaders killed many
Jews in Jerusalem.
Third, hundreds of Jews were killed after being blamed for the Black
Death epidemic (mid-fourteenth century). Jews were suspected of poisoning
the wells which caused the disease.
Fourth, thousands of Jews were massacred during the political conflicts
in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the mid to late seventeenth
century. Jews were expelled from their place in Yemen (seventeenth century)
to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah (somewhere in southwestern Saudi
Arabia), and which became known as the Mawza Exile.
And lastly, millions of Jews were killed by German Nazis during World
War II (1939-1945). The systematic state-sponsored killing of six million
Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others by Nazi Germany
and its collaborators during World War II has been called the Holocaust.
Z ionism
Because of the diaspora (the dispersion of the Jews outside of Israel)
and the many persecutions and acts of discrimination that the Jews suffered
as a result of anti-Semitism, they dreamed of someday going back to their
promised land, Canaan or Palestine (now Israel), and establish their own
state. This dream was translated into a movement called Zionism, after the
word “Zion” which refers either to Jerusalem itself or to the mountain on
which Jerusalem is built. There were three highlights among the series of
events that eventually led to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948.
The first was the publication of the influential book The Jewish State
(Der Judensaat) (1896) by Theodor Herzl (1860-1904), an Austrian Jewish
journalist. It was in this book that the notion of a Jewish state was envisioned
and the need to establish it was justified. The Jews needed a homeland of their
own where they would no longer be persecuted by anti-Semites. In August
1897, Herzl organized a world congress of Zionists in Basel, Switzerland
and became the first president of the World Zionist Organization.
The second was the Balfour Declaration in 1917 in which the British
government, then in control of Palestine (then called the British Mandate
of Palestine), supported the notion of a Jewish homeland. As a result,
UNIT I 67
the British allowed a limited immigration of Jews to the territory of
Palestine.
The third was the decision of the United Nations (United Nations [UN]
Resolution 181) after World War II to divide the British Mandate of Palestine
into two states, one for the Jews and the other for the Arab residents of
Palestine (who were Muslims). After this decision, the Arab residents of
Israel have been called Palestinians, while the Jews have been called Israelis
(see Matthews 2010, 2 6 1-62 for a discussion of Zionism and the
Holocaust).
T he A rab -I sraeli C onflict

The Jews accepted the UN resolution to divide Palestine into a
Jewish state and an Arab state, but the Arab residents (the Palestinians)
did not. Moreover, the Arab nations surrounding Israel did not accept the
institution of Israel as a Jewish state in Palestine. The result was a series of
wars initiated by the Arabs. The major ones included the 1948 War of
Independence, 1956 Sinai War, 1967 Six-Day War, and 1973Yom Kippur
War. These wars between Palestinians and Israelis have so far been won
by the Israelis. While there have also been a series of peace talks, the
conflict remains up to this day.
| Activity |
I. Identify one famous Jewish personality (scientist, singer, songwriter,

politician, movie actor/actress, athlete, and others) and write a short
paper on his/her life. Examine and reflect on how the person practices
Judaism.Research also on the role of the Philippines in helping the
victims of the holocaust and in the institution of the State of Israel. This
can be a written or an oral report.
map.
Karaite Judaism Anti-Semitism Yom Kippur Arab-Israeli Conflict

Abraham Orthodox Judaism Sadduces Sabbath Day
613 Mitzvot Tanakh Kethuvim Talmud

_____________and Moses
Primary/Foundational:
1. ___________ : Torah, Nevi’im, a n d ___________
Supplementary.
2. ___________ : Mishna and Gemara
3. Midrash
1. _ 4. Afterlife
_
Doctrines 2. 13 Principles of Faith 5. Messianic Age
3. Monotheism
1. DailyPrayers 3. Circumcision
Judaism
2. _ 4. Right of Passage
Practices 3. Holidays and Festivals: Pesah, Shavu’ot, Sukot,
Ro’sh ha-Shanah, 10 Days of Repentance,
1. Ancient Forms: Pharisees,___________ ,

V / Essenes, Zealots
2. Medieval Forms:___________ , Rabbinical
Judaism, Hasidism, Mitnagdism
3. Modern Forms: Major Forms:___________ ,
Reform Judaism, Conservative Judaism; Others:
Reconstructionist Judaism, Messianic Judaism.
1. ___________ 3. Zionism
2. Holocaust 4. ____________
Review Questions
Enricle the letter of the correct answer.

1. The terms “Judaism” and “Jews” were derived from the word “Judah,”
which was the name of one of the twelve sons o f ____________
a. Abraham b. Jacob c. Isaac
2. Jews are also called “Hebrews” because they are descendants of
who was called a Hebrew.
3. The third patriarch of the Jewish people w a s---------------------
UNIT I 69
4. God gave his commandments t o ____________ on Mount Sinai.
a. Abraham b. Moses c. Esau
5. The primary sacred writings of the Jews, also called the Hebrew
Bible, is c a lle d ________________
a. Tanakh b. Talmud c. Torah
, 6. What is contained in the Mishnah is what was originally regarded as
the.
a. Written Torah
b. Oral Torah
c. Written and Oral Torah
7. T h e ____________ consists of materials from the former and later
prophets.
a. Torah b. Nevi’im c. Kethuvim
8. The Talmud that is considered complete and more authoritative is
th e _____________
a. Babylonian Talmud
b. Palestenian Talmud
c. Greek Talmud
9. The Jewish philosopher and rabbi and Torah scholar who itemized
the 613 mitzvot and formulated the 13 principles of the Jewish faith
w a s_____________
a. Moses Maimonides
b. Moses Sofer
c. Solomon Schecter
10. The festival o f ____________ recalls the Lord’s liberation of the
Hebrews from the bondage of the Egyptians.
a. Pesah or Passover
b. Shevu’ot or Pentecost
c. Sukkot or Booths
11. The festival o f___________ _ is a celebration of spring harvest and
God’s gift of the Torah.
a. Pesah or Passover
b. Shevu’ot or Pentecost
c. Sukkot or Booths

12. ---------------------celebrates the Jewish New Year and God’s creation
of the world.
a. Ro’shha-Shanah b. Sukkot c. Yom Kippur
13. The Pharasees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots are forms of
Judaism.
a. Ancient b. Medieval c. Modern
14. Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative Judaism are forms of
Judaism.
15. Karaite Judaism, Rabbinical Judaism, Hasidism, and Mitnagdism
are forms o f ____________ Judaism.
16. T h e ---------------------believed that both the Written Torah and Oral
Torah came from God. They were open to the interpretations of the
rabbis of these sacred writings.
a. Pharisees c. Essenes
b. Sadducees d. Zealots
17. They were nationalists who waged war against the Romans to defend
Judea. They would rather commit suicide than be taken as prisoners
by the Romans.
a. Pharisees c. Essenes
b. Sadducees d. Zealots
18. ____________ did not accept the Oral Torah for its followers believed
that the teachings of the rabbis, which form part of the Oral Torah,
were subject to human errors.
a. Karaite Judaism
b. Rabbinical Judaism
c. Hasidism
19. ____________ maintained the position of the Pharisees. They
believed that both the Written Torah and Oral Torah came from God,
and that the interpretations and teachings of the rabbis were inspired
by God.
a. Karaite Judaism
b. Rabbinical Judaism
c. Hasidism
UNIT I 71
20. ____________ is also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive
Judaism. It seeks to modernize and make Judaism and its traditions
compatible with the surrounding culture.
a. Orthodox Judaism
b. Reform Judaism
c. Conservative Judaism
21. ____________ sees Judaism as the evolving religious civilization of
the Jewish people.
a. Orthodox Judaism
b. Reconstructionist Judaism
c. Messianic Judaism
22. ____________ believes that Jesus Christ is the Messiah that the Jews
have been waiting for while adhering to the usual Jewish religious
practices like the Shabbat and others.
a. Reform Judaism
b. Reconstructionist Judaism
c. Messianic Judaism
23. ____________ refers to the hatred toward Jews either as a religious
or racial group.
a. Anti-Semitism
b. Holocaust
c. Zionism
24. T h e ____________ refers to the systematic state-sponsored killing
of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others
by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II.
a. Anti-Semitism b. Holocaust c. Zionism
25. ____________ refers to the movement whose goal was to realize the
dream of the Jews to go back to Canaan or Palestine, their promised
land, and establish their own state there.
a. Anti-Semitism b. Holocaust c. Zionism
KWL Chart
after the lesson.

K W
What 1know about Judaism What 1want to know about Judaism
L
What I have learned about Judaism
L esson. 4
s a® ss#.
CHRISTIANITY
What are the basic features of Christianity?
TOPICS

**■ Jesus Christ ■a- Resurrection of the dead

Key Concepts
«*■ Messiah «■ Angels
Holy Trinity: God the «*■ Baptism
Father, God the Son, is- The Lord’s Supper
God the Holy Spirit
«■ Lenten season
«*■ John the Baptist
**■ Christmas
«■ Day of Judgment
■a- Ascension and Pentecost
«*■ Old Testament, New
«■ Roman Catholicism
Testament
«■ Greek Orthodox Church
•a- Gospels of Matthew,
Protestantism
Mark, Luke, and John
**■ Lutheran and Calivinist
ea Acts of the Apostles
Churches
Epistles
«*• Anglicanism
«■ Revelation
«■ Sectarianism
**• Peter and Paul
**■ Nontraditional churches
*3“ Heaven, hell, purgatory

EXPECTED LEARNING COMPETENCIES

**■ Discuss the highlights of the life of Jesus Christ, the founder of
Christianity.
i«■ Discuss the elements of the Christian Bible.
Identify the Christian views about the nature of God, basically the
Holy Trinity.
Explain the nature of Jesus as fully human and fully God, and as
the Messiah.
«*■ Discuss the Christian views on the resurrection of the dead, last
judgment, angels, and the two great commandments.
«■ Discuss some of the main Christian practices and holy days: baptism,
' Lord’s Supper, Lenten season, Christmas, Ascension, Pentecost,
birthday of Mary, and veneration of saints.
Explain the differences among the different major divisions in the
Christian Church: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Anglican, and
Eastern Orthodox churches.
«■ Discuss the differences among various Protestant churches.
«*■ Discuss some of the challenges of Christianity.
lActivityl
CULTIVATING
Guide Questions
How did Christianity originate? What are its sacred texts?
According to the estimate of Deming (2015, 326-27), “Christianity is

the world’s largest religion, encompassing a third of the world’s population
or more than 2.2 billion people ... Today about 20 percent of all Christians
UNIT I 75
live in Africa, and about 25 percent live in Latin America; Europe accounts
for another 25 percent, Asia for about 15 percent, and North America for
about 10 percent.”
On a very general level, Christianity is the religion that is based on the
teachings of Jesus Christ, and Christians are the followers of these teachings.
But what are the teachings of Jesus Christ? We shall deal with this question
in the next section. First, let us briefly describe who Jesus Christ is and
examine the holy book in which his teachings are written.
A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF JESUS

Jesus was born in Nazareth and lived around 7 BCE to 30 CE. Jesus was
later on referred to by his followers as “Jesus Christ” (or Jesus the Christ)
in recognition of his being the Messiah prophesized in the Old Testament of
the Holy Bible (the sacred book of the Christians). The term Christ is Greek
for the title “The Anointed One,” which in Hebrew is translated as “Messiah.”
While Jesus was born as a human, most Christians
believe that Jesus was not just human but also God. He
is, in particular, the only begotten Son of God sent to this
world to redeem mankind from their sins or disobedience
to God.To deal with the nature of Jesus— his human and
divine nature—will already bring us to the main doctrines
of Christianity and teachings of Jesus. So in our brief
description of Jesus, we shall limit ourselves only to some
key events in his earthly life and avoid any reference to
his teachings or his nature except when unavoidable.
We know about the life of Jesus through the Four
Gospels (the books of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John)
of the Holy Bible. According to their account, Jesus was
conceived in the womb of Mary through the Holy Spirit.
Image of Jesus Christ
Mary was chosen by God to be the mother of Jesus,
of which she was made aware through an angel. Joseph, a carpenter to
whom Mary was engaged, stood as the foster father of Jesus. When Jesus
was born in Bethlehem in a manger, he was visited by shepherds and the
three Magi or wise men from the East (said to be Mazdean priests from
Persia) who, guided by a star, came to bring gifts to the baby Jesus (gold,
frankincense, and myrrh). Jesus grew in wisdom. At the age of 12, he was
intelligently conversing with the Jewish scholars on matters concerning the
Hebrew Scriptures. At the age of 30, Jesus began his ministry to fulfill his
divine mission.

Jesus was one of the people who went to the Jordan River to be baptized
by the prophet John the Baptist (who was a cousin of Jesus being the son of
Mary’s sister, Elizabeth). John the Baptist announced and preached that the
Kingdom of God was coming soon and that the people needed to prepare
for it by repenting for their sins and undergoing baptism or the purification
ritual of water immersion. During Jesus’ baptism, the Holy Spirit appeared
and descended on Jesus like a dove, and a voice from heaven proclaimed
that he was the Son of God. John the Baptist then publicly proclaimed that
Jesus was the prophesized Messiah. Afterwards, Jesus went to the desert
alone and spent 40 days fasting. There the devil (Satan) appeared and
tempted Jesus three times. He prompted Jesus to prove that he was really
the Son of God by turning stones into bread and by throwing himself from
the mountain. He also said he would give Jesus all the riches and power of
the world if Jesus would only bow down to him and worship him. Jesus was
able to overcome all these temptations.
Jesus, accompanied by his twelve apostles, then proceeded to preach
at different places in Israel. The apostles were: (1) Simon (also called
Peter), (2) Andrew (Simon’s brother), (3) James (son of Zebedee), (4) John
(James’s brother), (5) Philip, (6) Bartholomew, (7) Thomas, (8) Matthew (the
tax collector), (9) James (son of Alpheus), (10) Thaddaeus (or Judas, son
of James), (11) Simon (the Zealot), and (12) Judas Iscariot (who later on
betrayed Jesus).
Jesus preached about a lot of topics which included the Kingdom of
God, his being the Messiah and the Son of God, forgiveness, love for God
and one’s neighbor (and enemies), the power of faith, humility, the proper
attitude toward the Law of the prophets, helping the needy, the proper way
to pray and fast, uselessness of worrying, murder, divorce, adultery, mercy,
hypocrisy, judging others, Sabbath, his fulfilment of the prophecies, the last
judgment, the great commission, and others. Jesus often used parables in
his teaching. Among his parables were the parables of the sower, the workers
in the vineyard, the wedding banquet, the ten virgins, the bags of gold, the
tenants, the rich fool, the unmerciful servant, the mustard seed and yeast,
the lost sheep, the lost son, the shrewd manager, the persistent widow, the
ten minas, and the good Samaritan. And while preaching, Jesus performed
several miracles that included, among others, healing the sick (the blind,
the mute, the men with leprosy, the crippled, the paralyzed) multiplying five
loaves of bread and two fish to feed five thousand people, changing water
into wine, raising the dead (a girl and Lazarus), calming a storm, restoring
demon-possessed men, walking on water, and resurrecting from the dead
and ascending into heaven.
UNIT I 77
The teachings and missionary work of Jesus got him into conflict with
political and religious authorities. Some of his pronouncements and actions
(such as his proclamations that he was the only begotten Son of God who
was sent to the world to redeem mankind of their sins and that he was the
prophesized Messiah, and his different views on certain established Jewish
laws such as those concerning Sabbath and fasting) were found to be
blasphemous by the Jewish high priests. He was also considered a threat
to the stability of the control the Romans had on Israel. The Romans feared
that he might cause an uprising against them. Specifically, Pontius Pilate,
the Roman authority who presided on the case of Jesus, feared that not
giving in to the demand of some Jews to have Jesus crucified might lead to
some political unrest. All these led to Jesus’s arrest and later on to his death
through crucifixion.
The night before his arrest, Jesus had supper to celebrate the Passover
with his apostles, which came to be known as the Last Supper or the Lord’s
Supper. Three days after his death, Jesus’s tomb was found empty by his first
visitors (the three Mary’s) and he was said to have resurrected. He appeared
to his disciples and friends, and ate and communicated with them. He told the
11 disciples (Judas committed suicide after betraying Jesus) about the great
commission—they were to travel and make disciples of all nations, baptize
people in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and teach them to
obey God’s commandments. Forty days after, he ascended into heaven.
In the Acts of the Apostles, the book in the Holy Bible after the Gospels,
we see Jesus’s disciples, especially Paul and Peter, carrying out the work
of spreading his teachings to various regions outside Israel. The early
Christians suffered persecution at the hands of the Romans until the Roman
emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and made it the state religion
of the Roman Empire. Christianity then spread further and continued to do
so after the fall of the Roman Empire. Meanwhile, various scholars and
religious leaders at different stages of Christianity’s development reflected,
examined, and analyzed the teachings of Jesus, giving rise to different forms
of Christianity.
T he H oly B ible
The sacred texts of Christianity are contained in the Christian Bible,
usually referred to as the Holy Bible. The Holy Bible is divided into two parts,
which are called the Old Testament and New Testament. The Old Testament,
which was originally written in Hebrew, is basically the Hebrew Bible, the
sacred text of Judaism. It contains all the books of the Hebrew Bible with

some modifications in the arrangement. The New Testament, which was
originally written in Greek, contains the life and teachings of Jesus, the early
development of Christianity, as well as Christianity’s belief about the end of
time. From the perspective of Christianity, the New Testament contains the
essential principles or core of Christian teachings, and the Old Testament
provides the foundational principles that properly guide us in understanding
Christianity’s essential principles. The Old Testament contains prophesies
that Christians believe are fulfilled in the New. Foremost of these prophecies
is the coming of the Messiah who would sacrifice Himself for the sins of
mankind. Christians believe that this prophecy is fulfilled in the New Testament
through Jesus.
Just like in the case of the Hebrew Bible,
it took many years to complete and finalize | | f ?
the list of books that constitutes the New
Testament that we read today. The New
Testament is divided into four main parts:
(1) the Gospels, which are narrations or
descriptions of the life and teachings of
Jesus; (2) the Acts of Apostles, which is
generally a historical account of the early growth of Christianity; (3) the
Epistles, which are letters written mostly by the apostle Paul to the early
Christians; and (4) Revelation, which symbolically speaks of the Christian
vision of how in the end of time the good will eventually prevail over evil, or
how the Kingdom of God will eventually reign in the world.
T he G ospels
The Gospels consist of the books of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John.The
word gospel comes from the old English godspell (which in turn came from
the Greek word evangelion and Latin word evangelium), which means “good
news” or “good tidings.” The good news of the gospel is the coming Kingdom
of the Messiah, and of redemption through the life, death, and resurrection
of Jesus, the central message of Christianity. The authors of these books,
namely, Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John, who were early followers of Christ,
are referred to as the Four Evangelists. The books of Matthew, Mark, and
Luke are referred to as the Synoptic Gospels (synoptic is a Greek word
which means “having a common view”) for their close similarities in form and
content and for relying on a common source. Scholars name this hypothetical
common source as the Q Gospel, from the German quelle, meaning “source.”
It is said that the book of Mark was written first, for the books of Matthew and
UNIT I 79
Luke are said to have used the book of Mark (in addition to the Q Gospel)
as a source. The book of John is not included in the Synoptic Gospels, and
as such can be called a non-Synoptic Gospel, for its differences from the
other Gospels in terms of form and content. The book of John is said to have
separate sources (see Molloy 2010, 357-358).
The four Gospels are usually likened to different ways that artists
would represent the same object or event. The Synoptic Gospels generally
emphasize the role of Jesus as the messianic teacher and healer sent by God
or as the promised Messiah of the Old Testament. Scholars note, however,
that their intended audience are different. Matthew is primarily addressed
to the Jews, Mark to the Christians in Rome, and Luke to the Greeks. The
book of John, on the other hand, emphasizes the mystery of Jesus being
the incarnation of God, or the divine nature of Jesus being the Son of God.
It is designed to appeal to all ethnic groups.
A cts of the A postles

The book of the Acts of Apostles describes the early stage of the
development of Christianity. It narrates how Christianity as a religion began
and propagated first among the Jews and later on among the Gentiles (the
non-Jews), from the ascension of Jesus into heaven until the time when the
apostle Paul preached in Rome. It also shows the dedication and sacrifices
of the apostles, primarily Peter and Paul, as they preached the teachings of
Christianity in various regions.The Acts of Apostles is widely believed to have
been written by Luke, the same author of the book of Luke of the Gospels.
It is in fact believed that the books of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles
originally constituted one continuous account of the origin and development
of Christianity by the same author which was later on divided into two parts.
Among the highlights of the book are as follows: Within the period of 40
days between the resurrection of Jesus from the dead and his ascension to
heaven, Jesus appeared to the apostles and to his mother Mary and friends
in various times. The Holy Spirit descended on the apostles and gave them
the gift of tongues or the ability to speak various languages (this event has
been called the Pentecost). Peter’s preaching resulted in many conversions
and baptisms. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, and other Christians were
persecuted by Jews, which included Saul (from Tarsus). Saul, on his way to
Damascus to lead the persecution of further Christians, had a vision (Saul
went blind for three days until his sight was restored by Ananias, a Christian),
which led to his conversion to Christianity. Peter also had a vision in which
food considered unclean in Jewish tradition was made clean by God. He

interpreted this as God’s message that the gospel must also be preached
to the Gentiles or that salvation must be for everyone and not just for the
Jews. Saul, changing his name to Paul after his conversion, travelled in
various places, vigorously propagating Christianity especially among the
Gentiles. Peter and Paul performed miracles which included curing the
sick and making a lame person walk. Due to resistance from certain Jews
in power, Peter and Paul, along with their companions, were put to prison
several times but God always helped them escape (sometimes through an
angel, sometimes through an earthquake). The disciples of Christ were first
called Christians at Antioch.
T he Epistles
The Epistles refer to the 21 letters in the Bible. The word epistle comes
from the Greek work epistole, which means “letter” or “message.’The Epistles
expound on the great themes of God’s saving work on the cross; thus they
play a major role in the formation of doctrines throughout the development
of Christian churches. These letters were written either by an apostle (Paul,
Peter, John) or a family member of Jesus (James, Jude), except for Hebrews
whose author is unknown (it was first attributed to Paul but later experts
doubted it due to the writing style).The Epistles are divided into two classes:
the Pauline Epistles and the General (or Universal) Epistles (Molloy 2010,
360).
The Pauline Epistles, consisting of the first thirteen letters, were written
by Paul. They were addressed to individuals and particular churches and
dealt with specific issues or problems. Some of the letters were written by
Paul while in prison, so they have been called Prison Epistles. The letters
addressed to individual church leaders and dealt with ministerial matters are
called Pastoral Epistles. The General Epistles, consisting of the remaining
eight letters, were written by other apostles: one by an unknown apostle,
three by John, two by Peter, and one each by James and Jude. Written for a
general audience, these letters are sometimes also called Catholic Epistles.
21 Epistles
13 Pauline Epistles 8 General Epistles
1. Romans; 6. Philippians (Prison Epistle);
2. 1 Corinthians; 7. Colossians (Prison Epistle);
3. 2 Corinthians; 8. 1 Thessalonians;
4. Galatians; 9. 2 Thessalonians;
5. Ephesians (Prison Epistle); 10. 1 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle);
UNIT I 81
11.2 Timothy (Pastoral Epistle); 17. 2 Peter;
12. Titus (Pastoral Epistle); 18. 1 John;
13. Philemon (Prison Epistle) 19. 2 John;
14. Hebrews; 20. 3 John;
15. James; 21. Jude
16. 1 Peter;
R evelation
The book of Revelation (written around 95 CE) is the last book of the
Christian Bible. It symbolically describes how the battle between good and
evil would come to an end as revealed in visions. In particular, it symbolically
describes how the forces of evil (Satan’s army) will be finally defeated and
the Kingdom of God will finally reign in the world. It is considered an example
of apocalyptic literature, referring to writings that describe how the end of
the world would come about. The author of this book, the one narrating his
visions which he believes are revelations from Jesus Christ, names himself in
the text as “John of Patmos” (Patmos is a small Greek island in the Aegean
Sea). It is traditionally believed that this is the apostle John, the same person
who wrote the Gospel of John, but some present-day scholars doubt this,
claiming that the author, though certainly a Christian, may be a different John.
The book is divided into two parts and it is the second part (the longer
part) that contains the visions and symbolisms. The first part (Chapters
2-3) are letters to the seven Christian churches of Asia Minor (presently
referring to Turkey), and they contain moral admonitions (but no visions or
symbolisms). The said churches referred to the churches of (1) Ephesus,
which was advised to return to its first love; (2) Smyrna, which was advised
to endure persecution; (3) Pergamum, which was advised to repent; (4)
Thyatira, which was advised to remove its false prophetess; (5) Sardis, which
was advised to wake up from its sleep; (6) Philadelphia, which was advised
to continue its patient endurance; and (7) Laodicea, which was advised to
end its lukewarm faith. Though these were actual churches in the past, they
also represented seven different forms of churches throughout history.
The second part (Chapters 4-22.5) of Revelation contains the visions and
symbolisms. The symbols include the following: angels, whore of Babylon,
beast, lamb, lion, horse, horsemen, locusts, bottomless pit, star, fire, smoke,
dragon, woman, bowl, trumpets, and certain numbers (like 7,3, and 666). As
these symbols are largely unexplained in the book, scholars have different
interpretations of what they mean or are intended to mean. The book of

Revelation culminates in the prophecy about the Second Coming of Jesus
Christ.
|Âctivit^J
1. Do an artistic presentation of a certain stage in the life of Jesus.

2. Do an artistic presentation of the various books of the Holy Bible (Old
and New Testaments). (This can be a written report or a PowerPoint
presentation.)

Iui be Q u e s t i o n
What are the main doctrines and practices of Christianity?
Christianity, as earlier noted, is a religion based on the teachings of Jesus

Christ. But what are the teachings of Christ, and what are the doctrines of
Christianity that are based on these teachings? Except for some general
points about these teachings and doctrines, most Christian denominations,
however, do not agree on some particular points. In this light, when
presenting or discussing a doctrine, adopting the point of view of a certain
denomination may be unavoidable. If one asserts, “This is what Christians
believe,” it will always be possible to reply, “But not all Christians believe that.”
In this consideration, what we shall present here are doctrines perceived
to be what most Christians believe in. Along the way, we shall point some
deviations from these doctrines. These deviations, however, shall be more
properly treated in the next section where we shall examine the different
Christian denominations.
THE NATURE OF GOD

Christians, like the Jews and Muslims, are monotheistic in that they
believe there is only one God.This is the same God as the God of Abraham,
Moses, and the other prophets in the Hebrew Bible. In the first of the Ten
Commandments revealed by God to Moses, God affirms His oneness, saying
“I am the Lord your God .. .You shall have no other gods before me.” Being
a Perfect Being, God possesses certain divine attributes, among which are
the following: (1) He is a pure spirit (He does not change; He is simple in
UNIT 83
that he cannot be divided into parts; He does not need a body to exist.); (2)
He is eternal (He is neither created nor destroyed; He has no beginning and
end); and (3) He is all-powerful (omninipotent), all-knowing (omniscient),
wholly good or benevolent, just, and caring. Unlike the monotheism of the
Jews and Muslims, the monotheism of Chrisitianity is qualified by the belief
that God has three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God
the Holy Spirit. This belief that God has three such persons has been called
the belief in the Trinity (sometimes the Blessed or Holy Trinity). Christians
believe that there is no rational explanation for this; it is simply a mysterious
truth that is accepted as a matter of faith. One helpful way to understand
the Trinity though is to think of it as the three fundamental ways of referring
to the same God. There is just one God, but we can refer to God as the
Father (the Creator), the Son (the Savior or Messiah), and the Holy Spirit
(the power of God as experienced in human lives). The Trinity thus expresses
the personal nature of God, the three personal ways of how God is related
to humans—that He creates, saves, and empowers them.
THE NATURE OF JESUS

There are at least seven fundamental beliefs that Christians hold about
the nature of Jesus. First and foremost, Jesus is God. Jesus is God in that
He is the Holy Trinity’s God the Son. When we say Jesus is the Son of God,
we are not speaking of two gods here—one, the Father God, and the other,
the Son God. Rather, we are speaking of the person of Jesus as God, his
being God the Son.
Second, while Jesus is God, he is also human. He became human when
he was born into this world and later on died on the cross in order to save
mankind from their sinful nature. By being both God and human, it does not
mean that Jesus is half-god and half-human, making him a demigod. Rather
it means that Jesus is wholly God and wholly human; his divine nature is
not weakened or diluted by his human nature and his human nature is not
strengthened by his divine nature. Jesus is wholly God in that he has all the
divine attributes in their full capacity, such as being eternal, all-powerful,
all-knowing, and all-good. On the other hand, Jesus is wholly human in that
he is subject to the same conditions and struggles that ordinary humans
are subject to, such as having free will, being subject to temptations and
ageing, having feelings of hunger and pain, and having a mortal body. His
being human does not make him a lesser God, and his being God does not
make him a superhuman.

Third, Jesus is the Messiah that was prophesized in the Old Testament.
Jesus came into this world in order to save mankind from their sins. God
becoming human was the perfect sacrifice that would redeem mankind from
their downfall and make them worthy of salvation again. Jesus the Messiah
will come again to establish the Kingdom of God in this world.
Fourth, Jesus came into this world (to become human) through virgin
birth. Jesus was conceived in the womb of Mary through the Holy Spirit, and
not through the natural reproductive means humans engage in to conceive
a child.
Fifth, Jesus was sinless. As earlier noted, Jesus, being wholly human,
was subject to the same kinds of temptations humans experience, but Jesus
was able to overcome all his temptations.
Sixth, Jesus resurrected from the dead. Three days after he died on
the cross, Jesus became alive again and met with his disciples, mother,
siblings, and friends.
And lastly, Jesus ascended into heaven. After 40 days since his
resurrection from the dead, Jesus ascended into heaven and promised to
come again during the Last Judgment.
THE HUMAN CONDITION

Humans are made in the image and likeness of God. This means that
humans bear certain resemblances with their Creator. There are two main
resemblances humans have with God. First, humans are made to resemble
God’s eternal and spiritual nature by possessing immortal souls which
continue to survive after their physical death. Second, humans are made
to resemble God’s wisdom by possessing reason and will which enable
them to know and make their own (free) choices. These godlike attributes,
however, have important consequences. First, humans are accountable for
their actions, that is, they deserve rewards for doing good actions (actions
that obey God’s will), and they deserve punishments for doing bad actions
(actions that disobey God’s will). Second, God’s rewards and punishments
extend to the afterlife in the form of an eternal reward of happiness or heaven,
and an eternal punishment of suffering or hell. To be in heaven is to enter the
Kingdom of God and be united with God, while to be in hell is the opposite.
To enter the Kingdom of God, good works, however, are not enough. One
must also accept the truth of the gospel, which is that Jesus Christ is God
who became human in order to save mankind from the punishment of
hell due to their sins. In addition to heaven and hell, some Christians (the
UNIT I 85
Catholics) believe in purgatory, a temporary state in between heaven and
hell and in which people who died with minor (or venial) sins are put. They
further believe that the prayers of the living offered for the souls in purgatory
can positively affect the chances of these souls to eventually enter heaven.
RESURRECTION OF THE DEAD AND LAST JUDGMENT

When humans die, it is believed that they immediately undergo a particular
judgment on whether they should go to heaven or hell (or purgatory). There
will, however, be another judgment, the Last Judgment, which will take place
during the second coming of Jesus the Messiah. Christians believe that in
that time, there will be the Resurrection of the Dead, followed by the Last
Judgment. In the resurrection of the dead, the souls of dead people will reunite
with their physical (but now “glorified”) bodies, after which everyone, including
those living during the second coming of Jesus will face judgment for their
actions. It is further believed that those who have been living a Christian life
will be lifted to the sky to be met by Jesus. Those who are already in hell and
heaven will remain there (those in purgatory will be transferred to heaven).
If previously they were in heaven or hell only in their spiritual form, now they
will be in such places in both their spiritual and physical forms.
A ngels
The Bible speaks of angels. Angels
are spiritual beings created by God to
serve him and help humans. Angels
have free will (this contrasts with the
Islamic view that angels do not have
free will), which means they can either
be good, (when they obey God) or bad
(when they disobey God). Bad angels,
those who have rebelled against God,
are called devils. The leader of bad angels is Satan or Lucifer. Christians
identify the serpent in Genesis, who tempted Eve to disobey God, as Satan.
Satan continues to tempt humans to disobey God, but he will eventually be
defeated during the second coming of Jesus.
On the other hand, good angels mentioned in the Bible include the angels
Gabriel and Michael. Gabriel, “the messenger” was the angel who appeared
to Mary to inform her that she would bear a son conceived by the Holy Spirit.
Michael “the archangel” (meaning, the chief angel), is the angel identified in

the Book of Revelation who leads God’s armies against Satan’s forces and
who defeats Satan during the war in heaven. Christian theologians classify
different kinds of angels mainly according to their functions like the Seraphim,
the highest angelic class who serve as the caretakers of God’s throne; the
Cherubim, who guard the way to the tree of life in the Garden of Eden; and
the Thrones, who serve as living symbols of God’s justice and authority.
T he Two G reat C ommandments

A summary of the ethical teachings of Jesus was provided by Jesus
himself. In Matthew 22:34-36, Jesus was asked by a Pharisee considered
to be an expert in Jewish law with the question “Which is the greatest
commandment in the Law?” Jesus replied, ‘“ Love the Lord your God with all
your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.’ This is the first and
greatest commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as
yourself.’ All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments.”
Furthermore, in Luke 10:25-28, Jesus was asked by another Pharisee with
the question, “Teacher... what must I do to inherit eternal life?” In response,
Jesus asked the Pharisee, “What is written in the Law? ... How do you read
it?” Echoing Jesus’s reply when asked about the greatest commandment,
the Pharisee replied, “Love the Lord with all your heart and with all your soul
and will all your mind; and love your neighbor as yourself.” And Jesus said to
the Pharisee, “You have answered correctly ... Do this and you will live.” As
our heart (referring to our emotions and desires), soul (our life), and mind
(our reason or intelligence) constitute the essence of our human life, loving
God with all our heart, soul, and mind means totally surrendering our life to
the will of God. And as we love ourselves unconditionally, our love for our
neighbor should also be unconditional.
T he P rimacy of Love
Jesus emphasized that love should be the proper attitude towards God
and our neighbor, instead of focusing on following certain rules on how to
relate with God and our neighbor. This shows consistently in his teachings
concerning Sabbath, fasting, praying, and forgiveness, among others. When
the Pharisee asked Jesus who our neighbor is, Jesus narrated the parable of
the good Samaritan. One insight to be gathered from the parable is precisely
the difference between just following certain rules and acting out of love.
The (Jewish) priest and Levite, expected to be knowledgeable about Jewish
laws and rules, ignored the wounded person who has been robbed most
UNIT I 87
likely because they thought that helping the person was beyond their duties.
Though not specified in the story, one probable reason why they did not help
was because the wounded person might have been a Gentile— a non-Jew.
The Samaritan, though also a Jew, was not expected to be knowledgeable
about Jewish laws and rules. He helped the wounded person not because
he wanted to satisfy a rule obligating him to do so, but simply because he
felt compassion and love. To further emphasize the point, it would have been
sufficient for the Samaritan to help the wounded person by simply bandaging
the person’s wounds and pouring oil and wine on them, but he went out of
normal expectations when he brought the person to an inn, carrying him on
his donkey, then requested the innkeeper to take care of the person, and
promised the innkeeper that he would reimburse the expenses.
This same emphasis on the primacy of love in our actions was beautifully
illustrated by the apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 13:1-7, saying: “If I speak in
the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only a resounding
gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all
mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have faith that can move mountains, but
do not have love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and give over
my body to hardship that I may boast, but do not have love, I gain nothing.”
SOME PRACTICES AND RITUALS
B aptism
B a p tis m is a ritu a l fo r m oral
purification (“washing impurities away”)
and serves as an initiation rite. A person
who undergoes it signifies his or her
commitment to repent from his or her
sins, lead a new life, and make himself
or herself ready to receive the Kingdom
of God. John the Baptist performed this
ritual for people to cleanse themselves of sins in preparation for the imminent
coming of the kingdom of heaven. At the same time, baptism is an initiation
rite as it signals one’s entry into the Christian community.
Different forms of Christianity differ on certain aspects of baptism both
in terms of how it should be done and what it does to a person. During the
early period of Christianity, baptism was done by immersing the body in
water, just like how John the Baptist did it in the river of Jordan. Some forms
of Christianity still do it in the same way, but some forms of Christianity just

sprinkle water on the head of the person to be baptized. Another point of
difference is the proper age when a person should be baptized. Some perform
baptism on babies. Some claim that this is to ensure that when babies die, they
will not go to hell—the assumption is that baptism is a necessary condition
for salvation. On the other hand, some perform baptism only for persons who
are already mature enough to make a personal decision to repent for their
sins and accept Jesus Christ as their Lord and Savior. Here, baptism is just
a form of public profession of one’s Christian faith, but it is the repentance
for one’s sins and personal acceptance of Jesus Christ as. one’s own Lord
and Savior that serve as the necessary condition for salvation.
In addition to baptism, some Christians also undergo the Sacrament
of Confirmation, which is a blessing of baptized believers to complete their
baptismal grace and consequently to strengthen their faith. Confirmation is
commonly administered in the early teen years of the believers.
T he L ast S upper/ E ucharist

The practice of sharing
a meal of bread and wine
imitates the Last Supper
that Jesus had with his
disciples before his death,
and recalls Jesus’s sacrifice
leading to his death and
resurrection. During this
meal of bread and wine, Christians prayerfully recall Jesus’s death and
resurrection. It is a symbolic sharing of Jesus’s life and death, but Christians
have different beliefs about certain aspects of it. Some see the substance
(or essence) of the bread and wine as transforming into the substance
(or essence) of the body and blood of Jesus (the physical components of
the bread and wine remain unchanged but their essences change into the
essences of Jesus’s body and blood, respectively, a process that is called
transubstantiation). Some, on the other hand, believe that the substance
of bread and wine coexist with the substance of Jesus’s body and blood
(the physical and essential components of the bread and wine remain, but
the essential components of Jesus’s body and blood are added through a
process that is called consubstantiation). Still, some believe that the bread
and wine simply change their symbolism or what they represent, from things
that will nourish the physical body to the life and death of Jesus (or the body
and blood of Jesus). (This process is called transignification.)
Celebration of the Lord’s Supper also differs in style and frequency among
various forms of Christianity. Some have it once a week (during a mass/
service on Sundays); some have it every mass/service held every day; and
some have it only once a month. The type of bread used for this purpose,
called host (or hostia in Latin), may vary, and some just use grape juice or
water instead of wine.
L enten S eason
>
Lent refers to the 40 days of repentance and preparation for Easter—
the resurrection of Jesus from the dead. The 40 days signify the 40 days of
fasting and prayer that Jesus spent in the desert after his baptism by John
the Baptist and before his public life or Messianic ministry began. But instead
of fasting, Christians usually do abstinence or avoidance of pleasures like
the consumption of luxury foods such as meat products during this period.
Some Christians begin the season with Ash Wednesday, when priests put
ashes in the form of a cross on the foreheads of believers. The week before
Easter, which falls on a Sunday, is called the Holy Week. Some Christians
celebrate the Sunday before the Holy Week, called Palm Sunday, by waving
palm branches, recalling Jesus’s entry to Jerusalem. Holy Thursday recalls
Jesus’s last supper with his disciples, while Good Friday recalls His death
on the cross. Black Saturday is a day of quiet and prayer. Easter Sunday,
celebrated at dawn, recalls the resurrection of Jesus from the dead. Each
form of Christianity has its own way of celebrating Easter Sunday.
C hristmas
Christmas is the Christian celebration
of the birth of Jesus which takes place
on December 25 of every year. The four-
week preparation for Christmas, which
remembers the period prior to the birth
of Jesus, is called Advent. Several days
after Christmas, on January 6, Christians
celebrate the feast called the Epiphany or Three Kings, which mainly
commemorates the visit of the three wise men to baby Jesus.
A scension and P entecost

The feast of Ascencion celebrates Jesus’s ascencion into heaven 40
days after Easter or the day Jesus resurrected from the dead. The feast of

Pentecost, which recalls the first preaching of the apostles, is celebrated
ten days after the feast of Ascension.
O ther P ractices
Being the mother of Jesus, some Christians (the Catholics) practice
devotion to Mary. Part of this devotion is the annual celebration of her
birthday, called the feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which
falls on September 8. Mary is seen by these Christians as someone who can
intercede between the believers and Jesus. In addition to Mary, they also
venerate the saints, who they regard as the martyrs or heroes of the faith.
The veneration is done either individually, in which the particular birthdays of
individual saints are celebrated, or generally, in which all the saints, known
and unknown, are given honor. The general veneration, called All Saints’
Day or All Hallows’ Day, is done every November 1.
Discussion Question
Read Corinthians 13:1-13. Which passage strikes you the most and
why? Identify an experience of yours that demonstrates the meaning of
this passage.
lActivityl
1. Identify three parables of Jesus Christ that interest you most and
write a reflection paper on them.
2. Do an artwork that presents one of the following: the Apostle’s Creed,
the Lord’s Prayer, and the Beatitudes.

Guide Question
What are the denominations and challenges of Christianity?
The early Christians, including the apostles, suffered persecution in the

hands of the Romans. But this changed when the Roman Emperor Constantine
(306-337 CE) converted to Christianity (following his/her mother Helena’s
conversion to Christianity) and made it the state religion of the Roman Empire.
Christianity then became a world religion with a hierarchical structure. The
UNIT I 91
Bishop of Rome, called the Pope, became the central authority. When the
Roman Empire later on collapsed, the Christian church was able to maintain
much of its organizational structure. In the course of its development and
further expansion, certain doctrines and practices (pertaining both to religious
expressions and organizational management) have been established to which
some Christian groups have reacted in varying degrees. These reactions
have given rise to the different forms, sects, or denominations of Christianity,
which continue to increase in number up to this day.
Christian churches are generally divided into the Western and Eastern
Churches. The Western Churches are divided into three groups: the Catholic
(or Roman Catholic), Protestant, and nontraditional churches.The Protestant
churches include the Lutheran, Calvinist, Church of England (or Anglican),
and Sectarian churches. The Calvinist church gave rise to the Presbyterian
Church.The Sectarian churches include the Baptist, Methodist, Quaker, and
Pentecostal churches. Anglican churches refers to the church of England and
other churches. The Eastern churches, on the other hand, are divided into
two groups: the Eastern Orthodox churches and other Eastern churches.The
Eastern Orthodox churches include the Greek, Russian, Serbian, Romanian,
and Bulgarian Christian churches. The other Eastern churches include the
Armenian, Egyptian Coptic, Ethiopian Coptic, and Nestorian churches.The
following table shows these divisions in Christian churches.
Christian Churches
Western Churches Eastern Churches
Eastern
Catholic Protestant Nontraditional Others
Anglican Orthodox
Lutheran, Calvinist Church of Mormon, Greek, Armenian,

(Presbyterianism), England, Jehovah’s Russian, Egyptian
Sectarian (Baptist, other Witness, Serbian, Coptic,
Methodist, Quaker, Anglican Christian Romanian, Ethiopian
Pentecostal) churches Science, Unity, Bulgarian Coptic,
Unitarian, Nestorian
Unification
Let us briefly differentiate some of these churches. Because we cannot

hope to cover all their specific differences, we shall just mention some of
their identifying features.

T he C atholic C hurch
The Catholic Church (or Roman
Catholic Church) (“Catholic” means
universal) is believed to have been
founded by Jesus Christ through the
apostle Peter, who is considered as
the first Bishop of Rome or Pope.
The Pope is the central authority
whose views on doctrines pertaining
to faith and morals are regarded as infallible (that is, not subject to error).
Catholics accept seven sacraments, which are sacred rites or occasions
for experiencing God’s saving presence. These sacraments are Baptism,
Confirmation, the Eucharist (Communion or the Lord’s Supper), Penance,
Holy Matrimony or Marriage, Anointing of the Sick (formerly Extreme Unction),
and Holy Orders. Catholics believe in purgatory, venerate Mary and the
saints, believe in transubstantiation, and believe that their priests should
be celibate. They also believe that God’s revelations are contained in the
Sacred Scripture (the Holy Bible) and Sacred Tradition (teachings handed
down since the time of the Apostles).
Eastern O rthodox C hurch

The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of the
Christian churches that formally separated from
the Roman Catholic Church in 1054 when the
Bishop of Rome, Pope Leo IX, and the Patriarch of
Constantinople (Eastern churches call their bishops
“patriarchs”) Michael Celarius, excommunicated
one another because of some disagreements (see
Molloy 2010, 372-77; Matthews 2010, 300-02).
These churches include the Greek, Russian, Serbian,
Romanian, and Bulgarian Orthodox churches.The split
between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, called the
East-West Schism (sometimes called the Great Schism), involved various
aspects such as doctrines, language, politics, and geography. One major
reason for the split concerns a controversy regarding an entry in the Nicene
Creed [The Nicene Creed is a profession or statement of the core elements
of the Christian faith as approved by the bishops and patriarchs of the Roman
Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches in 325 CE (Kennedy 2011,68-69)],
pertaining to the nature of the Holy Trinity, particularly concerning the origin
UNIT I 93
of the Holy Spirit. While both churches believe that the Son came from
the Father, they differ as to where the Holy Spirit came from. The Roman
Catholic Church believes that the Holy Spirit came from both the Father and
the Son, while the Eastern Orthodox Church believes that the Holy Spirit
came (or proceeded from) the Father only. In the original version of the
Nicene Creed, it was stated that the Holy Spirit came from the Father. The
Roman Catholic Church, however, later on decided to add the clause “and
the Son” (this clause is called the “Filioque clause”) to make it clear that
the Holy Spirit came from both the Father and Son. The Patriarchs of the
Eastern Orthodox churches strongly opposed the inclusion of the Filioque
clause and the manner by which it was done—that they were allegedly not
consulted (Kennedy 2011, 94-95).
Aside from a difference of belief concerning the source of the Holy
Spirit, other differences between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
churches are the following. In celebrating the Eucharist, the Roman Catholic
Church use unleavened bread while the Eastern Orthodox Church use
leavened bread (for the Eastern Orthodox Church believed that the use
of unleavened bread is a Jewish practice during the feast of Passover). In
terms of governance, the Roman Catholic Church adheres to the Papal
Supremacy, in which the Pope, or the Bishop of Rome, is the supreme
authority among all Christians. In contrast, the Eastern Orthodox Church
adheres to the concept of Pentarchy, in which authority is shared among
the Patriarchs of Rome, C onstantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and
Jerusalem. While both Churches believe in the virgin birth of Jesus through
Mary, the Roman Catholic Church further believes in Mary’s immaculate
conception (that God spared her from original sin) and bodily assumption into
heaven which the Eastern Orthodox Church rejects (for the Eastern Orthodox
Church, Mary was chosen by God because of her purity and obedience).
The Eastern Orthodox Church also does not agree with the Roman Catholic
doctrine of the purgatory. And unlike the Roman Catholic priests, Eastern
Orthodox priests can marry; and they wear beards.
T he P rotestant C hurch
The Protestant Church developed from the movement of protest against
certain practices of the Catholic Church that was highly inspired by Martin
Luther’s publication of his Ninety-Five Theses, which he posted on the door
of the Castle Church of Wittenberg in 1517, demanding for reforms in the
Catholic Church (Molloy 2010, 383-86; Matthews 2010, 304-05). Luther
was particularly opposed to the sale and purchase of indulgences, which

were then believed had the power to shorten the time that an individual,
after death, would have to spend in purgatory before entering heaven.
Protestants reject the authority of the Pope, claiming that the Bible alone
(instead of the Bible and Tradition) is the authority in matters of faith and
doctrines. They reject the doctrine of transubstantiation, replacing it, as earlier
noted, either with consubstantiation or with transignification. They believe
in salvation by faith alone, instead of good works alone or faith and good
works combined. They hold that one can directly ask God for forgiveness
for one’s sins and that priests can marry. They also reject the veneration
of Mary and the saints. In contrast to Catholics who celebrate seven
sacraments, Protestants acknowledge only two sacraments, Baptism and
the Eucharist. Luther believed that Christians should be able to read and
interpret the Bible for themselves, and this required translating the Bible into
the native language of the Christians. Thus Luther translated the Bible into
German so that Christian Germans could read and interpret it for themselves.
Luther rejected celibacy; he in fact married Katharina von Bora, a former
nun, and had six children. There are many forms of Protestantism. Let us
examine some of the major ones.
L utheranism and C alvinism ( and P resbyterianism )

The two early forms of Protestantism were
Lutheranism or Calvinism (or the Lutheran Church
and the Calvinist Church) (Molloy 2010, 387-388;
Matthews 2010,305-306). Aside from Martin Luther,
another major leader of the Protestant movement
was John Calvin (1509-1564), regarded as the
leader of the French Protestants. Calvin shared
some of Luther’s thoughts but disagreed with him
on some points. The result was a division between Martin Luther
the Lutheran Church and the Calvinist Church. Later on, the Presbyterian
Church, formed in sixteenth century by John Knox (1513-1573), evolved
from the Calvinist Church. Knox was a former minister of the Calvinist Church
who established his own Protestant church in Scotland. One difference
between the Lutheran Church and the Calvinist Church concerns what
actually occurs during the Lord’s Supper. Calvin shared Luther’s rejection of
the doctrine of transubstantiation. But while Luther advanced the doctrine of
consubstantiation, Calvin (and Knox) held the doctrine of transignification.
Another identifying feature of Calvinism (and Presbyterianism) is the belief
in predestination. Calvin believed (and Knox defended) that God predestined
UNIT I 9 5
or intended whether some people would be saved and go to heaven after
they die, or be damned and go to hell instead. Predestination follows from
God’s foreknowledge or knowledge of the future (as God is omniscient or
all-knowing, then He also knows the future); for if God already knows the
future, then He already knows who will and will not be saved.
PROTESTANT SECTARIANISM
At the heart of the Protestant movement is a principle, called the
Protestant Principle, which gives every individual the right to interpret the
Bible and critically examine Christian beliefs and practices.This principle has
resulted in the generation of many forms or sects of independent Protestant
churches (and their number is continuously growing). This division of the
Protestant Church into many independent churches resulting from the said
Protestant Principle is sometimes referred to as Protestant sectarianism
(Molloy 2010, 388-390). The differences among these churches range from
style of organization to style and focus of worship—from simple to ritualistic,
from structured to informal, from highly informative to emotional, and from
communal to highly individualistic. In what follows, let us briefly examine
some of these Protestant churches.
A nabaptists and B aptists

Anabaptists and Baptists are two independent Christian groups which
share some central views. Though they are both identified with the Protestant
movement, they have different views about their relation and origins. Some
think that Baptists originated from or were heavily influenced by Anabaptists,
while some (considered to be the majority) claim that they are totally unrelated
in terms of their historical origins. One account holds that the Anabaptist
Church developed alongside the Lutheran and Calvinist Churches, while the
Baptist Church developed alongside the Separatist Movement in England
(in relation to the Anglican Church). In any case, one central view that they
share is their rejection of infant baptism. Both groups or churches favor adult
baptism, according to which baptism should be done only on adults who have
already accepted Jesus Christ as their Lord and Savior. In this connection,
both believe that full immersion is the only legitimate way of baptizing a
believer. Furthermore, both churches believe in the separation of religion
and state, and they practice simple rituals in their worship services. The
successors of Anabaptists today include the Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites,
Schwarzenau Brethren, and River Brethren. Baptist Churches, on the other

hand, are generally divided into General Baptist Churches and Particular
Baptist Churches.
Methodists
Methodism began as a society within the Church of England led by John
Wesley (1703-1791) and his brother Charles (1707-1788), who were former
missionaries of the Church of England. They first wanted reforms within the
said church, but soon their followers grew in number and they established
their separate churches, which came to be called Methodist Churches.
( 'ne distinct feature of Methodist beliefs is their use of logic and reason in
understanding and interpreting matters of faith (understanding the Scripture
and God’s will and actions, among others). Methodist Churches emphasize
missionary work.
Q uakers and S hakers

The Religious Society of Friends, also known as Quakers, was founded
by George Fox (1624-1691). The Society began during a preaching of
Fox on the Pentecost Day of 1652. It was called “Quakers” because Fox
believed that people should “quake” (tremble) at the Word of the Lord. The
Society has no priests and does not celebrate the Eucharist. Their church
services are conducted mostly in silence and with no rituals. There are no
priests and no celebration of communion as well. The Quakers are known
to be pacifists as they strongly oppose the use of violence or war in settling
disagreements. The Church of the Shakers, founded by “Mother” Ann Lee
(1736-1784), developed from the Church of the Quakers. They were first
called Shaking Quakers and later on just Shakers primarily because their
worship service involves devotional dance.
The Shakers, like the Quakers, are usually farmers. But unlike the Quakers
and other Protestant sects, the Shakers, both male and female, practice
celibacy. Once they become members of the society or church, Shakers are
forbidden to have children.
P entecostal C hurch
A distinctive feature of this movement is its belief in the baptism with
the Holy Spirit, which provides Christian spiritual gifts, including the ability
to speak in tongues and the power of healing. The movement derives its
name from the feast of Pentecost, during which the Holy Spirit descended
on the Apostles (as described in the Book of Acts of the Apostles of the
UNIT I 97
Bible), empowering them with the gift of tongue (the ability to speak many
languages) for the preaching of the gospel in various places. For this reason,
this movement is also described as Apostolic or Full Gospel.
Pentecostal Churches, however, are divided on the nature of the Holy
Trinity so they have Trinitarian and Non-Trinitarian branches. The United
Pentecostal Church International, for instance, rejects the standard idea of
the Trinity, that there are three Persons in one God. Rather it believes in the
Oneness of God, which upholds that God is a single Person who has three
manifestations: the Father (in the Old Testament), the Son (during Jesus
Christ’s ministry on earth), and the Holy Spirit (after Christ’s ascension).
T he A nglican C hurch
The Anglican Church originated in England
during the time of King Henry VIII (1491-1547).
In 1530s, King Henry VIII made himself the
Supreme Head of the Church of England and
challenged the authority of the Pope (Molloy
2010, 388; Matthews 2010, 306). King Henry
simply wanted the Pope to agree to his divorce
from his first wife, Catherine. It had nothing to
do with doctrines and practices. It was only
later that the changes that made the Anglican
King Henry VIII Church distinct from the Catholic Church were
introduced.
Anglicanism is generally regarded as a kind of middle way between
Catholicism and Protestantism. Its religious doctrines and practices are
a blend of those found in Catholicism and Protestantism. One important
contribution of this church was the publication of the King James Bible
in 1611, an English version of the Bible whose writing was sponsored by
King James I (the successor of Queen Elizabeth I). Later on, the Anglican
Church in England branched out into different forms of churches outside
of England. Majority of these churches are members of the international
group of Anglican churches called the Anglican Communion. The Anglican
Communion recognizes the Archbishop of Canterbury in England as its
leader, though not in the same way that the Pope is seen as the central
authority of the Catholic Church. For one, each of the Anglican churches is
free to decide on its own religious practices.
In addition to the Christian Bible, something common to all Anglican
churches is their use of the Book of Common Prayer, which is a collection

of major prayers in English for church use. Some Anglican churches ordain
women as priests and even appoint female bishops.
N ontraditional C hristian C hurches

The Churches of Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Protestantism,
and Anglicanism are considered traditional churches for while they
have differences in doctrines and practices, they maintain certain views
regarded as traditionally Christian, especially those concerning the Holy
Trinity (that there are three Persons in one God) and the divinity of Jesus (that
Jesus is God—as God the Son). However, there are churches that deviate
from these traditionally Christian views, but still members of these churches
consider themselves Christian for they profess to follow the teachings and
examples of Jesus and see him as the key to salvation. Whether they are
really still Christian is debatable for some Christians. Most of these churches
originate form some Protestant or Anglican churches. These non-traditional
churches include the Mormon (or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints) and Jehovah’s Witness (Molloy 2010, 394-98; Matthews 2010,
309-12).
Jehovah’s Witnesses do not believe in the Holy Trinity and the divinity
of Jesus. For them, God, Jehovah, has only one person (a view called
unitarianism), and Jesus, though the Messiah, was actually the archangel
Michael created by God (as His only begotten son) and whom God recreated
as Jesus the man to save mankind. They also do not believe that humans
have immortal souls (“soul” for them only means life), nor do they believe in
hell as eternal damnation. According to them, these beliefs are not found in
the Bible. For them, giving allegiance to God means separating themselves
from the affairs of the world. Thus they are strongly apolitical. They do not
involve themselves in political affairs such as elections and they refuse to
be drafted during wars. They refuse to salute the flag. They also do not
allow blood transfusion because of the biblical teaching against ingesting
blood.
The Mormons, on the other hand, have a different understanding of the
Holy Trinity. They believe that God the Father, God the Son, and God the
Holy Spirit are not three Persons in one God (as traditionally believed by
Christians) but are three different Persons (and hence are actually three
distinct Gods). These three Persons constitute what they call the Godhead, '
for they are one in purpose. Some Mormons also believe that since Jesus was
created by the Father, Jesus was a lesser God than the Father. In addition to
the Bible (which the Mormons believe is not free from errors), the Mormons
UNIT I 99
have other sacred texts, foremost of which is the Book of Mormon, written
by Joseph Smith, Jr. (1805-1844), the founder of the Mormon Church.
S ome C hallenges
In addition to the challenges arising from the diversity of views of many
Christian denominations, some of the issues that most Christian societies
face nowadays concern the following: (a) issues arising from the use of
modern technology in biomedicine, such as researches involving human
embryos (such as stem-cell research), the use of contraceptives, and
the practices of invitro fertilization, surrogacy, and organ transplantation
(especially in cases where the organs come from brain-dead patients and
severely damaged infants); (b) issues arising from the expanding scope of
the concept of human rights, which include the right of women to assume
leadership in churches (women as priests and pastors, for instance), the right
to same-sex marriage, the right to gender preference in one’s sexual lifestyle
(which includes homosexuality, bisexuality, sex change, and others), the
right to abortion, and the right to divorce; and (c) issues about church-state
relations, which basically come down to whether churches should meddle
with politics, which translates to endorsing candidates during elections,
and endorsing or condemning governmental policies or laws such as those
concerning death penalty and reproduction.
1. What do you think of the idea of predestination? Do you agree with it?
2. Read James 2:14-17, which talk about the relation between faith and
deeds. How do you understand these passages?
IÂ ctivit^l
I. Do the following tasks.

1. Identify one Christian denomination in the Philippines that was
founded by a Filipino. Do a research paper on its origins, doctrines,
and practices.
2. Interview a Christian parent or couple on why they are Christians,
what denomination of Christianity they are members of, and what
Christian beliefs and practices they adhere to. This can be a written
or an oral report.

map.
Holy Trinity Old Gospels Prtotestant Churches
New Christmas Jesus Christ Lord’s Supper
Church-state Relations Eastern Orthodox Churches
Christianity
Review Questions
Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. The title of Jesus as the Christ is a recognition of his being the
a. Holy One b. Last Prophet c. Messiah
UNIT I 101
2. Jesus was baptized b y ___________
a. Joseph b. the High Priest c. John the Baptist
3. Jesus often preached using___________
a. parables
b. actual events as demonstrations
c. argumentation
4. The Roman emperor who converted to Christianity and made it the
state religion of the Roman Empire w a s___________
a. Marcus Aurelius
b. Constantine
c. Julius Ceasar
5. The former persecutor of Christians who later on became a great
defender and propagator of the Christian Faith w as-------------------
a. Peter c. Paul
b. John d. Ananias
6. We learn about the life of Jesus mainly from th e ___________
a. Gospels
b. Acts of the Apostles
c. Epistles
7. The ___________ are letters of the apostle Paul to the early
Christians.
a. Acts of the Apostles
b. Epistles
c. Revelation
8. T h e ___________ symbolically speaks about the Christian vision of
how in the end of time the good will eventually prevail over evil or
how the Kingdom of God will reign in the world.
a. Acts of the Apostles
b. Epistles
c. Revelation
9. Of the four books of the Gospels, the book o f ___________ is not
part of the Synoptic Gospels.
a. Matthew c. Luke
b. Mark d. John
10. The Epistles addressed to individual churches and dealt with
ministerial matters are called.

a. Prison Epistles c. Catholic Epistles
b. Pastoral Epistles
11. The author of the Revelation introduced himself in the said book as
a. John the Baptist c. John of Patmos

b. John the Apostle
12. The Christian belief that God has three persons, namely, the Father,
Son, and the Holy Spirit, is referred to as th e ___________
a. Trimurti c. Holy Trinity
b. Tripikaya
13. The process wherein the physical components of the bread and wine
remain unchanged but their essences change into the essences of
Jesus’s body and blood, respectively, is called___________
a. transubstantiation c. transignification
b. consubstantiation
14. The-------------------is a Christian ritual for moral purification and serves
as an initiation rite.
a. Baptism c. Confirmation
b. Lord’s Supper
15. T h e ___________ recalls the first preaching of the apostles.
a. Feast of Ascencion c. Advent
b. Feast of Pentecost
16. The Pope or the Bishop of Rome is the highest spiritual leader in the
a. Greek Orthodox Church c. Protestant Church

b. Catholic Church
17. The so-called East-West Schism refers to the split between the
a. Catholic and Protestant Churches

b. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches
c. Catholic and AnglicanChurches
18. The Protestant Church developed from the movement of protest
against certain practices of the Catholic Church that was highly'
inspired by the publication of the Ninety-Five Theses by__________
a. Martin Luther c. John Knox
b. John Calvin
UNIT I 103
19. The leader of French Protestants who advanced the belief in
predestination w a s -----------------
a. Martin Luther c. John Knox
/ b. John Calvin
20. One central view shared by Baptists and Anabaptist is their rejection
o f__________
a. baptism c. adult baptism
b. infant baptism
21. One distinct feature of the_________ is their use of logic and reason
in understanding and interpreting matters of faith.
a. Methodist Church c. Pentecostal Church
b. Presbyterian Church
22. Their worship service involves devotional dance:
a. Quakers c. Methodists
b. Shakers
23. A distinctive feature of th e __________ is its belief in the baptism
with the Holy Spirit, which provides Christian spiritual gifts including
the ability to speak in tongues and the power of healing.
a. Methodist Church c. Pentecostal Church
b. Presbyterian Church
24. The__________originated in England during the time of King Henry
VIII, who challenged the authority of the Pope.
a. Anglican Church
b. Mormon Church
c. Church of Jehovah’s Witness
25. T h e __________does not believe in the Holy Trinity and the divinity
of Jesus, for they consider God as having only one person.
a. Anglican Church
b. Mormon Church
c. Church of Jehovah’s Witness
Explain:
1. The Christian message that a loving God sent His only begotten Son
in order to redeem humankind from eternal damnation.
2. How do the two great com m andm ents sum m arize the Ten
Commandments of Moses?

3. Reasons for the split between the Roman Catholic Church and
Eastern Orthodox Church.
KWL Chart
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Christianity What 1want to know about Christianity
L
What 1have learned about Christianity
ISLAM
Guide Question
What are the basic features of Islam?
TOPICS

Islam Qur’an
K ey C oncepts
Muslim I®- Sunna
Abraham »» Hadith
Ishmael » Shari’ah
D®5 Hagar Tawhid
BSP Muhammad Day of Judgment and Day
B®5 Mecca of Resurrection
US’ Yathrib/Medina ^ Five Pillars of Islam
(shahadah, salat, zakat,
BS= Khadijah
sawm, and hajj)
63s Abu Talib
US3 Jihad
ES= Night of Power
Sunni and Shia Islam
US’ Kabah
Sufism
B§= Night of Journey
Kg3 Rightly guided caliphs
BS= Hijra
0®* Caliphs and imams


■a? Identify the spiritual and biological ancestors of Muslims,
i®- Narrate some key events in the life of Muhammad, the founder of
Islam.
'«■ Explain the basic features of Islam’s sacred texts, namely the Qur’an
and Hadith.
>®- Explain the Five Pillars of Islam, namely, shahadah, salat, zakat,
sawm, and hajj.
is- Distinguish between Sunni Islam and Shiite Islam.
«*■ Explain the basic elements of Sufism or Sufi Islam.
How did Islam originate? What are its sacred texts?
Because it began only in the seventh century BCE, Islam is considered the
youngest of the major religions. But with its followers, the Muslims, constituting
almost 25 percent of the world’s population, Islam is considered the second
largest religion (Deming 2015, 390). Though earlier Muslims were Arabs,
there are actually more non-Arab Muslims today than Arab ones. According
to the estimate of Deming (2015, 390), “the nation with the largest Muslim
population is Indonesia—where almost 13 percent of all Muslims live (over
200 million according the Pew Research Center). After Indonesia comes
Pakistan (175 million), India (160 million), and Bangladesh (145 million).
Egypt and Nigeria currently tie for the fifth spot (78 million each); and Iran
UNIT I 107
and Turkey tie for the sixth spot (73 million each). Of these eight countries
only three are in the Middle East (Egypt, Iran, and Turkey) and only one is
Arab (Egypt).”
ISLAM AND THE MUSLIMS

The word Islam literally means “surrender” or
“submission.” In the context of the religious tradition
of Islam, the word specifically means “surrender or
submission to God.” The word Muslim or Moslem, on
the other hand, means “one who submits to God.’Thus
the followers of Islam are the Muslims (or Moslems).
Muslims refer to God in Arabic as Allah (see Molloy
2010, 430; Peters 1994, 8-9). The use of the word
“Allah” is not intended to qualify the kind of God that Muslims worship. Allah
is not different from the God of the Jews or the Christians. Allah, in fact, is
the same God that Abraham—a common spiritual ancestor of the Jews,
Christians, and Muslims— recognizes.
Though most Arabs are Muslims, and the early Muslims were Arabs, the
terms “Muslims” and “Arabs” are clearly not equivalent. Before most of the
Arabs became Muslims, they were either Jews, Christians, or others (Judaism
and Christianity were already established when Islam was only beginning to
establish itself). There are Arabs who remained non-Muslims even today—the
Arab Jews, Arab Christians, and others. Furthermore, since the spread of Islam
outside of Arab territories, there have been various non-Arab Muslims, such
as the Muslims in Indonesia (whose population is predominantly Muslims),
Pakistan, Philippines, Malaysia, and many other parts of the world.
If being a Muslim means submission to God, wouldn’t this make anyone
who submits to God, such as devout Jews or Christians, Muslims as well?
Submission to God, according to Muslims, means first and foremost accepting
and putting into action the fundamental doctrines of Islam, which are
contained in the so-called Five Pillars of Islam. If Islam means “submission
to God,” then these five pillars are the Five Pillars of Submission to God. In
addition to believing in Allah, one also needs to accept other beliefs especially
that Muhammad is God’s last prophet or messenger. This means that to
be a Muslim, or to be one who submits to God (as Muslims understand it),
one must, in addition to believing in God, also accept that Muhammad is
God’s last prophet, among others. (See below for a discussion of the five
pillars.)

Islam shares some of the accounts in the Bible of the Jews and Christians,
and Muslims recognize most of the prophets mentioned in the Bible. Muslim
Arabs, in particular, trace their racial and spiritual roots to Abraham through
his son Ishmael. (Some Muslim scholars trace their spiritual roots even
to Adam, the first human in the Biblical account.). It will be recalled that
Abraham had two sons, Isaac and Ishmael. Isaac was Abraham’s son from
his wife Sarah, while Ishmael was Abraham’s son from Hagar, the Egyptian
maidservant of Sarah. Isaac had a son, Jacob, also known as Israel, whose
12 sons became the 12 tribes of Israel. One of Jacob’s son was Judah,
whose tribe and later on kingdom became the basis of the word “Jews”
and “Judaism.” On the other hand, Ishmael travelled with his mother Hagar
across the desert to another region. Ishmael is said to have established a
tribe called Ishmaelites, who were later on called Arabs. Abraham is the
common spiritual ancestor of Muslims, Jews, and Christians in so far as the
belief in one God is concerned. But while the Jews trace their racial roots
to Abraham through Isaac, the Arabs trace theirs to Abraham through
Ishmael.
MUHAMMAD
Islam began and developed in the region of Arabia, particularly in the
cities of Mecca and Yathrib (Yathrib was later on called Medina— meaning,
“the city of the Prophet”) in the early seventh century CE. Muslims believe
that the teachings of Islam all come from God or Allah through the revelations
Muhammad (also spelled as “Mohammad” or “Mohammed”) (570-632 CE)
had. Muhammad is considered in Islam as God’s chosen messenger. In this
light, Muslims believe that Islam, in terms of its teachings, was founded by
Allah (Peters 1994,3); but as a religious tradition, Islam is widely considered
to be founded by Muhammad.
Muhammad regarded himself, and likewise by the entire Muslim world,
as the last among a series of prophets or messengers of God. Muhammad
acknowledged the personalities in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures to
whom God revealed his messages, such as Abraham, Noah, Moses, John the
Baptist, and Jesus (Muhammad and his followers regarded Jesus as a mere
prophet and not as a God as the Christians believe), as all prophets of Islam.
Being the last of the prophets, Muhammad and his followers believed that the ,
messages and instructions revealed to him by God were the final ones. In
this regard, Muslims regard Muhammad as the “Seal of the Prophets,” which
indicates that there will be no further prophets after him, and consequently,
there will be no further revelations from God after those he had.
UNIT I 109
Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE. Being orphaned at an early
age, Muhammad first lived with his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and later
on, after his grandfather died, with his uncle Abu Talib. At the age of 25,
Muhammad married a widow named Khadijah, who was then 40 years old.
Muhammad met Khadijah when he worked as a caravan driver for Khadijah,
who took over the caravan company when her first husband died. Muhammad
and Khadijah led a successful married life which only ended when Khadijah
died after 25 years of marriage. They had six children, consisting of two sons
and four daughters. The two sons unfortunately died in infancy. Among the
daughters, only one, named Fatima, survived after Muhammad’s death.
Fatima had two sons from her marriage to Muhammad’s cousin Ali ibn
Abu Talib (the son of his uncle Abu Talib), who became the fourth Caliph
of Islam and first of the twelve imams (Muslim leaders) after Muhammad’s
death. Their two sons, Hassan and Hussein, would later on be recognized
as imams (or spiritual leaders).
Wanting to deepen his spiritual life, Muhammad frequently went to the
caves in the hills surrounding Mecca to meditate. At the age of 40, while
meditating in a cave at Mount Hira in about 610 CE, he received his first
message from God through a bright presence which Muhammad identified
as the angel Gabriel. This first interaction of Muhammad with God through
the angel Gabriel has been called the “Night of Power.” Muhammad at first
doubted himself about the experience, thinking that he might have just
hallucinated. But he was later on assured by the cousin of Khadijah, named
Waraqa Ibn Nawfal, who was a believer of one God and who later on became
a Christian, that what Muhammad went through was an experience of a
prophet that was in line with the experiences of the Jewish and Christian
prophets. Muhammad would later on continue to receive messages from
God until he died on June 8, 632. Muhammad would share his religious
experiences and the messages that he received with the members of his
family and close friends (which included his wife, cousin Ali, and close friend
Abu Bakr), who became the first Muslims.
One of the important messages Muhammad received from God was
that only the One God, Allah, should be worshipped. Thus the statues of
other gods should be destroyed. This particular revelation put Muhammad in
conflict with people in power in Mecca, in particular the people who profited
from the business involved in the pilgrimage movement in the region. Mecca
was then a center of religious pilgrimage. At the center of Mecca was a
square-shaped shrine called Kabah (Kaaba or Ka’aba, which literally means
“cube”), which contained a black meteorite which was worshipped for it was

believed to have been sent from heaven. Within the Kabah were statues of
so many tribal gods and goddesses that people worshipped. Yearly, many
people from other regions would visit Mecca to worship these gods and
goddesses. Because Muhammad taught the people that these statues
must not be worshipped and should be destroyed, his life was threatened
by the people who were profiting from the yearly pilgrimages. And when his
wife Khadijah and uncle Abu Talib, who had some influence in society, both
died, Muhammad feared for his life and considered leaving Mecca. But it
was during this stressful time, in 620 CE, that Muhammad had a spiritual
experience in which he was carried to Jerusalem and from there, guided by
the angel Gabriel, was brought up to heaven (or paradise). Once in heaven,
Muhammad first encountered the angels and the previous prophets like
Abraham, Noah, and Moses and then was united with God. Muslims have
called this experience Muhammad’s Night Journey or Night of Ascent.
To escape the increasing persecution of Muhammad and his followers
in Mecca, and upon the invitation of the leaders of Yathrib (to serve as an
impartial arbitrator of the conflicts there), Muhammad and his followers moved
from Mecca to Yathrib in 622 CE.The migration has been called in Arabic
the Hijrah (or Hegira). This was a momentous event in the development of
Islam, for it was the beginning of the favorable acceptance of Islam and,
consequently, of the establishment of the Islamic community (called umma).
The Muslims considered this period (of the Hijra) as the beginning year of
the Muslim calendar. Soon, despite initial opposition from the Jews and
other residents in Yathrib, the Muslims were able to establish themselves in
Yathrib, which was later on called Medina. Medina then became one of the
three most sacred cities of Islam; the other two are Mecca and Jerusalem.
But though already living a relatively peaceful life in Medina, Mohammad
had always wanted to go back to Mecca. In a series of war with the Meccans,
(in one occasion Mohammad was even injured), the Muslims were able to
go back to Mecca and finally take control of the city in 630 CE. Muhammad
destroyed the images and statues of the gods and goddesses worshiped in
the region and established the Islamic faith. Soon, Islam spread to the other
regions of Arabia. Mohammad, though, continued to make Medina the place
of his residence. Before his death in Medina in 632 CE, Muhammad was
still able to make one final pilgrimage to Mecca and deliver his final speech
to the Muslims there (Molloy 2010, 425-29; Matthew 2010, 328-35; Peters ,
1994, Ch.2, for some other details on the life of Muhammad).
In sum, the spiritual ancestors of Islam include Abraham, Ishmael, and
the other prophets, which include Noah, Moses, and even Jesus.The founder
UNIT I 111
of Islam as a religious tradition, however, was Muhammad. Muhammad,
regarded by Muslims as the last prophet or messenger of God, is believed
to have received from God his final messages and instructions. Such
messages and instructions were later on written down and became the
doctrines of Islam, which constitute its holy book, the Qur’an, and bases of
its religious practices. And with the military leadership of Muhammad and
his faithful followers, the Muslims were able to overcome various obstacles
in establishing Islam in Mecca and later on spread it further to the other
regions of Arabia and beyond.
THE QUR’AN ANDHADITH

Muhammad shared God’s messages
to him first to his close family and friends
and then to other people. Though some
of these revelations were written down by
his close followers, memorization through
oral transmission was the primary way of
preserving these messages. The consistency
of these messages was maintained by Muhammad. If there were questions
about what these messages really were and meant, Muhammad was there to
clarify it. But when Muhammad died, his disciples became concerned about
how to deal with the variations that might arise with regard to the messages,
so they decided to write down an authoritative version of the messages.
The project of writing down Muhammad’s revelations was initiated by Abu
Bakr, who became the first caliph (from khalifa which means “successor”) or
successor of Muhammad as Islam’s spiritual leader. The project was finished
in 656 CE during the caliphate of Uthman. The finished book was called the
Qur’an, which literally means “The Recitation” (see Molloy 2010, 425).
The Qur’an consists of 114 chapters (or suras), which cover a wide
variety of topics which include the spiritual origins of Islam in the persons
of the different prophets, values, and specific instructions on how to live an
ethical life. As the messages of God were revealed to Muhammad in Arabic,
an authoritative written version of these messages had to be in Arabic. Thus,
any translation of the Qur’an is considered to be an interpretation of the
original messages already.
The Qur’an contains the main doctrines of Islam, but to help themselves
understand and interpret these doctrines, Muslims rely on what is called the
Hadith, which literally means “reports” or “recollections” (Molloy 2010, 462).

The Hadith consists of written narrations of Muhammad’s life, which report
his words, actions, decisions, and characteristics as a person.
While the Hadith refers to the entire collection of narrations, a hadith
refers to each narration. Each hadith consists of two parts: the text or report
itself and the chain or series of narrators for the Hadith (this was intended
to give authenticity to the report). Each branch of Islam, however, refers to
a different collection of hadiths, though they may be about the same things
(that is, about the same events in Muhammad’s life).
The idea behind the hadiths was that Muhammad’s life was an ideal
manifestation or a perfect model of a life lived according to the teachings of
the Qur’an. While Muslims do not regard Muhammad as a god (neither did
Mohammad proclaim to be one), they regard him as a human who has lived
a spiritually and morally perfect life.
Among the hadiths, those recalled by Muhammad’s wife Aishah are
regarded as the most trusted. One popular hadith was the one recalled by
Umar, the second caliph of Islam. According to his hadith, angel Gabriel
appeared in human form and had a conversation with Muhammad about
the essence of Islam. It is said that while Muhammad was kneeling, a man
kneeled beside him and asked him about what it means to submit to God.
Muhammad replied by stating the Five Pillars of Islam, to which the man
agreed. When the man left, Muhammad told Umar that the man he talked
with was the angel Gabriel (Urubshurow 2009, 230).
The Hadith is generally also called the Sunnah. Some Muslim scholars,
however, make a distinction between the two (see, for instance, Peters
1994, 214-15; Matthews 2010, 336), and they disagree about the nature
of the distinction. We can identify at least three views on this. One view
claims that the Hadith as we have defined it is actually the Sunnah, and
the Hadith actually just refers to the sayings of Muhammad, which would
make the Hadith simply a part of the Sunnah. Another view maintains the
identity of the Hadith as we have defined it above, and understands the
Sunnah as a set of practices that Muhammad taught the Muslims to follow
and which were passed on to the next generations of Muslims. Consequently,
this view sees the Sunna as more reliable than the Hadith. Still another
view simply regards the Sunnah as referring to the contents of the Hadith, that
is, the Hadith is the set of written records of the Sunnah— understood here
as referring to the words, actions, and decisions of Muhammad. These are
issues that Muslim scholars are to decide on. For our purpose of indicating'
another sacred work of Islam that records the ideal life of Muhammad as he
practiced the teachings of the Qur’an, it will suffice to follow the third view,
that the Hadith contains the Sunnah.
UNIT I 113
THE SH A R IA H
From the religious doctrines of the Qur’an and the Hadith, Islamic scholars
formulated the Shari’ah, which literally means “pathway to be followed” or
f‘the path leading to the watering place”—for the path to this place is the
whole way of life in the desert. Shari’ah refers to the Islamic Law or the basic
Islamic legal system. Recognized by most Muslim groups, the Shari’ah is
a system of duties, responsibilities, or rules which Muslims must follow as
a matter of religion. It covers all aspects of life such as issues arising from
one’s personal dealings with other people; matters concerning marriage
contracts; trade regulations; how to govern the state; rules for prayer, charity,
fasting, sexual intercourse, hygiene, and diet among others; and punishments
for specific crimes like theft, drinking alcohol, adultery, and murder (these
punishments include beheading, stoning, and flogging). In varying degrees,
Shari’ah serves as the basis for making legal laws in many Muslim countries
which include Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Brunei, United Arab Emirates,
Yemen, Mauritania, Qatar, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
In sum, the primary sacred text of Islam is the Qur’an. The secondary
ones are the Hadith and the book of Shari’ah. The Qur’an contains God’s
messages to Muhammad. As Muhammad is believed to be the last prophet
(and there will not be another one), these messages are believed to be the
final messages of God to humanity. The Hadith is a written record of the
words, actions, decisions, character, and practices of Muhammad, which
constitute a perfect model for a life lived according to the teachings of the
Qur’an. The Shari’ah refers to the Islamic legal law, which was based on the
Qur’an and Hadith and was formulated to serve as specific guidelines for
Muslims in carrying out their everyday affairs or activities.
sc us s i o n Q uestions
Identify a movie depicting Muslims. How were the Muslims depicted
in the movie? Do you think they were rightly depicted in this movie? Why?
lActivityl
Research on how people in some parts of Mindanao became Muslims

and how conflicts in Mindanao were related to Islam. This can be a written
or an oral report or a video presentation.

What are the major doctrines and practices of Islam?
O neness of G od (T awhid )
At the core of Islamic faith is Tawhid, referring to the belief in the
oneness of God. The Arabic word “Allah” for God already existed even before
Muhammad received his messages from God, but the Arabs then regarded
Allah as merely one among the gods that they worshipped. Acting on the
messages that he received from God, Muhammad taught and asserted that
only Allah is God and there are no other gods aside from Allah. Allah, in
fact, embodies everything that the other gods were thought to embody. That
means Allah, the only true God, has all the powers attributed to the other
gods, such as the powers to help humans deal with their problems, forgive,
and send rains, among others.The Qur’an particularly notes that God, being
one, cannot have a father and a son, indicating Islam’s nonacceptance of
the Christian doctrine of the Holy Trinity.
Aside from the word “Allah,” Muslims call God by other names (it is
said that Muslims have 99 names for God), each name indicating a specific
divine power. These names include the following: the Most Compassionate
(ar-Rahmn), the Merciful (ar-Rahm), the All-Peaceful, (as-Salm), the
Forgiver (al-Ghaffr), the Gentle, Knower of Subtleties (al-Latf), the Grateful
(ash-Shakr), the Responsive (al-Mujb), the Praiseworthy (al-Hamd), the
Cause of Death (al-Mumt), the Light (an-Nr), and the Patient One (as-
Sabi) (Urubshurow 2009, 199-200). The attributes of God as indicated in
these names suggest that the Allah of Muslims is a personal God, one who
cares about the affairs and welfare of humans.
T he A fterlife
Like the Jews and Christians, Muslims believe in an afterlife and in the Day
of Resurrection and Day of Judgment. A day will come when dead humans
will be resurrected and will be judged by God according to their deeds on
whether they deserve eternal happiness or suffering. In this connection,
Muslims also believe in heaven or paradise (Jannah), a place of eternal
happiness where good people (people who submit to God’s will) are put
by God; and hell (Jahannam), a place of suffering where evil people (those
who do not submit to God’s will) are put by God.
UNIT I 115
A ngels and J inn
Muslims also believe in angels and jinn (the singular is jinnie, djinnie, or
genie), who are spiritual beings created by God. The angels are believed to
have been created by God from light.They do not have free will, and so they
are not accountable for their actions and are neither good nor evil. They act
as messengers of God to the prophets, who in turn are God’s messengers
to the people. For instance, Muhammad received his messages from God
through the angel Gabriel. Angels also keep a record of the good and bad
actions of humans. It is believed that two angels are assigned to each human
being upon birth to record the good and bad actions of the human being and
report them back to God on the Day of Judgment.
On the other hand, jinn are believed to have been created by God from
smokeless and scorching fire. Unlike angels, jinn have free will and thus
are morally accountable for their actions and are either good or evil. For
this reason, like humans, jinn will also be judged on the Day of Judgment
and will be sent either to heaven/paradise or hell. When God ordered the
angels and jinn to bow down to Adam, the first human, a jinnie called Satan
refused to do so. As a result, God banished Satan from Paradise. Satan
and his followers continue to disobey God by tempting humans not to obey
God’s commands. An example is Satan’s temptation of Abraham to disobey
God’s command to offer his son as a sacrifice.
THE PROPHETS
As already noted, Muslims believe in prophets or messengers of God.
God speaks to the people through the prophets. Muslims recognize many
of the prophets recognized by the Jews and Christians though they appear
in the Qur’an in their Arabic names. These include Adam (Adem), the first
prophet, Abraham (Ibrahim), Ishmael (lsm‘l), Noah (Nu), Moses (Musa),
Elisha (Alyasa), David (Dawid), John the Baptist (Yahya), Jesus (Isa), and
Muhammad. Jesus, as earlier noted, is recognized as a prophet and not as
a god. Muhammad, as also previously mentioned, is regarded as the last of
the prophets (Peters 1994, 185-189).
THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

There are five obligatory activities for all Muslims. They are standardly
referred to as the Five Pillars of Islam. These activities were mentioned by
Muhammad in the famous hadith involving the angel Gabriel.To recall, in this
hadith, Muhammad had a brief interaction with Gabriel who had assumed

a human form. The angel Gabriel asked Muhammad what “submission to
God”—or “Islam”— meant, and Muhammad replied by stating the five pillars.
The five pillars, which define the Muslim life, consist of the following: (1)
testimony of faith (shahadah), which requires Muslims to publicly profess or
affirm their faith in the oneness of God and in the authority of Muhammad as
God’s messenger; (2) prayer (salat), which requires Muslims to pray to God
five times each day; (3) charity for the poor (zakat), which requires Muslims
to donate a certain percentage of their resources to the poor; (4) fasting
during Ramadan (sawm), which requires Muslims to abstain from taking in
food and water for a specified period of time; and (5) pilgrimage to Mecca
(haj)), which requires Muslims who are physically and financially capable to
visit the holy place of Mecca at least once in their lifetime.
1. Testimony of Faith (Shahadah)
The shahadah or the Islamic testimony of faith is the most
important among the pillars for it serves as the foundation for the
other pillars. Anyone who submits to the will of the one God and in
the authority of the messages that Muhammad received from God
must worship God through daily prayers, provide help to those who
are in need, make sacrifices and empathize with the unfortunate ones
through fasting, and give honor to the place of origin of one’s faith.
The testimony of faith is done by publicly reciting in Arabic the
Islamic creed which can be translated in English as “There is no
god but God (Allah), and Muhammad is the messenger of God.”
Non-Muslims wanting to be converted to Islam must recite the
creed with conviction. Muslims, for their part, regularly recite it to
reaffirm their Islamic faith or to verify their membership in the Islamic
community (or simply to tell the world that they are Muslims). The
creed is recited in their daily prayers, and it is written in Arabic
everywhere inside their mosques and over the doors of these
mosques. It is also the first words traditionally spoken into the ear of
a newborn from a Muslim family.
2. Prayer (Salat)
Daily prayers are obligatory on
every Muslim who has reached
the age of puberty, unless one
is p h y s ic a lly a n d /o r m e n ta lly
incapable of saying them. The daily
prayers are done five times a day:
UNIT I 117
(1) before dawn, (2) at midday/noon, (3) mid-afternoon, (4) sunset,
and (5) nighttime. They are intended to focus the mind on God,
express gratitude to God, and worship him. The prayers are recited
from memory in Arabic, and they consist of verses from the Qur’an
' and other prayer formulas. They are also accompanied by several
body postures: standing, bowing, prostrating, and sitting (exceptions
are given to those physically incapable of performing these postures).
Prayers are done facing the direction of Mecca (they were earlier done
facing the direction of Jerusalem until later revelations to Muhammad
changed the direction to Mecca).
A person called a muezzin usually announces the times for prayer
from the top of a tower called a minaret. Nowadays, calls to prayer
are recorded and are played over loudspeakers. A purification ritual,
particularly a ritual washing called wudu, is done before performing
the prayers. It consists of washing certain body parts with water
(or with sand if water is unavailable). Prayers may be done almost
everywhere, such as at homes, offices, universities, and fields, or at
mosques, except on Fridays, the day of public prayer, during which
prayers are done at mosques at midday in most Muslim countries
(the day of public prayer used to be Saturday following the Jewish
Sabbath until it was changed to Friday in accordance to a message
received by Muhammad from God). Public prayers are usually done
by men only at a mosque. Women ordinarily pray at home, but when
they are allowed to pray at a mosque, they are separated from the
men.
3. Charity for the Poor (Zakat)

The practice of zakat is in line with Muhammad’s overall vision
of a just society. To address the injustices and inequality existing
in society, Islam requires believers to donate a certain percentage
(usually 2.5 percent) of their total resources or accumulated wealth
each year to the poor. This practice is also done as a way of submitting
one’s properties to the purposes of God.
The payment of zakat, or the giving of charity, is usually done
at the end of the month of Ramadan. Those who do not have much
money should compensate for it by doing good deeds toward others.
Aside from the yearly obligation to give charity to the poor, Muslims
are also expected to perform charitable acts whenever necessary,
as Islam highly regards these acts as morally valuable.

4. Fasting during Ramadan {Sawm)
Fasting is done by Muslims on many occasions. They fast to
atone for their sins, fulfill certain obligations, or observe certain
special days. Ritual and shared fasting is done during the month of
Ramadan, which is the ninth month in the Islamic (lunar) calendar.
From dawn to dusk, Muslims must avoid all food, water, tobacco, and
sex everyday of this month. Fasting during the month of Ramadan
(which falls differently every year since its determination is based on
the lunar calendar) is required for all Muslims at the age of puberty
and up, except if one is physically not capable for reasons like
illness, old age, and certain female conditions such as pregnancy,
breastfeeding, and menstruation. Fasting during Ramadan serves
several purposes for Muslims. Generally, it is done to promote spiritual
growth or purification by disciplining an individual’s desires, foster
spiritual unity among Muslims, empathize with the suffering and the
poor, and reinforce dependence on God.
It was also during the last ten days of the month of Ramadan
when Muhammad first received his revelations. The feast at the
end of this month is therefore seen as a fitting way to celebrate this
special event. Furthermore, during Ramadan, Muslims are expected
to exert more effort to follow the teachings of Islam, such as seeking
forgiveness from God, expressing gratitude to God, reading the
Qur’an, and refraining from doing bad deeds.
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj)

The annual pilgrimage to Mecca
or hajj is required for all Muslims
who are physically and financially
capable. The pilgrimage is done
from the eigth to twelfth (or in some
cases thirteenth) month of the Islamic
(lunar) calendar.
Even before Muhammad was
born, pilgrim age to Mecca was
already a regular religious practice.
While the practice began with Abraham, later pilgrims worshipped
other tribal gods and goddesses. Muhammad adopted this practice
but in light of Abraham’s belief in one God. Thus the objective
of the pilgrimage for Muslims is to give honor to the holy places
UNIT I 119
associated with Allah and his prophets, such as the Kabah (believed
to have been built by Abraham and Ishmael) which houses the
black meteorite (believed to have been sent by God through
Angel Gabriel), and the places where Hagar and Ishmael drew
* water while travelling across the desert, and where Abraham offered
Ishmael as a sacrifice to God (this contrasts to the Jewish and
Christian account in which it was Isaac who Abraham offered to God
as a sacrifice).
A Muslim male who has undertaken the journey to Mecca is
called a hajji(male pilgrim), while a Muslim female who has done the
same is called a hajjiyah (a female pilgrim). Being a hajji or a hajjiyah
confers prestige to a Muslim. It must be noted however that Muslims
distinguish between this annual required pilgrimage to Mecca, called
the “greater pilgrimage,” and the voluntary pilgrimage to Mecca which
can be done at other times of the year, called the “lesser pilgrimage.”
Pilgrims, both men and women, refrain from certain actions like sex
and violence. Men wear a special clothing called the robe of Abraham,
which consists of two pieces of white, seamless cloth. Though there
is no required clothing for women, they usually dress in white and
they do not veil their faces during the pilgrimage.
During the pilgrimage, Muslims perform a series of rituals that involve

giving honor to certain places and objects associated with the prophets
Abraham, Ishmael, and Muhammad, and reenacting important events
in the lives of these prophets (Molloy 2010, 431-437; Matthews 2010,
335-37 for additional discussions of the five pillars).
T he J ihad
Though not officially a pillar, the important Islamic principle called the
jihad—which literally means “struggle"— is sometimes referred to by some
Muslims as the sixth pillar. Nowadays, most non-Muslims understand jihad
as a military warfare or battle of Muslims against non-Muslims. Muhammad
and his followers did engage in military warfare against non-Muslims when
they went back to Mecca from Medina, so jihad does include the meaning
of physical struggle to defend Islam. But jihad is not limited to this. It also
means psychological, spiritual, and moral struggle to overcome the evils

within oneself and in one’s environment and thus to lead an ethical life
according to the principles of Islam. In this consideration, a distinction is
made between greater jihad, referring to spiritual self-perfection, and lesser
jihad, referring to warfare. In its general sense, jihad thus means any kind
of struggle to defend the faith of Islam.
O ther I slamic P ractices

Other Islamic religious practices include the following (Molloy 2010,
437-40). Muslims are opposed to the practice of celibacy even for their imams
(religious leaders). Males are allowed to have four wives whom he must
treat equally, while women are allowed to have only one husband. Muslims
are forbidden to eat pork, drink alcohol, and engage in usury and gambling.
Muslims also practice circumcision. Male Muslims are circumcised between
the ages of 7 days and 15 years (age 7 or 8 is common) depending on local
practice. In some Muslim areas, even women are circumcised at the age of
puberty. This practice is sometimes referred to as female genital mutilation.
Both men and women are required by the Qur’an to wear modest
clothes, which has been translated to include, among others, the practice
of covering the hair or both hair and faces of women by a veil or headscarf
in varying ways in different Muslim regions. In traditional Muslim societies,
the parents arrange the marriage of their children. The bridegroom’s family
provides dowry, or an offer of money or property, to the family of the bride
as part of the marriage contract.
Some of the main festivals and holy days observed by the Muslims are
the following: Day of Sacrifice {Id al-Adha), which is celebrated during the
month of the Hajj; Day of Breaking the Fast {Id al-Ftr), which is observed
just after the end of the month of Ramadan; Muharram, which celebrates the
migration of Muhammad and his followers to Yathrib (Medina); Muhammad’s
birthday, which is celebrated on the twelfth day of the third month of the year;
and the birthdays of other holy men and women of Islam.
^ A c tiv ity !
Interview a Muslim about how he or she understands jihad and its

importance to Muslim life. This can be a written or an oral report.
UNIT I 121
Guide Questions
What are the denominations of Islam? What are some of its major
challenges?
Just like other world religions, Islam has many sects or denominations.
In this section, we shall look into the three major ones: Sunni Islam, Shia/
Shiite Islam, and Sufi Islam.
T he R ightly G uided Caliphs

After Muhammad’s death, the Islamic world was headed by the caliphs
(which literally means “successors”). The first four were (1) Abu Bakr, who
reigned from 632-634 CE; (2) Umar, who reigned from 634-644 CE; (3)
Uthman, who reigned from 644-656 CE; and (4) Ali, who reigned from
656-661 CE. It was during the reign of these four caliphs that Islam spread
in many regions outside of Arabia (such as Iran, Africa, Iraq, Syria, Palestine,
and Egypt), which eventually led to Islam becoming a world power. Islamic
countries enjoyed economic prosperity during this period. It was also during
this time that the Qur’an was finalized, reproduced, and distributed to many
parts of the world. The reign of these four caliphs is considered the golden
age of Islam and has been called the era of “The Rightly Guided Caliphs”
(Peters 1994, 115).
T he I ssue of S uccession
When Muhammad died, there was a disagreement over who should be
his rightful successor. Some felt that it should be someone elected by the
Islamic community and has the moral authority to be its leader (being a devout
Muslim), while some felt that it should be a direct descendant or someone
in the bloodline of Muhammad. Muhammad, however, did not have a living
son when he died (his two sons from his first wife both died in infancy and
apparently he did not have a son from his other wives as well). Though Abu
Bakr was the father-in-law of Muhammad, being the father of Muhammad’s
youngest wife Aisha, he was not an immediate family or a blood relative of
Muhammad. It was only Ali who was a blood relative of Muhammad. He was
the prophet’s first cousin, as he was the son of Muhammad’s uncle, Abu
Talib. Ali later on became Muhammad’s son-in-law for being the husband of

his daughter Fatima. Because of this, some felt that it was AN who was the
rightful successor of Muhammad. Ali and Fatima had two sons, who should
rightfully succeed Ali as the caliph (Molloy 2010,443-446 and Peters 1994,
Chapter 3 for a discussion of the succession issue).
T he S unnis and S hiites

The question of who should be the rightful successor of Muhammad
divided the Muslim world into two major groups, the Sunnis (or Sunni
Muslims) and the Shiites (Shia’s or Shia Muslims).These form the two major
denominations of Islam, Sunni Islam and Shia or Shiate Islam, respectively
(see Molloy 2010,446-52; Matthews 2010,337-38).The Sunnis, the largest
denomination of Islam (making up 75 to 90 percent of all Muslims today),
believe that a caliph should be elected by the community. Anyone who is
righteous and just, and who is living according to the teachings of the Qur’an
and the Hadith, could be a caliph. Since God did not appoint a particular
leader after Muhammad’s death and the first four caliphs were elected and
were followers of the Qur’an and the Hadith, these four caliphs were rightful
leaders of Islam.
The Shiites (making up about 10 to 15 percent of all Muslims today),
however, have a different belief. They believe that only a descendant or
blood relative of Muhammad could be his successor. And since only Ali was
Muhammad’s blood relative among the first four caliphs, the Shiites believe
that only Ali was the legitimate or rightful one, which makes Ali the first
legitimate caliph. The term “Shia” is a contraction of shiaatAli (or ShiatAli),
meaning supporters or followers of Ali. The Shiites claim that Muhammad
himself on one occasion named Ali as his successor. The Shiites also believe
that only the descendants or blood relatives of Muhammad can be imams
or spiritual leaders of Islam.
An imam, in its general usage, refers to any religious leader. The Sunnis
also refer to the caliphs as imams, indicating that their usage of imam only
refers to political leaders. In contrast, the Shiites consider only Ali, among the
four caliphs, as an imam, indicating that their usage of the word “imam” refers
to a spiritual or religious leader. This ties up with their belief that an imam, a
religious leader of Islam, should come from the bloodline of Muhammad and
is therefore chosen by God. Furthermore, Shiites believe that caliphs should
be imams, that is to say, political leaders should be religious leaders as well,
just like in the case of Muhammad who was both a political and spiritual
leader. After the death of Ali, there has, however, been no agreement on
the number of legitimate imams among Shiites. One Shiite group (called the
UNIT I 123
“Twelvers”) claims there are twelve; another group (the “Seveners”) claims
there are seven; and still another group (the “Fivers”) claims that there are
only five.
When Uthman, the third caliph, was murdered, Ali became the fourth
caliph. The governor of Syria, Muawiyah (from the Umayyad dynasty),
challenged the authority of Ali. Muawiyah, a cousin of Uthman, was
disappointed in the inability of Ali to bring the murderers of Uthman (later
on believed to be supporters of Ali) to justice. After wars between the forces
of Ali and Muawiyah were fought, Ali submitted to a peaceful process of
settling his dispute with Muawiyah. However during the said process, Ali
was assassinated. Ali’s son Hassan succeeded Ali as the next caliph, but his
reign was short. To avoid civil war and further bloodshed with the troops of
Muawiyah, Hassan gave up his leadership to Muawiyah. Hassan, however,
did this on the condition that Muawiyah would not appoint a successor and
let the Islamic world decide who the next caliph after Muawiyah’s reign would
end. It is said that Hassan and Muawiyah thus entered into a treaty in this
regard. Hassan later on died, believed to have been poisoned by the men
of Muawiya. Before Muawiyah’s death, he appointed his son Yazid to be his
successor, and so Yazid became the next caliph. Meanwhile, Ali’s other son
Hussein refused to recognize the authority of Yazid for it violated the alleged
treaty between Muawiyah and Hassan. Furthermore, Hussein decided to
assert his right to the caliphate, being the son of Ali. In one of the battles
between the forces of Hussein and Yazid, particularly in Karbala (modern
Iraq), Hussein was killed along with the members of his family.
As the forces that killed Hussein were identified with the Sunnis, the
killing of Hussein heightened the conflict and division between the Sunnis
and the Shiites. The death of Hussein is regarded by the Shiites as a heroic
act of martyrdom (fighting for his God-given right to the caliphate) and has
been regularly reenacted by the Shiites as part of their religious rituals.
Hussein’s martyrdom, in particular, is remembered annually during the month
of Muharram. The Shiites’ veneration of Hussein, along with his father Ali,
constitutes one major difference in the religious rituals of the Sunnis and
the Shiites.
T he S ufis
Sufism is the mystical version of Islam. It is called Tasawwuf (literally,
“to dress in wool”) in Arabic. The term “Sufism” comes from the Arabic word
suf, which means “wool,” the material that makes up the garments worn by
Sufi ascetics.

Sufism has various orders and many prominent leaders, one of whom
was Ibn Arabi (1165-1240). If the division of Islam into the Sunni and Shia
versions came about after the death of Muhammad, Sufi Islam came about
after the reign of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. After the reign of these caliphs,
Islam spread to many regions and eventually became an empire. Being a
world power, Islam enjoyed material prosperity and luxuries (mainly from
tribute money from the conquered). The question of whether worldly power
and wealth was the real objective of Islam eventually arose. As a reaction to
the worldliness enjoyed by Islam during that period, Sufi Islam developed.
Sufism emphasized what it thought to be essential in Islam, its spirituality,
which has been undermined or lost when Islam became a world power
(Molloy 2010, 453-59; Matthews 2010, 341-43).
Sufism is not an Islam sect that is separate or distinct from Sunni and
Shia Islam (though as we shall discuss later on, some fundamentalist Muslims
do not consider Sufism as part of Islam), for it can be found within the Sunni
and Shia sects. That is to say, there are Sunni Sufis and Shia Sufis. The
Sufis’ take on surrendering oneself to tawhid or the oneness of God is for
each individual to have a direct experience of God and be united with Him.
The Sufis believe that this can be achieved in this world by means of certain
meditative practices. Knowledge of God is achieved not by the usual means of
logical understanding, which they believe is limited, but by means of intuition
and mystical or religious experiences. Aside from praying and repetitiously
reciting the different names of God, some Sufis, particularly the Dervishes
of the Melveli order in Turkey, also engage in what is called Sufi whirling (or
spinning) meditation, which is a kind of physically active meditation. It is a
form of dance performed as part of a worship ceremony, in which performers
spin in circles, symbolically imitating the spinning of the planets as they orbit
the sun. Through this dance, the performers aim to abandon their egos or
personal desires and focus on God and the music.
For Sufis, worshipping God is done not out of fear of hell or desire for
heaven, but solely out of love for God. This view is well captured by Rabia
al Basri, one of the famous Sufi poets, in her poem “If I Adore You”:
If I adore You out of fear of Hell, burn me in Hell!

If I adore You out of desire for Paradise,
Lock me out of Paradise.
But if I adore You for Yourself alone,
Do not deny to me Your eternal beauty.
(Translated by Charles Upton. Taken from Poet Seers, Sufi Poets. Online: <http://www.
poetseers.org/spiritual-and-devotional-poets/sufi-poets/>)
UNIT I 125
Sufis believe that God’s presence can be felt anywhere, in every aspect
of nature. In this regard, they allude to certain verses of the Qur’an like
“Whithersoever you turn, there is the Face of God” (Sura 2: 109) and God
is “closer than your neck vein” (Sura 50:8). Also a common practice among
Sufis is the visitation or pilgrimages to the tombs of Islamic saints, great
scholars, and righteous people to seek spiritual guidance and ask blessings
from their spirits.
Sufism contributed significantly to the development of Islamic literature,
especially in the area of poetry. Using their own languages and blending
Islamic themes with inherited popular stories or legends, the Sufi poets
contributed to the development of regional and national literature. The
great Sufi poets include Omar Khayyam, Rumi, Kabir, Hafiz, Attar, Rabia al
Basri, Yunus Emre, Bibi Hayati, and Bulleh Shah. Sufi poetry is known for
expressing divine love and describing the mystical union of the soul with
God using metaphors of secular love and union with the beloved. Following
are some samples of these charming poems (all taken from Poet Seers,
Sufi Poets. Online: <http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual-and-devotional-poets/
sufi-poets/>).
From Rumi:
I was dead, then alive.
Weeping, then laughing.
The power of love came into me,
and I became fierce like a lion,
then tender like the evening star.
From Omar Khayyam (“Enjoy”—A verse from the Rubaiyat):

In life devote yourself to joy and love
Behold the beauty of the peaceful dove
Those who live, in the end must all perish
Live as if you are already in heavens above.
From Hafiz:
I have enough of loss, enough of gain;
I have my Love, what more can I obtain?
From A Hallaj (“I Am the One Whom I Love”):

I am the One whom I love,
and the One whom I love is myself.
We are two souls incarnated in one body;
if you see me, you see Him,
if you see Him, you see us.

Sadly the Sufis are being persecuted by certain Muslim groups. Many of
their mosques and shrines have been destroyed and some of their orders
have been outlawed in certain Muslim countries. One reason is political, like
when the Sufis or their leaders would not support the political leadership in
certain Muslim countries. Another is the perception of some Muslims, mostly
the fundamentalists, that Sufi practices are contrary to the teachings of Islam.
For instance, Sufis are accused of engaging in polytheism for venerating the
saints and great teachers. They are also criticized or persecuted for believing
that God is everywhere and for opposing the Islamic belief in the Day of
Judgment for they claim that it is possible to be united with God while living
in this world by means of certain practices like the whirling dance.
S ome C hallenges
What are some of the challenges facing Islam in the world today? The
Jews are still troubled by the Israeli-Arab wars. The Muslims, on the other
hand, are still troubled by their internal wars, particularly between the
Sunnis and the Shiites, and between mainstream Islam and Sufism. Islam
has also been associated with some terrorist acts, whether rightly or
wrongly. Another challenge concerns how women are treated in Islam.
While outsiders may see that Muslim women are not enjoying the rights that
they deserve or are entitled to, insiders generally see that the Islamic laws
and practices pertaining to women are precisely intended to protect women
from being corrupted by the undesirable ways of the world, especially those
of the West (see Matthews 2010 346-51 for additional discussion on
the challenges of Islam in the modern world).
SCUSSION iESTIONS
Which do you think has the better view on how Muhammad’s successor
should be chosen, the Sunnis or the Shiites? Why?
I^ A c tivity l
I. Research on a work of art (architecture, painting, music, novel, or poetry)

that was inspired by or is associated with Islam. How is Islam shown in
this work of art? This can be a short paper or a video presentation.
UNIT I 127
map.
Islam
Review Questions
1. The word Islam m eans-----------------

a. worship of God
b. surrender/submission to God
c. oneness of God

2. Muslims see Muhammad as th e __________
a. Seal of the Prophets c. First Prophet
b. Leader of the Prophets
3. The first interaction of Muhammad with God through the angel Gabriel
is called__________
a. Night of Ascent c. Night of Power
b. Night of Faith
4. Muhammad’s spiritual experience in which he was carried to
Jerusalem and brought up to heaven is called__________
a. Night of Ascent c. Night of Power
b. Night of Faith
5. ---------------- has been called the City of the Prophet
a. Mecca c. Hegira
b. Medina
6. The Qur’an literally m eans__________
a. The Revelations c. The Recitation
b. The Teachings
7. T h e _________ consists of written narrations of Muhammad’s life.
a. Qur’an c. Shari’ah
b. Hadith
8. The following refers to the Islamic Law or the basic Islamic legal
system:
a. Qur’an c. Shari’ah
b. Hadith
9. Muslims refer to God in Arabic a s __________
a. Allah c. Deus
b. Tawhid
10. _________ are spiritual beings who have no free will and act as
God’s messengers to the prophets.
a. Angels c. Imams
b. Jinn
11. The Muslims’ testimony of faith is referred to in Arabic as________
a. salat c. zakat
b. shahadah d. hajj
UNIT I 129
12. The Muslims’ prayer done on a daily basis is referred to in Arabic
a s -----------------
a. salat c. zakat
b. shahadah d. jihad
13. T h e _________ means struggle and it is sometimes referred to as
the sixth pillar of Islam.
a. salat c. jihad
b. zakat d. sawm
14. Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and AN are known in the Muslim world as
th e __________
a. four venerable imams c. four most loyal Muslims
b. rightly guided caliphs
15. T h e _________ believe that a caliph should be elected by the
community.
a. Sunnis c. Sufis
b. Shiites
16. T h e _________ believe that only a descendant or blood relative of
Muhammad could be his successor.
a. Sunnis c. Sufis
b. Shiites
17. _________ refers to mystical Islam.
a. Sunni Islam c. Sufism
b. Shia Islam
18. His death isregarded by the Shiites as a heroic act of martyrdom
a. Hassan c. AN
b. Hussein
19. The Shiites call their religious leaders__________
a. caliphs c. Prophets
b. imams
20. The Muslim belief in the oneness of God is called.
a. Sawm
b. Jannah
c. Tawhid

KWL Chart
after the lesson
K W
What 1know about Islam What 1want to know about Islam
L
What 1have learned about Islam
St
UNIT I 131
It HJ
R eligions^ O riginating m I n d ia .
Ch in a ,
*« # - * * * * <* #
amt J apan
•*. 4, # * * * *■ # J * 4 # * * #
Overarching Questions
What are the main features of Hinduism and Buddhism?

What are the main features of Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto?
Content Performance
Demonstrate an understanding of the Perform the different activities specified

main features of religions originating in in the chapters and lessons under this
India (Hinduism and Buddhism), China unit, where you will use your learning to
(Confucianism and Taoism), and Japan reflect on your own spirituality.
(Shinto) in terms of their origin, sacred
texts, doctrines, practices, denomina
tions, and challenges.
LEA R N IN G OUTCOME
The unit generally aims to introduce the nature of religions originating in

India (Hinduism and Buddhism), China (Confucianism and Taoism), and Japan
(Shinto). After going through the various lessons under this unit, you are expected
to come up with a reflection paper about how these lessons have broadened
your view of life and have deepened your spiritual life.
UNIT II 133
Chapter Content Competencies
3 Hinduism and Buddhism «■ How did Hinduism and Buddhism

originate? Who were their founders?
<® What are the sacred texts of
Buddhism and Hinduism?
■®- What are the basic doctrines
and practices of Buddhism and
Hinduism?
■® What are the denominations and
challenges of Buddhism and
Hinduism?
4 Confucianism, Taoism, i® How did Confucianism, Taoism, and

and Shinto Shinto originate? Who were their
founders?
i® What are the sacred texts of
Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto?
<® What are the basic doctrines and
practices of Confucianism, Taoism,
and Shinto?
i® What are the denominations and
challenges of Confucianism, Taoism,
and Shinto?
PRELEARNING CONCEPT CHECK

D i r e c t i o n : Mark the level of your knowledge or understanding of the
statements in the table using the following signs:
0 — no knowledge
+ — low level of knowledge
++ — average or moderate level of knowledge
+++ — high level of knowledge
At this point, answer only the left column (Before Studying Unit II).
Answer the right column (After Studying Unit II) after you have studied all
the lessons in the unit.

Before After Studying
Statements
Studying Unit II Unit II
1. The primary Hindu (revealed) sacred
texts are the Vedas.
2. The epics Ramayanc. and Mahabhrata
are part of the sacred texts of Hinduism.
3. The Hindus believe in one absolute reality
(called Brahman) and many gods and
goddesses (believed to be manifestations
of Brahman) at the same time.
4. Reincarnation and karma are among the
beliefs of Hinduism.
5. Hindus believe in a social stratification
system called the caste system.
6. Hindus practice various types of yoga to
achieve liberation from suffering and the
illusions of the world.
7. Hindus believe that gods can have human
incarnations which they call avatars.
8. Gautama Buddha, the founder of
Buddhism, was a former prince who later
on became a hermit before reaching
enlightenment and becoming the Buddha.
9. Buddhism teaches the Four NobleTruths,
which analyzes the cause and end of life’s
sufferings.
10. Buddhism has two major denominations:
Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana
Buddhism.
11. Mahayana Buddhism teaches that a
bodhisattva is one who has attained
enlightenment but postpones his/her
entry into the state of nirvana out of
compassion to help others also attain
enlightenment.
12. Confucianism and Taoism are two world
religions that originated in China.
UNIT II 135
13. Confucianism appeals to the “Mandate of
Heaven” in explaining the origin of things
and in judging what ought to happen or
be done in the world.
14. Confucianism conceives of an ideal
person, described as a noble person
or a gentleman, who is educated,
virtuous, appreciative of the arts, and
knowledgeable of rituals and ceremonies.
15. The authoritative books of Confucianism
were used as the bases for civil service
examinations in China for a long period
of time.
16. Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu are the two
important Taoist thinkers/philosophers.
17. Taoism teaches that the ultimate principle
of reality, called the Tao, cannot be
spoken.
18. Taoism teaches the principle of acting
without actions (wu-wei) as a way to go
with the natural flow of nature.
19. Taoism believes that nature leads to
the harmony of opposite forces (yin and
yang).
20. Taoism engages in alchemy to achieve
immortality.
21. The practices of Tai Chi and Feng Shui
have Taoist bases.
22. Shinto originated in Japan.
23. Shinto believes in spirits, called kami,
inhabiting nature.
24. Japanese emperors were regarded as
gods in Shinto.
25. Places of worship in Shinto are called
shrines.

O ^ T jE R * I
H induism
i - i;
and
i
B uddhism
What are the main features of Hinduism and Buddhism in terms of their
origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges?
EXPEC TED LEA R N IN G OUTCOME
The chapter aims to examine the basic elements of Hinduism and

Buddhism, the two major religions that originated in India. Specifically,
the chapter looks into the origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices,
denominations, and challenges of these religions. At the end of the
chapter, you must write and submit a comparative analysis of these
two religions (the themes are to be specified by the teacher). Such
themes may include the religions’ founders; sacred texts; notions of
the absolute; views on the essential human condition, morality, and
liberation (or way to achieve ultimate happiness); practices (which
include rituals and celebrations); denominations; and challenges (which
include issues concerning gender, relation with the state, modernization
and technology, and the expanding understanding of human rights).
The following is a sample template for this activity (the teacher is free
to make changes as he/she sees fit).
Religion Hinduism Buddhism
Founder(s).
Sacred Texts
The Absolute
The Human Condition
Morality
Liberation and Ultimate

Happiness
UNIT II 137
Practices
Denominations
Challenges^
Learning Competency
Lesson 6. Hinduism Trace the origins of Hinduism and identify its

sacred texts.
«■ Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Hinduism.
«*■ Distinguish the different denominations of
Hinduism and discuss some of its challenges.
Lesson 7. Buddhism Trace the origins of Buddhism and identify its

sacred texts.
■s' Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Buddhism.
Distinguish the different denominations of
Buddhism and discuss some of its challenges.
EXPLORING IN IT IA L IDEAS A N D VIEW S
1. List as many concepts (ideas, practices, beliefs, images) that you

can associate with Hinduism.

can associate with Buddhism.

» *9#•«#"ff1,0,
■
HINDUISM
Guide Question
What are the basic features of Hinduism?
TOPICS
♦ Section 1: Origin and Sacred Texts

Indus River «*■ Ramayana and the

Key Concepts *
Mahabharata
tllf B3" Dravidians
**■ Rama and Krishna
03= Aryans
•a- Bhagavad Gita
»*• Harappan culture
«■ Brahman and Atman
«■ Aryan Invasion Theory
■s- The Trimurti: Brahma,
w Aryan Immigration
Vishnu, and Shiva
Theory
■s- Maya and Moksha
«■ Shruti and Smiriti texts
•a- Samsara and Karma
«*■ The Four Vedas: Rig
>s- Varna, Ashram, and
Veda, YayurVeda,
Sama Veda, and Purushartha
Atharva Veda «■ The Four Denominations:
Vaishnavism, Shaivism,
■a- Four Parts of the
Vedas: Samhitas, Shaktism, and Smartism
Brahmanas, ■s- The Six Philosophical
Aranyakas, Schools: Samkhyaj Yoga,
and Upanishads Nyaya, Vaisheshika,
Mimamsa, and Vedanta
UNIT II 139

» Explain how Hinduism began along the banks of the Indus River.
is- Explain the difference between the Aryan Invasion and Aryan
Migration Theories.
«■ Distinguish between the two kinds of Hindu sacred texts: the Shruti
and Smiriti texts.
«*• Identify and distinguish among the Four Vedas.
«■ Discuss the plots of the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
■a- Explain the nature and relationship of Brahman and Atman.
•3s Explain the many Hindu deities as manifestations of Brahman.
■a? Identify and describe the three primary gods constituting the Trimurti:
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
**■ Discuss the concents of karma, samsara, maya, moksha, varna
(caste), ashram (state of life), purushartha (basic aims of life), and
yoga.
<& Distinguish the kinds of yoga.
■3" Distinguish the different religious forms of Hinduism: Vaishnavism,
Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism.
cr Distinguish the six main Hindu orthodox philosophical schools:
Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vendata.
«■ Discuss some of the challenges of Hinduism today.
|Âctivityl
Fill in the K W L Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be
CULTIVATING
How did Hinduism originate? What are its sacred texts?

H indus and H induism
Hinduism is the largest religion in India, the
second most populous country in the world.
Deming (2015, 10) estimates that more than 80
percent of the inhabitants of India, which is about
1 billion people, consider themselves Hindu. Aside
from this, Deming (Ibid.) also states that “[m]ore
than 30 million Hindus also live in the countries
surrounding India, such as Nepal, Bangladesh,
Sri Lanka, and Pakistan; and large populations can be found in Indonesia,
Malaysia, the United States, Mauritius, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.”
As of 2010, Matthews (2010, 66) estimates that there are more than 830
million adherents of Hinduism in the world.
Hinduism began along the banks of the Indus River. A greater part of
this river lies in what is presently called Pakistan, which used to be a part
of India. The words “India” and “Hindu,” in fact, were derived from the word
Indus (Molloy 2010,78-79). According to archeological findings on this river,
there were already people who lived along its banks in or even earlier than
the second millennium BCE.These people, called the Dravidians, were highly
civilized.Their sophisticated civilization was called the Harappan civilization,
and one of their largest cities, called Mohenjo Daro, had a population of about
40,000 people in 2000 BCE (Koller 1985, 21). The Dravidians had their own
system of religious beliefs and practices. But in about 1500 BCE, the Aryans,
a group of people of Indo-European background, came to the region. The
Aryans, too, were highly civilized and also had their own religious beliefs
and practices. It was during this period that the sacred texts of Hinduism,
generally called the Vedas and which were written in Sanskrit, were believed
to have been written.
In light of these circumstances, there are two accounts of how Hinduism
originated. The first, called the Aryan Invasion Theory, claims that the
Aryans invaded and imposed their culture and religion on the Dravidians
(Klostermaier 2007, 18-20). This would make the Aryans the writers of the
Vedas, and thus the founders of Hinduism. For some time, this account was
generally accepted until it was challenged by the second account.The second
account, called the Aryan Migration Theory, maintains that the Aryans just
migrated in repeated waves into the region (Pakistan and Northern India),
and intermingled with the Dravidians (Urubshurow 2009,357,359-60; Jacobs
2010, 8-10). There was then a cultural interaction between the Dravidians
and Aryans, which gave rise to the religious beliefs and practices contained
UNIT II 141
in the Vedas. The Vedas, in this regard, might have been written by the
Aryans only or by both the Aryans and Dravidians. In any case, the origins of
Hinduism, in this consideration, cannot be traced exclusively to the religious
beliefs and practices of the Aryans (Matthews 2010, 65-66 and History of
Hinduism fn Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004). The fact is that it is generally
not known who really wrote the Vedas. For this reason, unlike other world
religions, the specific founders of Hinduism are unknown.
Like most world religions, Hinduism does not refer to a particular set of
religious beliefs shared by all Hindus. Hinduism refers to a family of religions
that are native to India, are based on the Vedic traditions, and share certain
doctrines in varying degrees. (We shall examine these doctrines in the next
section.) The Hindus in fact did not originally use the word Hinduism to refer
to their own religious views. The word was previously an “outsider’s term,”
used as a convenient term by non-Hindu scholars studying the religious
views of Hindus. Early Hindus, especially their scholars, referred to their
own religious beliefs as Sanatana Dharma (meaning, “eternal law”). While
this was the case, most Hindus, however, later on adopted the outsider’s
term “Hinduism” to refer to their own religious beliefs (see Jacobs 2010, 6).
T he S hruti and S mriti T exts

The sacred texts of Hinduism are divided into two main categories:
Shruti, which literally means “what is heard,” and Smriti, which literally
means “what is remembered” (Matthews 2010, 68-69; Urubshurow 2009,
384). Shruti refers to all Hindu sacred texts containing revealed knowledge
(or knowledge based on direct experience), while Smriti refers to all Hindu
sacred texts containing remembered knowledge (or knowledge based on the
recollection of the experience). The Shruti texts (“revealed texts”) therefore
are primary sources that contain truths that are eternal and unchanging and
of divine origin, while the Smriti texts (“remembered texts”) are secondary
sources that contain truths that may change over time and are of human
origin. Shruti texts are true by themselves while Smiriti texts are true only in
so far as they conform to the Shruti texts.
The main Shruti texts are the Vedas. On the other hand, the main Smriti
texts consist of the following: (a) the Itihasas (the epic poems), consisting
of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (of which the Bhagavad Gita is
the most important part) (Urubshurow 2009, 387-89); (b) the Puranas,
consisting of comprehensive discussions of the history of the universe, the
genealogies of kings, heroes, and demigods, and Hindu cosmology and
geography); (c) the Dharma Shastra, referring to the books about laws and

rules of behavior, such as the book Laws ofManu (Matthews 2010, 77-78);
and (d) the Later Sutras, referring to later Hindu texts like the Yoga Sutras
of Patanjali (Urubshurow 2009,390-391). In what follows, we shall examine
the Vedas and the two epic poems.
T he F our V edas
The term Vedas, which means “wisdom” or “knowledge,” refers to the
writings about the attainment of wisdom or knowledge of the true nature
of reality, which is regarded as a necessary condition for overcoming the
suffering in this world. The Vedas consists of four basic sacred texts— Rig
Veda, Yayur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda.
The Rig Veda (written around 1500 BCE), the “wisdom of the verses” or
“hymn knowledge,” is considered the most important and the oldest of the
Vedas. It is a collection of chants and rituals used to honor various gods
and goddesses who are called the Vedic deities. Some of these gods and
goddesses are: Indra (the chief of the gods; the god of storms and monsoons),
Agni (the god of sacrificial fire), Vac (the goddess of communication), Soma
(the god of intoxication manifested in plants), Surya (the sun god), Varuna
(the god of the sky; the guardian of the cosmic order), Mitra (the god of faith
keeping and loyalty), and Rita (the god of order and principles) (Matthews
2010, 69-71).
The later Vedas (written around 1000 BCE) are generally elaborations of
the verses and rituals of the Rig Veda. The Yayur Veda, the “wisdom of the
sacrificial formulas” or “ceremonial knowledge,” is a collection of materials
recited during sacrificial ceremonies and ritual activities. The Sama Veda,
the “wisdom of the chants” or “chant knowledge,” is a collection of musical
expressions of the verses from the Rig Veda. The Atharva Veda, the “wisdom
of the Atharvan priests,” is a collection of practical prayers and magical
prayers for specific purposes, like spells for a long life, curses, love charms,
prayers for prosperity, and others.
T he F our P arts of the V edas

Each of the four Vedas consists of four parts: (1) the Samhitas, (2) the
Brahmanas, (3) the Aranyakas, and (4) the Upanishads. The Samhitas and
the Brahmanas focus on ceremonial rites and rituals, while the Aranyakas
and the Upanishads focus on philosophy and spiritualism. The Samhitas
are collections of mantras or hymns that are used in sacrificial ceremonies
and mystic rituals addressed to the different Vedic deities. The Brahmanas
contain elaborate explanations, often through mythologies and legends, of
UNIT II 143
the mantras, as well as instructions on how to properly perform the rituals
associated with these mantras. The Aranyakas (aranya means “forest”
so Aranyakas means “Books of the Forests” or “Forest Books”) contain
discussions about practices developed by the hermits or ascetics living in
forests. These practices were intended to serve as substitutes for conventional
ceremonies and rituals which cannot be done (or are not practical to
perform) in the forests. The Aranyakas facilitated the transition from the
standard rituals and ceremonies found in the Samhitas and Brahmanas to
the philosophical and spiritual interpretation of these rituals and ceremonies
found in the Upanishads. Finally, the Upanishads (also called the Vedanta)
are the concluding sections of the Vedas. They are the philosophical parts
of the Vedas as they deeply discuss the major Hindu doctrines such as
those concerning Brahman, Atman, moksha, maya, karma, and samsara
(we shall explain these concepts in the next section). The discussions in
the Upanishads are mostly in the form of a dialogue between a master (or
an enlightened guru) and a disciple. It is believed that traditionally there are
108 ancient and original Upanishads, but some scholars believe that some
have been added later on. Jacobs (2010,12) represents the structure of the
Vedas in terms of its four parts as follows:
Rig Veda Sama Veda Yayur Veda Atharva Veda
Samhitas
Brahmanas
Aranyakas
Upanishads
“It is possible to fill in all of the empty cells with names of particular
compositions; however for our purposes, it is not necessary,” clarifies Jacobs
( 2010 , 120).
THE RAMAYANA AND THE MAHABHARATA

The two great Sanskrit epic poems, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
were written more or less during the period from 200 BCE to 200 CE. They

are not mere stories for they also tackle the basic teachings of Hinduism,
especially concerning dharma, which generally refers to one’s moral duties or
tasks in a given situation and which are also based on one’s social standing.
These stories have been continually retold in various art forms in India and
are part of the early education of all Hindus. Furthermore, they have made
a profound influence on the development of art in Southeast Asian countries
influenced by Hinduism (see Jacobs 2010, 15-18 for a brief summary of
these epics).
The Ramayana. The term Ramayana,
which is a combination of the words Rama and
ayana (which means “going” or “advancing”),
literally means Rama’s journey. This epic
poem is traditionally believed to have been
conceived or written by the Hindu sage and
Sanskrit poet Valmiki. Consisting of 24,000
verses in seven books and 500 cantos
(major divisions in a long poem), it deals with
human values associated with the concept of
dharma. In particular, it tackles the dharma
or moral duties of Rama (the seventh avatar
or incarnation of Vishnu, a supreme Hindu
god) as he assumes various roles in the
story, like being a son, a husband, a brother,
a servant, and a king.
Here is a brief summary of the story: Rama, being the eldest among
the four sons of King Dasaratha of the kingdom of Ayodhya, is set to be the
next king. But due to the intervention of Queen Kaikeyi (the king’s favorite
among his many wives), Bharata, her own son from the king becomes the
next king instead. Consequently, Rama is sent to the forest along with his
wife Sita and brother Lakshmana. But while in the forest, Sita is abducted
by Ravana, the mighty demon king of Lanka who admires Sita’s beauty.
Hanuman, the general of the army of monkeys, helps Rama and Lakshmana
find Sita. Hanuman, however, is caught by Ravana, but Hanuman is able to set
Ravana’s kingdom in flames and eventually escape. A great battle between
the forces of Ravana and the forces of Rama, Lakshmana, Hanuman, and
the army of monkeys follow. Rama is able to kill Ravana and rescue Sita.
Sita proves that she manages to maintain her purity while being held captive
by Ravana, which pleases Rama. Rama and Sita, along with their friends,
return to the kingdom of Ayodhya. Bharata gives the crown to Rama, and
Rama becomes the king of Ayodhya.
UNIT II 145
The Mahabharata. For its deep reflection on the concept of dharma, some
Hindus regard the Mahabharata as the “fifth Veda.” The term Mahabharata
literally means “the great story of the Bharatas.” Bharatas is the name of the
clan or dynasty of the main characters in the story (as Bharatas was their
early ancestor). The word “Bharatas,” however, is also generally used to
refer to the Indian race, and so Mahabharata is sometimes also understood
as “the great story of India.”
The Mahabharata, believed to have been composed between 300 BCE
and 300 CE by the Hindu sage Vyasa, is regarded as one of the longest
epic poem in world literature. It is approximately eight times as long as
Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, and three times as long as the Bible. The story
is mainly about a great war between two groups of paternal first cousins (or
more particularly, between the sons of two brothers, Pandu and Dhritarasta)
over who should have control over their kingdom. Within the main story,
however, are so many substories. Pandu’s five sons (Yudhisthira, Bhima,
Arjuna, and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva) are collectively called the
Pandavas. On the other hand, Dhritarasta’s 100 sons are collectively called
the Kauravas.The Pandavas, who are actually sons of gods (as the two wives
of Pandu were fathered not by him, but by certain gods), are the heroes,
while the Kauravas are their enemies and the villains in the story. Though
the Pandavas eventually win the war against the Kauravas and Yudhisthira
(one of the Pandava brothers) becomes the king, Yudhisthira, however, is
deeply troubled by the killings brought about by the war, especially since
these killings involve his relatives.
The Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita
(which literally means the “Song of the Lord”
or the “Song of the Divine One”) consists of
700 verses and is part of the Mahabharata
(Book 6).The Gita, as it is conveniently called,
is considered to be the most important part
of the Mahabharata from a religious and
philosophical perspective, for it is in this
part where the religious and philosophical
concepts of Hinduism are mainly tackled.
The Bhagavad Gita is basically a dialogue between the Pandava prince
Arjuna and his guide and charioteer Krishna (who is actually an incarnation
of the Hindu supreme god Vishnu) before the start of the Kurukshetra War,
the final battle between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. This dialogue is
brought about by Arjuna’s doubts about whether or not to go on with the war.
Arjuna is deeply affected by this moral dilemma: while he recognizes that

it is his moral duty to fight the enemies, he is bothered by the fact that his
enemies are his relatives, to which he also has morai Juties. Arjuna is thus
torn between his moral duties as a Pandava prince and as a first cousin of
the Kauravas. Arjuna consults Krishna on what he must do. Krishna advices
Arjuna to proceed with the war, and it is in the course of explaining the
reasons for this advice that Krishna elaborately and profoundly discusses
the religious and philosophical concepts of Hinduism such as dharma, maya
(illusion) and moksha (liberation from illusion), yoga and its kinds (different
techniques to attain moksha and unity with Brahman), Atman and Brahman,
and varna (the caste system). Though just a part of the Mahabharata, the
Gita is often treated as an independent book, and it has been translated in
many different languages (Molloy 2010, 89-90).
1. Recall the moral dilemma of Arjuna in the Gita. If you were the one
consulted by Arjuna, what would be your advice and how would you
justify your advice?
2. Recall the story of the Ramayana. Suppose that you were Rama and
that Sita was not able to prove that she remained pure after being held
captive by Ravana. What would be your reaction? Will your love for her
change? Will you still make her your queen?
lActivityl
Make a concept map of the sacred texts of Hinduism.
BASIC DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES

Guide Question
What are the basic doctrines and practices of Hinduism?
B rahman and A tman

Brahman refers to the essence or true nature of all reality or of everything
that exists. It is, in short, Ultimate Reality. Being the essence of all reality,
including us, Brahman is conceptually inexhaustible in that all our descriptions
of it, however sophisticated, will never suffice to fully capture its nature. These
descriptions, at the most, will just give us an idea of what it is. Nonetheless,
UNIT II 147
let us examine some of these descriptions in three pairs: that Brahman is
one and undivided, unchanging and eternal, and spiritual and necessary.
First, Brahman is one in that there is no other reality other than Brahman,
and it is undivided in that it has no parts. Second, Brahman is unchanging
in that it is not Subject to space and time, and it is eternal in that it has no
beginning and end. Third, Brahman is spiritual in that it is non-material and
is therefore not subject to physical laws, and it is necessary in that it is not
possible for it not to have existed.
If Brahman is the essence of everything, then the essence of human
individuals must also be Brahman. The essence of a human individual is
traditionally called his/her soul or self, which accounts for the unchanging
and spiritual features of his/her identity. Hindus call this essence of human
individuals Atman. Atman is thus Brahman conceived in the context of
human individuals.The reality is that Atman is not distinct and separate from
Brahman. Atman is Brahman. The concept of Atman arises only when we
are talking about Brahman in the context of human individuals. However,
humans are usually inclined to think of themselves as having a separate and
distinct essence (soul or self) from Brahman, primarily because of egoism
or the strong desire to be in control of their actions and thoughts. It is this
thought of separation from the essence and ground of all things that is the
main source of human sufferings. Consequently, it is what must be overcome
to put an end to human suffering. The ultimate Hindu goal is the unity of
Atman with Brahman (Molloy 2010, 84-85).
B rahman and the D eities

While Hinduism believes that there is only one ultimate and supreme
reality (Brahman), it also worships many deities (gods and goddesses).
Doesn’t the belief that there is only one ultimate reality naturally lead to the
belief that there is only one God? Actually, Hinduism believes that there is
only one God, namely Brahman, and the many deities that they also believe
in are just the different manifestations of Brahman that humans are capable
of conceiving. As it were, God is only one but he manifests as many. Scholars
disagree over the precise number of the Hindu deities, but perhaps just
to emphasize the many (or better yet, infinite) possible manifestations of
Brahman, in addition to what the Hindu sacred scriptures identify (from 33
to 33,333—see Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004), some say that there are
millions of these deities (some say 33 million; some say 330 million—see
Urubshurow 2009,10). Being the essence of everything, Brahman is thought
of as impersonal and highly abstract (detached from mundane or human

affairs). The many Hindu deities can be seen therefore as concrete forms of
Brahman to which humans can personally and meaningfully relate.
T he T rimurti and A vatars

Among the many Hindu deities, there are three
major or supreme ones: (1) Brahma, the creator (not
be confused with Brahman); (2) Vishnu, the preserver;
and (3) Shiva, the destroyer. Collectively, these three
supreme gods are known in Hindu as the Trimurti.TUese
three principal gods correspond to the three major
functions of Brahman, namely, creation, sustenance
(protection or preservation), and destruction. Now while
these three principal gods are often described as the
three supreme gods, Brahman, of course, is higher than
any of them. Brahman, however, is also often called the
Supreme God, which may give rise to some confusion.
Perhaps Brahman should be referred to as the “Highest
Supreme God” to avoid confusion. In any case, the
Trimurti are believed to have human incarnations,
that is, they assume human forms called avatars. The
avatars mingle and interact with humans. Two popular
and important avatars of Vishnu are Krishna of the
Bhagavad Gita and Rama of the Ramayana (Molloy
2010, 96-101; Urubshurow 2009, 361-65).
O ther I mportant D eities

Other deities who are also important for Hindus include the following.
Ganesha (or Ganesh) is the popular deity with an elephant head and the son
of the god Shiva and goddess Parvati. Ganesha is the god of success and
destroyer of evils and obstacles. The goddess Shakti embodies the energy
giving power behind all creation. The goddess Lakshmi is a manifestation
of Shakti and who embodies light, beauty, good fortune, and wealth. And
Hunuman is the monkey deity who helped Rama save Sita in the epic
Ramayana.
Maya and Moksha

St
Maya is translated as “illusion.” Experiencing and knowing the world as

physical, changing, and divided into many separate things is maya or being
under the influence of maya. As the real nature of the world is Brahman, which
UNIT II 149
is the opposite of how we experience and know the world, how the world
presents itself to us is an illusion. An illusion is a misleading image, when
something appears not in its true nature, as, for instance, when a straight
stick appears bent when inside a glass of water, or as when one sees a
pool of water in a desert when there is really none (a mirage). In the same
way, as the world appears to us not in its real nature, not as Brahman, the
world (as we experience it) is an illusion; and we are under the influence, or
spell, of maya.This illusion includes experiencing our self as the body and
as something separate from everything else. Moksha, on the other hand,
is the liberation or release from the state or influence of maya. We achieve
moksha when we experience the world as Brahman, or as one, undivided,
unchanging, and spiritual reality. What is it like to achieve moksha? If living
in the state of maya is suffering, then moksha is freedom from suffering. And
so moksha, for the Hindus, is the ultimate human goal. It is what we should
ultimately all strive for (Molloy 2010, 86-88).
S amsara and K arma

Samsara corresponds to what is called reincarnation or rebirth. In
particular, it refers to the repeating cycle of birth, life, and death. The belief
is that when a human individual dies, his/her soul is reborn in another body,
and this happens again and again. Integrally connected to samsara is
karma, referring to the law that regulates samsara such that one’s actions
will have appropriate consequences in one’s current or next life or lives. In
the context of social classes (the caste system), karma determines what
will be one’s social class in the next life. A good life now will result being in
in a higher caste in the next life; a bad life now will result in being a lower
caste in the next life. The law of karma is a moral law or principle of cause
and effect, according to which an action of a certain moral type will result
in consequences of an appropriate type. More concretely, a bad action
will result in bad consequences while a good action will result in good
consequences. Karma and samsara together ensure universal justice, for
no one can escape the appropriate consequences of one’s actions. If the
appropriate consequences of one’s action do not occur within the duration of
one’s present life, they are bound to occur in one’s next life or future lives. The
goal of Hinduism is to stop samsara through moksha, for living in samsara
means living in maya and suffering. Once one achieves moksha, one will
no longer be reborn; one will cease to be an individual and will merge with
Brahman. Hinduism offers different ways or paths to achieve moksha (the
“yogas”), according to one’s disposition and preference. One of these ways

is doing one’s dharma, generally referring to one’s moral duties or tasks for
rightful living (Molloy 2010, 87-88).
(Note: Karma is generally the moral law or principle of cause and effect
governing human actions. The word karma, however, is sometimes used as
not referring to the principle itself but to the appropriate consequence of a
certain action. There are two versions of this usage. In one version, karma
is either good or bad. Here, a good action results in good karma while a
bad action results in bad karma. In the other version, karma is just bad.
Here, a bad action results in karma; a good action does not result in karma.)
V arna , A shram , and P urushartha

One’s dharma (moral duties) is defined by one’s social class (varna)
and stage of life (ashram) and in consideration of the basic aims of life
(purushartha).
Varna. The Hindu system of social classes, called the caste system,
has four main divisions or varnas. Arranged from highest to lowest, these four
varnas are as follows: (1) the Brahmins, consisting of priests and teachers;
(2) the Kshatriyas, consisting of kings, governors, and soldiers; (3) the
Vaishyas, consisting of merchants, cattle herders, artisans, and agriculturists;
and (4) the Shudras, consisting of laborers and service providers (Urubshurow
2009, 370). Under these four castes are many subcastes. It is said that the
basis of one’s caste was originally individual merit (that is, one’s caste was
decided on the basis of one’s capacity, skill, and talent), but later on birth
became the sole basis—one is born into one’s caste. People belonging to
the first three varnas (the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas) are also
called “twice-borns” (dvijas), in contrast to the Shudras who are called
“once-borns” (Jacobs 2010, 59-61). Accordingly, there are two births: the
first is biological, the second spiritual. Once-borns are only biologically
born, while twice-borns are biologically and spiritually born. Being spiritually
born, and thus being a twice-born, means being eligible to study the Vedas
(in Sanskrit) and perform the Vedic rituals. This means that the Shudras,
being once-borns, can never be eligible to study the Vedas and perform the
Vedic rituals. But worse than the situation of the Shudras are the outcasts
(“out of caste”) or people who do not belong to any varna (though some
believe they form the fifth caste).They were previously called “Untouchables”
(a term considered politically incorrect); now they are refe'rred to as Dalits,
meaning, “oppressed” or “downtrodden” (Mahatma Ghandi referred to them
as the Harijans, meaning, “children of God” or “people of God.” They are
part of what the Indian government calls the “scheduled castes”— see
UNIT II 151
Klostermaier 2007,13 and Jacobs 2010,61 -62). The Dalits work as manual
laborers, doing the dirtiest work possible for an Indian, such as cleaning
the streets, latrines, and sewers. They normally could not fully participate in
Indian social life. For instance, they are prohibited from living within a village
and entering a temple or school. People of other castes usually see them as
unclean, both spiritually and physically, and thus avoid any contact with them.
Ashram. The Hindus identify four stages or ashrams of life, each of which
has its specific duties. Though nowadays only a few Hindus strictly follow all
these four ashrams, they remain the ideal stages for the Hindus to go through
in their lives. The first is the Brachmanchari Ashram or the student stage of
life (from birth to around 21 years of age). At this stage, one is expected to
be pure (that is, celibate), live a simple life, serve a guru or spiritual teacher,
study the Vedas, and build good character traits. The second is the Grahasta
Ashram or the household stage of life (approximately from 21 to 42 years
of age). At this stage, one is expected to build a family, provide for one’s
family, protect and nourish family members, raise children with spiritual
values, and give to charity. The third is the Vanaprashta Ashram or the retired
stage of life (approximately from 42 to 63 years of age). At this stage, one is
expected to devote more time to spiritual matters which include going on a
pilgrimage, observing moral strictness, and undergoing penance. The fourth
is the Sannyasa Ashram or the renounced stage of life (approximately from
63 to 84 plus years of age). At this stage, one is expected to be detached
and retreat from worldly goals and focus on deepening one’s spirituality by
focusing one’s mind on God.
Purushartha. Hinduism identifies four basic human aims or purposes
of life, which are collectively called Purushartha. The first is dharma, which
refers to virtuous living or living according to duties, rights, and laws. The
term “dharma” is also used to refer to moral duties themselves. One’s dharma
or moral duties are determined by one’s caste and stage of life. They must
be performed selflessly, that is, without attachment to their consequences.
The second is artha, which refers to economic security or the active pursuit
of wealth and career to achieve financial security or material success. The
third is kama, which refers to enjoyment or the active pursuit of pleasure,
which can be physical, emotional (love and affection), or sexual. The fourth
is moksha, which refers to the liberation of the self from maya (illusion) or
freedom from samsara (the cycle of birth, life, and death). In cases of conflict
among these basic human aims, they are prioritized in the following way,
the first being the most valuable: first, moksha; second, dharma; third, artha;
and fourth, kama. This means moksha should be prioritized over dharma;
moksha or dharma should be prioritized over artha; and moksha, dharma,

or artha should be prioritized over kama. Furthermore, the level of emphasis
among these aims varies according to one’s stage of life (ashram). For
instance, generally speaking, while in the student and household stages,
emphasis should be on artha and kama; but once in the retired and old
stages, it should be on dharma and moksha (Molloy 2010,90-92; Matthews
2010, 78-79).
T he F our Y ogas
The Sanskrit word yoga literally means
“union.” In the context in which it was
introduced, in the Bhagavad Gita, the term
particularly means “union with the divine” or
“union with Brahman.” Furthermore, since
the various types of yoga speak of different
paths to achieve the said union, the term
“yoga” has come to be understood also as
“path.”
There are four main types of yoga. The
first is Karma Yoga, also called Dharma Yoga,
or the Path of Action. This is the path taken
by those (especially the Vaishyas) who intend to achieve moksha or unity
with Brahman by performing actions that are in accordance to their dharma
or moral duties, or more simply, by fulfilling their roles in life to the best of
their abilities. An important aspect of this yoga is the fulfilment of one’s
duties or dharma dispassionately or without focusing on the outcome. The
second is Bhakti Yoga or the Path of Devotion. This is the path most Hindus
take (especially the Shudras and Dalits). It is taken by those who intend to
achieve moksha or unity with Brahman through dedicated worship of a god
or gods by various means such as saying prayers, offering sacrifices and
flowers, dancing, and singing hymns. The third is Jnana Yoga or the Path of
Knowledge. This is the path taken by those (especially the Brahmins) who
intend to achieve moksha or unity with Brahman by deeply exploring the
nature of reality through a serious study of the sacred texts. Practitioners of
this yoga focus less on worship and more on philosophical study, the ultimate
objective of which is to achieve an understanding of the connectedness
of Atman with Brahman. The fourth and last is Raja Yoga or the Path of
Meditation.This is the path taken by those (especially the hermits) who intend
to achieve unity with Brahman by managing one’s mind or thoughts through
various meditative techniques. This is related to Jnana Yoga, which intends
UNIT II 153
to achieve knowledge of Brahman and the unity of Atman and Brahman
through studies and philosophical thinking. Raja Yoga also intends to achieve
this but through sudden realization resulting from meditation. They have the
same goal but different means.
The first three yogas are discussed in the Bhagavad Gita, while the fourth
(the Raja Yoga) is discussed in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (one of smriti
Hindu sacred texts). Each of these four kinds of yoga caters to a disposition
of a person—whether he/she is a person of action, devotion, knowledge,
or meditation. Hinduism allows a person to choose which path or yoga he/
she prefers to take to achieve moksha for these four yogas, when practiced
well, will lead people the same destination.
There are other types of yoga, which are mostly subtypes of these four
main kinds. A popular branch of Raja Yoga, for instance, is Hatha Yoga (whose
origin is traced to Patanjali). Hatha Yoga focuses on physical postures (the
asanas), and it has become popular as a form of physical exercise. Nowadays,
when one says “yoga,” one is usually referring to Hatha Yoga (see Molloy
2010, 92-95; Matthews 2010, 80-83).
S ome P ractices and R ituals

Hindu religious practices and rituals are greatly based on their religious
beliefs. Some of these practices are as follows.
First is the Hindus’ worship of so many gods and goddesses, which is
based on their belief that these gods and goddesses are concrete and
personal ways by which they can connect with the impersonal and abstract
Brahman—which has infinite manifestations. Their worship (called Puja,
meaning “worship”) of these personal deities— done in various ways, such
as saying hymns and prayers, offering sufferings and flowers, and the like,
and which they do either in temples or in their houses—is one of the paths
or yogas (the Bhakti Yoga) toward achieving moksha (Matthews 2010, 95;
Jacobs 2010,28-29). Second is the practice of meditation, which is another
kind of these paths (the Raja Yoga) (Jacobs 2010, 52-54). Third is the
Hindus’ veneration of some animals (Molloy 2010, 105), especially cows
(these are special animals for Hindus as their milk-giving capacity symbolizes
universal motherhood) and monkeys (for their role in the Ramayana). Aside
from what these animals symbolize or represent, the Hindus’ worship of
these animals is based on the Hindus’ belief that they may be reborn in the
bodies of animals. Fourth is the Hindus’ veneration of their gurus (Molloy
2010, 103; Jacobs 2010, 40-42) or enlightened teachers. This practice is

based on their belief that it is possible to achieve moksha while in this world
by following any of the four yogas preached by these gurus. Fifth is the
practice of renunciation or asceticism of holy men (called the Sadhus), which
is based on the belief that such practice is another way to achieve moksha
(Jacobs 2010, 39-40). Sixth is the Hindus' attitude towards one another.
How they treat one another is determined by their dharma, which in turn is
determined by their respective castes and the stage of life that they are in.
Last is the practice of nonviolence toward all life forms, called ahimsa (for
some Hindus, ahimsa extends to the practice of vegetarianism).This is based
on the Hindus’ belief in samsara where the bodies of all life forms are possible
receptacles or vessels of individual human souls.
An important ritual among Hindus is Namaste, a gesture of greeting
wherein the two palms are placed together in front of the chest and the
head bows while saying the word “Namaste.” This is done to greet anyone,
regardless of age and relationship to the greeter. Another traditional ceremony
is called the Upanayana, which is done to signify the preparedness of twice-
borns to study the Vedas and perform the Vedic rites (Matthews 2010, 94).
The ritual is tradionally limited to boys in the upper three of the four varnas
of society—the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas—when they reach the
age of seven years. However, women and Shudra children are now being
considered to undergo the same ritual, as there is a growing clamor that
they, too, should be entitled to study the Vedas and perform the Vedic rituals.
S ome H indu F estivals

Hindus have so many festivals,
most of which are celebrated in honor
of certain gods and goddesses, such
as Krishna, Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha,
and the goddess Durga, usually in
celebration of their birthdays. One
anticipated festival is Holi, the festival
of colors, where Hindus smear each
other with the “colors of joy.” Hindu
boys and girls playfully throw colored water on each other, sometimes with the
use of water guns. This symbolizes universal brotherhood and is associated
with the Divine Dance (called Raaslila) staged by Krishna for the benefit of his
devotees. Another famous Hindu festival is the Kumbh Mela, where millions
of Hindus peacefully gather and bathe in a sacred river to wash away their
sins and free themselves from the cycle of death and rebirth. They take a
UNIT II 155
dip at the Sangam, the place where three rivers—the Ganges, the Yamuna,
and the mythical Saraswati—come together at the edge of this North Indian
city. The Kumbh Mela is held once in every twelve years.
% S ome H indu S ymbols

Symbolisms associated with Hinduism include the Mantra Om (Aum)
and the Gayatri Mantra, which are recited in Hindu prayers. The swastika
(•S?) is an Aryan or noble symbol, representing truth and stability within
the power of Brahma or Surya, the sun god. Hindus have been using this
symbol since the early Vedic culture. It was unfortunate that it was recently
associated with Nazism, which perverted the divine meaning of the symbol.
Tika (Tilak or Tilakam or Pottu), a symbol put on the forehead or between
the eyebrows, is a unique feature associated with Hinduism. It basically
gives the wearer a feeling of sacredness and reveals the particular god
worshipped by the wearer, as certain shapes are associated with certain
gods (such as the U shape for Vishnu, three horizontal lines for Shiva, and
a red dot for the goddess Devi). Hindu priests wear the tilak in varying lines
and color to represent the particular school of thought they represent. It also
has nonreligious uses. Indian females, for instance, use the Bindu or Bindi
(a dot) as part of their makeup and the red dot as a mark of being married.
Do you agree with the moral principle of karma? Can you identify
events in your life that seem to demonstrate this principle?
^ A c tiv it^ l
Identify one Hindu festival and do a research on how it began and

its religious significance to the Hindus. Clip pictures of how the festival is
celebrated. This can be a written report or a PowerPoint presentation.
Guide Question
What are the basic doctrines and practices of Hinduism?

T he F our Major D enominations
There are four major denominations of Hinduism: Vaishnavism,
Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism (Jacobs 2010, 21-29). Under these
four main denominations are numerous subdenominations. There are two
main considerations that differentiate the four forms of Hinduism from one
another: (a) the kind of god (among the many manifestations of Brahman)
they consider supreme, and (b) the kind of path or yoga they prefer to practice
to achieve unity with their chosen supreme god.
Vaishnavas, the followers of Vaishnavism, consider Vishnu (usually
in the form of Krishna or Rama) as their supreme god. Vaishnavas are
deeply devotional and they practice bhakti yoga or the path of devotion.
Shaivas, the followers of Shaivism, consider Shiva as their supreme god.
Shaivas value self-discipline and philosophy, and they practice jnana yoga
or the path of knowledge (sometimes along with ashtanga yoga, which is a
kind of classical Indian yoga). Shaktis, the followers of Shaktism, consider
the goddess or Divine Mother Shakti (also known as Devi) in her various
forms (such as Kali, Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati) as their supreme
god. Shaktas prefer karma yoga or the path of action. Finally, Smartas, the
followers of Smartism, consider any of the five deities consisting of Vishnu,
Shiva, Shakti, Ganesha, and Surya as their supreme god. Smartas are
free to choose which among these five gods they would like to regard as
their supreme god as well as the kind of yoga they would like to practice.
For this reason, Smartism is considered a liberal form of Hinduism.
T he S ix Main P hilosophical S chools

Hinduism is not just a family of religions, but also a family of philosophies.
The distinction between religion and philosophy in this context, however,
is not clear-cut. One practical way of distinguishing the religious from the
philosophical forms is in terms of the standards used for classifying them.
For the various religious forms of Hinduism we look at their preferred
supreme god and type of path to achieve unity with their supreme god. For
the various philosophical forms of Hinduism, we look at, on the general level,
whether they generally accept the authority of the Vedic teachings, and on
the particular level, what their particular views are on the nature of reality
and how this be can be known. *
Indian philosophical schools of thought are referred to as Darsanas
(meaning, philosophies, worldviews, or teachings).They are divided into the
orthodox (Astika) and unorthodox (Nastika) schools. The orthodox schools
UNIT II 157
accept the authority of the Vedas and include the following philosophical
schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vendata
(Matthews 2010, 83-84). On the other hand, the unorthodox schools do
not accept the authority of the Vedas and include the following philosophical
schools: Buddhism, Jainism, and Carvaka. While both orthodox and
unorthodox schools are Indian philosophical schools (for they both emerged
and developed in India), it is only the orthodox schools that are commonly
regarded as Hindu philosophical schools, as they are based on the authority
of the Vedas. Hindu philosophical schools in this connection are also referred
to as the Vedic philosophical schools. In what follows, we shall limit our
examination of the philosophical schools to the orthodox schools.
The Nyaya school was founded by the sage Gautama (not to be confused
with the Gautama of Buddhism). The school focuses on logical reasoning
(or argumentation) and epistemological investigations (investigations on the
nature and sources of knowledge) as the means to acquire knowledge. One
of its conclusions is that there are four means to acquire knowledge, namely,
perception, inference, analogy, and verbal testimony of reliable persons.
The Vaisheshika (or Vaisesika) school was founded by the ascetic
Kanada.The school is mainly concerned with issues concerning metaphysics
or the nature of reality (or existence). Using the method of the Nyaya school,
it advances an atomistic view of reality in which everything that exists can
be shown as a combination of indestructible simples.
The Sankhya school is said to have been founded by the sage Kapila
though there is no known existing work of his. One of the main claims of
this school is that the universe is the result of the interaction between two
different kinds of reality: Prakriti (or Prakrti), referring to matter, nature, or
the material principle of the universe; and Purusha (or Purusa), referring to
consciousness, spirit, or the conscious principle of the universe. Purusha,
though distinct from Prakriti, is bound to be connected to Prakriti. This
means that Purusha is naturally under the bondage or control of Prakriti.
Consequently, the ultimate goal of Purusha is to liberate itself from
Prakriti.
The Yoga school refers to the kind of yoga, called Raja Yoga, developed
by Patanjali in his work Yoga Sutra. Recall that there are four yogas, and
the Raja Yoga is one. (The other three yogas—the Karma Yoga, Bhakti
Yoga, and Jnana Yoga—were introduced in the Bhagavad Gita.) This school
advances the path of meditation, along with other practices such as ahimsa
(nonviolence), to control the mind and eventually liberate itself from worldly
concerns. The Yoga school is closely influenced by the Sankhya school of
liberating consciousness from the bondage of matter. The difference is that

while the Sankhya does not see the need for the concept of a personal god
(Ishvara) to pursue the liberation of consciousness from matter (which made
scholars interpret it as an atheistic school), the Yoga school recognizes the
need for a personal god.
The Mimamsa school was founded by Jaimini, whose work “Mimamsa
Sutra” became the basis of the school. In this connection, the school’s
main contribution is the formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation (also
called “Vedic hermeneutics”). The Sanskrit word Mimamsa, literally means
“investigation,” “inquiry,” or “discussion.” In the context of studying the Vedas,
Mimamsa means the investigation of the proper way of interpreting the
Vedic texts.
The Vedanta school represents the last or concluding segment of the
Vedas, also called the Upanishads. Recall that the Upanishads contain
the philosophical discussions on the key concepts of Hinduism, such as
Brahman, Atman, karma, samsara, and others. This school is thus generally
after knowledge of what the Vedas teach, and it utilizes the rules of Vedic
interpretation developed by the Mimamsa school.
These six schools can be seen as three sets of sister schools, for one
school serves as the method of another school. Specifically, the related
schools are the following: Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Sankhya-Yoga, and Mimamsa-
Vedanta. In the first set, the Vaisheshika school uses the logical reasoning
of the Nyaya school to investigate the nature of reality. In the second set,
the Sankhya school uses the Yoga school as the method for attaining the
liberation of Purusa from Prakriti. Finally in the third set, the Vedanta school
uses the rules for Vedic interpretation formulated by the Mimamsa school to
interpret the concluding philosophical parts of the Vedas.
S ome C hallenges
The challenges that Hinduism faces include the harm (social inequality,
discrimination, oppression, disrespect of human rights, and others) brought
about by the caste system on those belonging to the lowest caste, the
Shudras, and especially those considered without a caste, the Dalits (or the
Untouchables). Recall that these people are traditionally considered “once-
borns” which bar them from participating in religious activities. In addition, they
are traditionally not allowed to study in universities or get a formal education.
In short, they do not have any opportunity to improve the state of life that
they are born into. The Indian government has, however, been doing some
positive steps to address these problems, so some of the members of these
castes can already get a formal education, participate in religious activities,
UNIT II 159
avail of legal assistance, and get reserved slots for employment in some
institutions. The problem is that some traditional Hindus, especially those
in the villages, still resist the changes and this results in serious conflicts
including murders, riots, and even suicides.
The situation of women is another major issue, as it is in most world
religions. Despite the fact that Hinduism worships goddesses and venerates
female gurus, women remain marginalized in traditional Vedic culture.
For instance, women, even those belonging to the first three castes, are
traditionally considered “once-borns.” This means that only males in those
castes are eligible to study the Vedas and perform Vedic rituals. Women
are traditionally expected to merely focus on serving their husbands and
raising their children. Learning to write and read are seen as something that
would just distract them from doing their roles as wives and mothers. The
Indian government, however, has also been doing positive steps to remedy
the situation of Hindu women. There are already Hindu women who study
the Vedas and participate in Vedic rituals. Some, however, feel that much
still needs to be done, for in the villages nothing much has changed in the
situation of women.
In the area of politics, the conflict between Hindus and Muslims
continues despite the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, in which
Muslims in Pakistan were given state autonomy. Wars between the two
groups continue to be fought along the border between India and Pakistan,
particularly in Kashmir. Once in a while, conflicts between the two groups
occur within India.
Another challenge of Hinduism, as it is again with most world religions,
is how to deal with the changing world, specifically the rapid development
of technology (in the areas of medicine and communication, among others),
and the introduction of new values, new ways of doing things (the fast pace
of doing things, for instance), and new attitudes, like that of consumerism.
People are preoccupied with so many things, losing time for religious
and spiritual things. How Hinduism can adapt to these changes without
compromising the integrity of its key teachings is a big challenge.
What are your thoughts about the Hindu caste system? What do you
think are its advantages (if any) and disadvantages both to society and
individuals?

IÂ ctivit^l
I. Watch the movie Gandhi (this can be a class activity) and write a reflection
paper on it. Focus on how the doctrines and practices of Hinduism, as
well as its challenges, are shown in the movie.
map.
Migration YayurVeda Brahman Yogas
Mahabharata Karma Hindu-Muslim Conflict Kumbh Mela
Invasion Shaivism Samkhya Trimurti
Hinduism
UNIT II 161
Review Questions

1. According to archeological findings, the Indus River already had
inhabitants in or earlier than the second millennium BCE. These
inhabitants were called_______ __
a. Aryans c. Harrapans
b. Dravidians
2. According to th e _________ , the Aryans conquered and imposed
their culture and religion on the early inhabitants of the Indus River.
a. Aryan Invasion Theory
b. Aryan Migration Theory
c. Aryan Acculturation Theory
3. The following category of Hindu sacred texts refers to revealed texts
and thus constitutes the primary sacred texts of Hinduism.
a. Smiriti texts c. Shmuruti texts
b. Shruti texts
4. The following kind of Veda refers to the collection of materials for
recitation during sacrifice or lines intended to accompany ritual
activities.
a. Rig Veda c. Sama Veda
b. YayurVeda d. AtharvaVeda
5. T h e _________ is considered as the most important and the oldest
of the Vedas.
a. Rig Veda c. Sama Veda
b. YayurVeda d. AtharvaVeda
6 . T h e _________ is part of the Vedas that refers to collections of
mantras or hymns used in sacrificial ceremonies and mystic rituals
addressed to the different Vedic deities.
a. Brahmanas c. Samhitas
b. Aranyakas d. Upanishads
7. T h e ________ _ are the philosophical and concluding parts of the
Vedas.
a. Samhitas c. Aranyakas
b. Upanishads d. Brahmanas

8 . This Hindu epic is regarded by some Hindus as the fifth Veda and
the great story of India.
a. Ramayana b. Mahabhrata c. Rama and Sita
9. T h e _________ is considered as the most important part of the
Mahabharata, which is basically a dialogue between Arjuna and
Krishna.
a. Ramayana b. Mahabhrata c. Rama and Sita
10. The monkey general who helps Rama rescue Sita from the mighty
demon king of Lanka is __________
a. Lakshmana b. Hanuman c. Ravana
11. _________ refers to the one true essence of reality for the Hindus.
a. Maya b. Moksha c. Brahman
12. The three supreme gods of Hinduism—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—
are collectively called in Hindu as th e __________
a. Trinity b. Triumvirate c. Trimurti
13. The supreme Hindu god Vishnu corresponds to the function of
Brahman a s __________
a. the Creator b. the Preserver c. the Destroyer
14. The supreme Hindu god Brahma corresponds to the function of
Brahman a s __________
a. the Creator b. the Preserver c. the Destroyer
15. The avatar or incarnation of the supreme Hindu god Vishnu in the
Bhagavad Gita is __________
a. Rama b. Krishna c. Yudhisthira
16. _________ refers to rebirth or the repeating cycle of birth, life, and
death.
a. moksha b. samsara c. karma
17. It is the principle that maintains that one’s quality of life in the next
life is determined by one’s actions in the present life.
a. varna b. samsara c. karma
18. _________ refers to the Hindu concept of one’s social class.
a. Ashram b. Varna c. Purushartha
19. _____ _____refers to the Hindu concept of one’s stage of life.
a. Ashram b. Varna c. Purushartha
UNIT II 163
20. The varna or caste of priests and teachers is __________
a. Brahmins c. Vaishyas
b. Kshatriyas d. Shudras
21. The varna or caste of laborers and service providers is __________
a. Brahmins c. Kshatriuas
b. Vaishyas d. Shudras
22. The following refers to the retired stage of life wherein one is expected
to devote more time to spiritual matters.
a. Brachmanchari Ashram
b. Grahasta Ashram
c. Vanaprashta Ashram
d. Sannyasa Ashram
23. _________ is a basic human aim referring to the enjoyment or active
pursuit of pleasures.
a. dharma c. kama
b. artha d. moksha
24. _________ is a basic human aim referring to the liberation of the
self from maya or illusion or freedom from samsara.
a. dharma c. kama
b. artha d. moksha
25. _________ is the path of devotion taken by those who intend to
achieve unity with Brahman through dedicated worship of a god or
gods by various means such as saying prayers, offering sacrifices
and flowers, dancing, and singing hymns.
a. Karma Yoga c. JnanaYoga
b. BhaktiYoga d. Raja Yoga
26. _________ is the path of meditation taken by those who intend to
achieve unity with Brahman by managing their mind or thoughts
through various meditative techniques.
a. Karma Yoga c. JnanaYoga
b. BhaktiYoga d. Raja Yoga
27. The Hindu principle o f_________ teaches the attitude of nonviolence
towards all life forms.
a. Upanayana b. Ahimsa c. Namaste

28. The Hindu festival_________ is also called the festival of colors,
where Hindus smear each other with the “colors of joy.”
a. Kumbh Mela b. Holi c. Raaslila
29. During_________ , millions of Hindus peacefully gather and bathe
in a sacred river to wash away their sins and free themselves from
the cycle of death and rebirth.
a. Kumbh Mela b. Holi c. Raaslila
30. This Hindu denomination worships Shiva as its supreme god.
a. Vaishnavism b. Shaivism c. Smartism
31. This Hindu denomination worships any of the following five deities.
Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Ganesha, and Surya:
a. Vaishnavism b. Shaivism c. Smartism
32. The following kind of Indian philosophical schools of thought accept
the authority of the Vedas.
a. Orthodox Schools
b. Unorthodox Schools
c. Modern Schools
33. This Indian philosophical school focuses on logical reasoning and
epistemological investigations as the means to acquire knowledge.
a. Samkhya d. Vaisheshika
b. Yoga e. Mimamsa
c. Nyaya f. Vendata
34. This Indian philosophical school advances the path of meditation to
control the mind and eventually liberate it from worldly concerns.
a. Samkhya d. Vaisheshika
b. Yoga e. Mimamsa
c. Nyaya f. Vendata
UNIT 165
KWL Chart
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Hinduism What 1want to know about Hinduism
L
What 1have learned about Hinduism

BUDDHISM
Guide Question
What are the basic features of Buddhism?
TOPICS
♦ Section 1 : Origins and Sacred Texts

♦ Section 2: Doctrines and Practices Section
Key Concepts Siddartha Gautama ns- The Four Noble Truths

Four Sights «■ The Eightfold Path
Middle Way **- The Five Precepts
Tripitaka/Pali Canon is- Meditation and Chanting
The Three Jewels: is- Theravada/Hinayana and
Buddha, Dharma, Mahayana Buddhism
and Sangha ■s- Arhats and Bodhisattvas
The Three Marks is- The Trikaya
of Existence:
■*■ Vajrayana and Tibetan
Impermanence, No
Buddhism
self, and Suffering
ts- Madhyamika and Yogacara
The Four Dharma
Buddhism
Seals: Three Marks of
■s- Chan and Zen Buddhism
Existence, Nirvana
Pure Land Buddhism
Samsara and Karma
Law of Dependent
Origination
UNIT II 167

isr Discuss the significant events in the life of Gautama Buddha that led
him to attain enlightenment and consequently establish the religion
of Buddhism.
•5- Describe the Tripitaka (or the Pali Canon) and the Mahayana Sutras,
the sacred texts of Buddhism.
rar Explain the concepts constituting the Three Jewels of Buddhism: the
Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha.
os- Explain the elements of the Three Marks of Existence: impermanence,
no-self, and suffering (or unsatisfactoriness).
i®- Explain the Buddhist concepts of samsara, karma, and nirvana (as
the fourth element of the Four Dharma Seals).
«*■ -Identify and explain the Four Noble Truths.
»5- Identify and explain the Eightfold Path.
ns Explain the concepts of the Law of Dependent Origination and
Emptiness.
■s- Enumerate the Five Precepts of Buddhist Ethics.
■«■ Distinguish between the Theravada and Mahayana Schools.
■«■ Explain the difference between an arhat and a bodhisattva.
«r Explain the difference between the concepts of small vehicle, great
vehicle, and diamond vehicle.
■s- Discuss the three bodies of the Buddha as contained in the doctrine
of the Trikaya.
«a? Explain some basic features of some Mahayana Schools: the
Vajrayana, Tibetan, Madhyamika, Yogacara, Chan and Zen, Pure
Land, Tendai, and Nichiren sects.
■s- Discuss some of the challenges Buddhism is facing in the modern
world.
IÂ ctivit^l

CULTIVATING
Knowledge and Shills
ORIGIN AND SACRED TEXTS
How did Buddhism begin? What are its sacred texts?
B uddhism and the B uddha

Buddhism is one of the four largest religions of the world. Christianity
is the largest, but whether Buddhism is the second, third, or fourth largest
depends on how Buddhists are identified.This is because many practitioners
of Buddhism are also practitioners of other religions.The problem is whether
to count only those who are exclusively Buddhists or also include those
practitioners of Buddhism who also belong to other religions (like Taoism,
Shinto, Hinduism, or Confucianism). In any case, based on the information
from the US State Department, the Buddhist population of the world is
somewhere between 400 million and 1.5 billion (Deming 2015, 63). In the
2007 estimate of the Encyclopaedia Britannica Book of the Year (cited in
Matthews 2010, 103), the areas of Buddhist concentration are as follows:
World: 362,542,000; Asia: 376,365,000; Europe: 1,645,000; and North
America: 3,142,000.
Buddhism is basically the religion founded by the Buddha, and Buddhists
are basically those who follow the teachings of the Buddha. Who is the Buddha
and what are his teachings? In this section, we shall briefly examine the life
of the Buddha and the basic texts that contain his teachings. We shall deal
with his teachings and the practices and forms of Buddhism that developed
from these teachings in the next two sections.
The term Buddha is not a proper name but a title which means
“the enlightened one” or “the awakened one.” This means anyone can be a
Buddha or be given the title Buddha, if one is able to attain enlightenment.
And since Buddhism teaches that enlightenment is something that an
ordinary human, with proper training, discipline, and attitude, can attain,
becoming a Buddha is not exclusive to one or a few individuals. In the
UNIT II 169
history of Buddhism, there are in fact several who have attained enlightenment
or Buddhahood.
But when one speaks of “the Buddha” (in contrast to “a Buddha”),
one refers to the historical Buddha who is recognized as the founder of
Buddhism as a world religion. There may have been Buddhas previous to
this historical Buddha but it was through him that the teachings of Buddhism
were expressed, handed down to later generations, and later on written.This
historical Buddha refers to Gautama Buddha, whose preenlightenment name
was Siddhartha Gautama. Siddhartha Gautama achieved enlightenment
when he was 35 years old. From then on, he has been called Gautama
Buddha. Because Gautama belonged to the Shakya clan, some of his
followers, especially the Chinese, also call him “Shakyamuni,” which means
“the sage of Shakyas.”
T he L ife of G autama
Gautama, according to the estimate of scholars, was born around 563
BCE in northern India at Lumbini Grove, about a hundred miles from Benares.
He was a Kshatriya prince. His mother was Queen Maya Devi Tharu and
his father was King Suddhodana Tharu, who was the leader of the Shakya
clan in the state of Kosala on the northern border of Ancient India. There are
many different stories about how Siddhartha was conceived in the womb of
Queen Maya and how, as a child, he showed signs that he was destined for
greatness. One common account has it that one night Queen Maya dreamed
that a beautiful white elephant with six white tusks and which bore a white
lotus flower in his trunk touched the right side of the queen and then entered
her womb. When the queen woke up from the dream, she found herself
already pregnant with Gautama. Following customs, the queen went to her
father’s kingdom in order to give birth to her son there, but on the way, she
gave birth to Gautama in a garden beneath a sal tree. It is said that while
giving birth to Gautama, Queen Maya held a branch of the tree which bent
on its own to assist her. It is also said that right after Gautama was born, he
took seven steps and loudly declared that this birth of his would be his last
(indicating that he had been reborn several times and that he would already
achieve in this current lifetime the enlightenment that he was seeking for in
several lifetimes). The queen died seven days after giving birth to Gautama.
The queen’s sister, Maha Pajapati, then took care of baby Gautama.
It is also said that a Brahmin hermit (by the name of Asita) visited the
baby Gautama and predicted that Gautama would one day be a great leader
without specifying what kind of leader—whether as a king (as a political

leader) or as a spiritual leader. In any case, Gautama’s father, who was a
king, very much wanted Gautama to be his successor, and he was deeply
bothered by the ambiguity of the hermit’s prophesy. He wanted Gautama to
be a great king like him, and the thought that Gautama might choose the
path of spirituality extremely worried him. So he devised ways to ensure that
such a possibility would not present itself to Gautama, or the mere thought
of it would not enter Gautama’s mind. The king then built three palaces for
Gautama, one for every season (winter, rainy season, and summer), and
made sure that Gautama was provided everything that he needed and
desired. The idea was to prevent Gautama from being exposed to things,
especially the sight of suffering, which would trigger spiritual reflections.
The king arranged Gautama’s marriage with Yasodhara at the age of 16,
and Gautama had a son with Yasodhara who was named Rahula. But while
Gautama was living a very comfortable life as a prince within the walls of the
palaces, deep in his heart he was dissatisfied with his kind of life and began
to think that there might be something more to life than what he already had.
It is said that these thoughts were triggered when he heard a song of a lady
servant in the palace which longed for her beautiful life outside the palace.
At the age of 29, Gautama, against the advice of his father, decided to
go out of the palaces in order to meet his subjects. It is said that his father
arranged things so that Gautama would not see any sight indicating human
suffering. But while outside the palace, Gautama came to places where he
saw things that troubled his mind. He saw what has been called the Four
Passing Sights. He first saw an old man, then a sick man, and then a corpse
being prepared for cremation. Realizing that he, too, would grow old, be sick,
and die someday, these sights caused him to ask questions concerning the
purpose of suffering and life in general. Afterward, he saw an ascetic (a
wandering holy man who has renounced worldly possessions) who, though
without any possession, seemed to be content and at peace with himself
and the world. This fourth and last sight gave him the idea that renunciation
of material possessions must be the key to overcome the sufferings brought
about by old age, disease, and death.
Gautama resolved to seek answers to his questions, especially concerning
suffering, what causes it and how it can be overcome. He then decided to
leave his comfortable life in the palaces and travel to the forest to live the life
of an ascetic, thinking that living this kind of life would give him the answers
to his questions. Arriving at the forest, he gave his horse and jewels to his
servant, cut his hair, put on simple clothes, and joined the company of the
ascetics there. Soon with the guidance of various teachers and his strong
determination, he learned and mastered the various meditative techniques
UNIT II 171
practiced by the ascetics. Still unable to find his answers and blaming himself
for not trying enough, he lived the ascetic life to the extreme, meditating for
days and depriving himself of any material comfort. One day, while bathing
in a river, he collapsed and almost died from drowning. Fortunately, he was
saved by a village girl named Sujata who gave him some food and drink.
When Gautama recovered, he realized that he would not find his answers in
that kind of life (the ascetic life) and thus he resolved to leave it and search
for another path.
If both the extreme of self-indulgence, which
he experienced during his life as a prince, and
the extreme of self-m ortification, which he
experienced during his life as an ascetic, do not
work, Gautama thought of seeking a middle path
between these two extremes. Gautama went
on to meditate about this middle path. While
meditating under a Bodhi tree, Gautama was
tested by Mara, the lord of illusion. Three times
Mara tried to prevent Gautama from achieving
his enlightenment by presenting him visions
designed to distract Gautama and destroy the
rhythm of his meditation. Such visions—first,
the beautiful daughters of Mara, then an attack of Mara’s army, and then
Gautama’s own self—were designed to appeal to Gautama’s desire, fear,
and love of self or ego, which were aimed to distract his meditation. But
Gautama was unmoved by all these visions; he maintained his focus. He
knew these visions were illusions. And so, after meditating for 49 days under
the Bodhi tree, Gautama, at the age of 35, finally attained enlightenment.
He found his answers at last. From that time, Siddhartha Gautama became
the Buddha, the “awakened one” or “the enlightened one.” He had complete
realization of the cause of suffering and the necessary steps to overcome
it, which came in the form of the Four Noble Truths (we shall explain these
truths in the next section).
Gautama at first hesitated to teach the contents of his realization, called
the dharma by Buddhists, to other people because he feared that he might
not be able to do it well. But according to a common account, he later on
reconsidered when he was persuaded by the deity Brahma Sahampati
to teach and spread the dharma. Gautama then went to the Deer Park
near Varanasi (Benares) and delivered his first sermon. His first audience
and disciples consisted of former ascetics like him, who were his former
companions in seeking for enlightenment in the forest. Together they formed

the first sangha, the company of Buddhist monks. Because the said sermon
started the growth of Buddhism, Gautama is said to have set in motion the
Wheel of Dharma in delivering the sermon. His first five disciples all became
arhats, referring to persons who have achieved the same enlightenment that
Gautama had. Being an arhat, just like being a Buddha, means no longer
being subject to the cycle of death and rebirth. A Buddha and an arhat are
persons who have achieved the same enlightenment. The difference is that
while a Buddha has achieved it through his own efforts, an arhat has achieved
it with the guidance of a Buddha.
Soon Gautama’s disciples grew in numbers. For the remaining 45 years of
his life, Gautama, along with the sangha, travelled to various places teaching
the dharma. Many more became his disciples, and many more sanghas
were established. One day, when he heard of his father being seriously
sick, he went to see him to teach him the dharma so that he, too, might
become an arhat. Gautama’s wife Yosadhara and son Rahula also became
his disciples. Ananda, his first cousin by his father, also became his closest
companion. When his father died, his foster mother Maha Pajapati (the one
who took care of him when his mother died) expressed her intention to join
the sangha and become a monk herself. At first Gautama was reluctant but
later on approved of it, paving the way for the practice of ordaining of nuns
or female Buddhist monks. Gautama regarded males and females as having
equal capacity to attain enlightenment. On the full moon day in the month
of April or May, Gautama died and attained Parinirvana, that is, complete
Nirvana. He was 80 years old (see Molloy 2010, 127-131; Matthews 2010,
105-111 for further details on the life of the Buddha).
B uddhist S acred T exts

The earliest collection of Buddhist teachings
is the Tripitaka (Tipitaka in Pali), written down by
the third century BCE. The Tripitaka is also known
as the Pali Canon as it was first written in the
language of Pali (a Prakrit or Middle Indo-Aryan
language native to the Indian subcontinent). It was
during the First Buddhist Council, shortly after the
death of the Buddha (about three months), that Pali Canon
the contents of the Tripitaka were determined. The teachings of the Buddha
were recited in full by the various disciples of the Buddha, which were then
verified by other monks in the council. It was, however, only later that these
teachings were written down (Matthews 2010, 116-117).
The word “Tripitaka” means “three baskets,” signifying the way in which
these teachings were originally written down and stored—they were written
down on long, narrow leaves, which were sewn together on one side and
were grouped into bunches and stored in baskets. Accordingly, the Tripitaka
consists of three pitakas or baskets that are divided by subject matter. The
first is the Discipline Basket ( Vinaya Pitaka), whose contents were recalled
by a monk named Upali. It deals with the rules and guidelines for monks
and nuns. These rules and guidelines concern everything involved in living
the monastic life of the sangha—from basic morality, interaction between
monks and nuns and between monks and nuns and the laity, to robe-making.
The second is the Discourse Basket or the Sayings Basket (Sutta Pitaka),
whose contents were recited by Ananda, Buddha’s cousin and constant
companion. It consists of records of the teachings and sermons mostly of
the Buddha on theological matters and moral behavior of all Buddhists.
Some of these teachings and sermons are attributed to Buddha’s disciples.
The third is the Special Teachings Basket (Abhidhamma Pitaka), whose
contents were recited by Mahakashyapa, the successor of Buddha. It is a
collection of short texts consisting of songs and poetry, stories of Buddha
and his previous lives, and discussions of Buddhist doctrines based on the
everyday life of the Buddha.
The Tripitaka is the only primary or canonical sacred text accepted
in Theravada Buddhism, one of the two major sects or denominations of
Buddhism (Molloy 2010, 147). The other major sect, called Mahayana
Buddhism (we shall discuss the main differences between these two sects
in Section 3), accepts other Buddhist writings, in addition to the Tripitaka,
as their primary or canonical sacred texts. Most of these other sacred texts
are collectively called the Sutras, which are particularly referred to as the
Mahayana Sutras. These Sutras were written down between 200 BCE and
200 CE, during the period when the split between the two major Buddhist
sects (Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism) developed.
The Mahayana Sutras basically reflect distinctively Mahayana concepts.
Different forms or branches of Mahayana Buddhism emphasize different
Sutras; some, however, are important to most Mahayana branches like
the Lotus Sutra and Heart Sutra. The Lotus Sutra contains the teachings
of the Buddha that serve as the bases of certain teachings of Mahayana
Buddhism, such as those concerning the nature of the Buddha (as having
three bodies) and the goal of becoming a bodhisattva (someone who has
achieved enlightenment but out of compassion has postponed his/her entry
into the state of nirvana—the state of liberation from the cycle of death and
rebirth—to help others also achieve enlightenment). The Heart Sutra, which

is part of a larger text, the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, is a short piece of
writing containing the Mahayana perspective on key Buddhist concepts like
nirvana, emptiness, and ultimate reality. Other important Sutras include the
Land of Bliss Sutras, which are the foundational texts of Pure Land Buddhism,
a form of Mahayana Buddhism whose teachings focus on Amithaba Buddha
(a celestial/heavenly Buddha).These Sutras describe the ideal world of Pure
Land or Land of Bliss, referring to the paradise of Amitabha Buddha, and
discuss how people can enter this ideal world (Molloy 2010, 155).
Other important Buddhist texts which can be regarded as secondary
Mahayana texts, are those written by the early Buddhist thinker Nagarjuna,
who founded a Mahayana school called the Madhyamika (“Middle Way”).
One of his important writings was the “Memorial Verses on the Middle Way,”
in which Nagarjuna, interpreting the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom,
elaborates on the concepts of emptiness (Sunyata in Sanskrit, Sunnata
in Pali) and impermanence. Other important texts are those written by the
Tibetan monks of Vajrayana Buddhism, another form of Buddhism which
some scholars treat as a form of Mahayana Buddhism (while some regard
as an independent form of Buddhism and the third major Buddhist sect). Two
of the well-known texts written by the Tibetan monks are the “Great Stages
of Enlightenment,” which deals with the value of ethical behavior and control
of the mind in tantric practice, and the “Tibetan Book of the Dead,” which
discusses the stages a person goes through while undergoing the cycle of
death and rebirth.
1. Recall the first three of the Four Passing Sights that Gautama had
when he went out of the palaces to meet his people—the sights of old
age, sickness, and death. From your own point of view, in what way
will these sights, or better yet, human realities, make a person reflect
on the real purpose of life?
2. What for you are the advantages and disadvantages of living a very
comfortable life? What about living a pauper’s life? Are there significant
commonalities and differences between these two lives?
lA ctivit^l
Watch the movie Little Buddha (this can be done as a class). Write a
reflection paper on the life of Gautama Buddha.
UNIT II 175
Guide Question
What are the major doctrines and practices of Buddhism?
T he T hree J ewels of B uddhism

The Three Jewels of Buddhism (Sanskrit-7r/rafna; Pali-Tiratana) refer to
the three essential or fundamental components of Buddhism which are the
three foundational structures of Buddhism. Buddhism will not stand if any of
them is absent. These Three Jewels are the (1) Buddha, (2) Dharma, and (3)
Sangha (Molloy2010,131-32).The Buddha, having achieved enlightenment
in his lifetime, represents the ideal human being whose life all Buddhists strive
to emulate. What the Buddha represents—enlightenment— is the main goal
of Buddhism. Dharma (in Sanskrit) or Dhamma (in Pali) is the sum total of
Buddhist teachings about how to view the world, live properly, and ultimately
achieve enlightenment. In other words, Dharma represents the path toward
achieving the goal of Buddhism, which is enlightenment. (Observe that
the Buddhist usage of the word dharma is different from the Hindu usage.
Recall that for Hindus, dharma refers to the spiritual and moral obligations
of a devoted Hindu as defined by his/her caste and stage of life.) Sangha,
on the other hand, is the community of Buddhist monks and nuns. These
monks and nuns preserve the Dharma and teach them to the laymen. In
sum, Buddhism exists because it has a goal, offers a path toward achieving
that goal, and has a community of devoted disciples that preserve and share
the teachings concerning that goal and path.
T he T hree Marks of Existence

The Three Marks of Existence (or the Three Marks of Reality) refer to
the Buddhist concept of the three fundamental characteristics or traits of
existence; namely: (1) impermanence (Annica in Pali; Anitya in Sanskrit);
(2) no-self (or not-self) (Anatta in Pali; Anatma in Sanskrit); and (3) suffering
or unsatisfactoriness (Dukkha in Pali; Duhkha in Sanskrit) (Molloy 2010,
132-33). The realization of these three marks of existence was part of what
the Buddha had come to know after much meditation and his achievement of
enlightenment. While some Buddhist scholars understand existence here as
limited to sentient beings (that is, beings that are conscious and that include
humans and animals), some understand it to include all beings, sentient and

nonsentient alike. We shall, with some qualifications, take the view that they
apply to all beings.
Impermanence. According to this mark of existence, anything that
exists is subject to change. There is nothing permanent in the world; nothing
remains the same. What presently exists will later on cease to exist. That
there is something that does not change and eternal is an illusion. This
fundamental Buddhist view of reality has many important consequences.
Recall that Hinduism believes in Brahman, the ultimate essence of the world
which is eternal and unchanging. Hinduism even believes that the multiplicity
of the things that we observe, presumably involving their changes, is maya,
an illusion. Buddhism, with its view on the reality of impermanence as a
universal mark of existence, therefore rejects the Hindu belief in Brahman. For
Buddhism, Brahman is an illusion.This explains why Buddhism is considered
an unorthodox Indian philosophy, for in rejecting Brahman, it rejects the
authority of the Vedas (see Section 2 under the chapter on Hinduism). This
Buddhist view apparently also comes into conflict with the belief in God, for
God is regarded as a being whose divine nature and existence are not subject
to change. (This, among other things, like the Buddhist view that the belief
in God is not necessary to achieve nirvana, is one reason why Buddhism is
regarded as an atheistic religion.)
No-Self. The concept of self or I is what explains the personal identity
of a human individual. It refers to what makes the person the same person
throughout the changes that he/she undergoes in his/her lifetime. The usual
explanation for what makes personal identity possible is the individual’s
possession of an enduring and independent self or I, corresponding to what
is traditionally called “soul.” The Buddhist teaching of no-self rejects this
explanation. Buddhists do not believe in the existence of an enduring self
or an eternal soul. The Sanskrit Anatma literally means “no Atman,” which
implies that the no-self teaching literally rejects the idea of Atman, the Hindu
concept that corresponds to enduring selves or eternal souls. The alternative
Buddhist explanation is that the word self is just a convenient term for a
collection of physical and mental factors (in the same way that, following the
philosopher Gilbert Ryle (1965), the term university is just a convenient term
for a collection of buildings, offices, people, and others). The Buddhists, in
particular, explain that the idea of a self is brought about by the interplay of
five aggregates (Skandhas in Sanskrit) namely: (1) form or matter (Rupa)\
(2) sensation or feeling ( Vedana)\ (3) perception and memory (Sam/'na);
(4) mental formations (Samskara); and (5) consciousness (Vijnana). The
form or matter refers to the material factor, while the others refer to the mental
factors (Santina 1984, 129-136).
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The no-self teaching applies to all things, not just to humans. Things have
no essences or enduring selves (or natures) that explain their respective
identities (which in turn differentiate them from one another). They are
simply collections of various elements overlapping and connected in certain
ways, and these collections are what explain their identities. [Following the
popular analogy of the philosopher of language Ludwig Wittgenstein, what
makes something a piece of rope is not a single fiber that runs throughout
the whole rope from one end to another, but the multitude of overlapping
fibers that are connected in certain ways (see the Philosophical Investigations,
1953).] In sum, all things are empty of essences or enduring selves. The
Buddhist concept of emptiness (Sunyata in Sanskrit; Sunnata in Pali), referring
to the view that things do not have essences (or intrinsic natures), has been
elaborated by the Buddhist philosopher and founder of the Madhyamaka
school of Mahayana Buddhism, Nagarjuna (c. 150-c. 250 CE)
Suffering. The word suffering is just a convenient translation of dukkha,
a word that corresponds to what a number of English terms convey like
unsatisfactoriness, disquietude, pain, dissatisfaction, and stress. Suffering
is a universal characteristic of all things in so far as all things, being
impermanent and empty of essence, can be conditions for suffering. The
experience of suffering, however, is a trait only of sentient or conscious
beings, which include humans and animals. The impermanence of things
does not cause suffering; what causes suffering in a sentient being, say a
human, is the attitude he/she adopts towards impermanence, which in turn
is brought about by his/her ignorance. If one is ignorant of the impermanence
of things, one may easily get attached to these things in the sense that he/
she may desire or crave for these things to last. He/she eventually suffers for
things do not really last. It is therefore the attitude of craving in the context
of the reality of impermanence from where suffering arises (Santina 1984,
29-41).
SAMSARA, KARMA, AND NIRVANA

While Buddhism does not accept the Hindu concepts of Brahman and
Atman, and does not recognize the authority of the Vedas, it nonetheless
adopts some Hindu concepts, foremost of which are the concepts of samsara,
karma, and liberation from samsara—which the Hindus call moksha but
which the Buddhists refer to as nirvana (Molloy 2010, 138-39).
Samsara and Karma. The Buddhist concepts of samsara and karma
have basically the same meaning as those of the Hindus. Samsara, or rebirth,
to recall, refers to the continuous cycle of birth, life, and death. When one

is born, one lives, dies, is reborn, lives again, dies again, is reborn again,
and so on. Karma (which literally means “action”) refers to the moral law of
cause and effect governing one’s actions within one’s present lifetime and
across lifetimes. A bad deed will result in undesirable consequences, while a
good deed will result in desirable consequences. Karma also determines the
quality of life one will have in the next life, say whether one will be reborn as
an animal or a human. In the Hindu tradition, karma also determines one’s
caste in the next life. In Buddhism, the amount of suffering one experiences or
will experience is determined by karma. But since the Hindu explanation of the
concepts of samsara and karma assume the reality of Brahman and Atman,
the Buddhist explanation of the same concepts will have some qualitative
differences. The Hindus believe that one’s eternal soul remains throughout
the cycle of rebirth. The Buddhists, on the other hand, do not believe in an
eternal soul, and so they have a more sophisticated explanation of rebirth, as
contained in their teachings about the no-self and law of dependent origination
(the causal interconnections among the “twelve links”— see discussion
below). The question is, who or what is reborn if there is no soul or enduring
self? Some Buddhists use the following analogy of the candle flame to deal
with this question: Suppose you use the flame of one candle to light another
candle. The flame represents the soul or self while the two candles represent
two human bodies. Now suppose just as the flame of the first candle lights
the other candle, the flame of the first candle dies out. It would appear that
the flame of the first candle is just transferred to the second candle, that the
flame of the second candle is the same flame that the first candle had. But
we know that this is just an appearance. It is not the same flame.
Nirvana. Nirvana is freedom or liberation from samsara and suffering.
One who enters into this state will no longer be reborn. When we add the
concept of nirvana to the three marks of existence (impermanence, no-self,
and suffering), the result is what Buddhists call the Four Dharma Seals.
Nirvana is not the same as enlightenment; nirvana is the state one enters
into after achieving enlightenment. This explains why it is possible to be
enlightened already and still not be in the state of nirvana (this is the case
of the boddhisattvas, those who have already attained enlightenment but
decided to postpone their entry into the state of nirvana in order to help others
achieve enlightenment—a teaching traditionally identified with the Mahayana
branch of Buddhism which we shall discuss in the next section). When one
becomes fully aware of the true nature of things and acts accordingly (as
specified in the Four Dharma Seals, Four Noble Truths, and Law of Dependent
Origination), one achieves enlightenment (“bodhi”), after which one may
enter into the state of nirvana.
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T he F our N oble T ruths
The three marks of existence concern fundamental truths about existence
in general. The four noble truths, on the other hand, are fundamental truths
about one of the_three marks of existence, namely, suffering. Furthermore,
suffering as a mark of existence, is generally an experience of any sentient
or conscious being. The four noble truths, on the other hand, focus on
suffering as experienced by humans. Accordingly, the four noble truths deal
with human suffering in terms of ( 1 ) its reality or existence, (2 ) its cause
or origin, (3) its end or termination, and (4) the path or way that leads to
its end or termination. Specifically, the four noble truths are as follows: (1),
suffering exists; (2), suffering is caused by craving or desire; (3), to put an
end to suffering is to put an end to craving; and (4), the way to put an end to
suffering is by following the eightfold path (Molloy 2010,134-136; Matthews
2010, 111-114; Santina 1984,29-50)
1. Suffering exists. The first noble truth is that suffering exists.
Eliminating suffering in one’s life begins with recognizing its reality.
Suffering can be physical, emotional, and mental. Physical suffering
includes the physical pain brought about by old age, sickness, and
death (the first three of the Four Passing Sights of the Buddha).
Emotional suffering includes those brought about by failure and
separation from and loss of loved ones. Mental suffering includes
those brought about by ignorance, worry, and misunderstanding.
2. Suffering arises from craving/desire. Desires create emptiness
within oneself, in that in desiring for something, one creates a lack
that one needs to fill up. Thus the more your desires are, the greater
is the lack that you need to fill up in your life. Furthermore, desires
create further desires. Fulfilling a desire will just lead one to more
and greater desires, and it goes on and on. In the end, we are never
satisfied; we are always in the state of dissatisfaction. Craving may
also come in the form of being attached to desirable things. When
we get attached to an enjoyable experience or to a person whom
we love, we want the experience and the relationship to last. This
craving is bound to fail for experiences and relationships, as well as
ourselves and our loved ones, are not permanent.
3. Eliminating craving eliminates suffering. If craving is the cause
of suffering, then the termination of suffering requires termination
of craving. One, however, cannot just stop making desires by no
longer making desires. It would be impossible to live without having
any desire. To totally refrain from making desires is to put an end to

one’s life. This means that we need to qualify or determine which
desires result in suffering and thus need to be eliminated. Accordingly,
the desires that cause suffering are those made out of ignorance
(ignorance about the fact that the objects of desire are impermanent)
and the attitude of attachment (with the objects of desire). In short,
the desires that need to be eliminated are the ignorant and attached
desires. These desires are actually interrelated: when we are not
mindful of the impermanent nature of the things that we desire, we
get attached to them. In contrast, what we should cultivate are the
enlightened and detached desires.
4. The way to eliminate craving and consequently suffering is by
following the eightfold path. We noted that to eliminate suffering,
we need to eliminate the ignorant and attached kind of desires and
cultivate the enlightened and detached kind of desires in our lives.
Now how do we cultivate the right kind of desires? The Buddha
provides us with the following eightfold path as an answer:
a. Right understanding— understanding of the true nature of things,
specifically, knowledge of the three marks of existence, the four
dharma seals, and the four noble truths.
b. Right intention/thought— cultivating thoughts and motives that
are pure and not selfish.
c. Right speech— speaking honestly and kindly; avoiding lies,
exaggeration, harsh words, and expressions that hurt people.
d. Right action—doing actions that do not hurt people and animals,
which include not stealing and engaging in sexual misconduct.
e. Right work/livelihood—pursuing a means of livelihood that does
no harm to oneself, other people, and animals.
f. Right effort— improving oneself while avoiding extremes or
observing moderation or the middle way.
g. Right meditation (right mindfulness)—focusing one’s energies
on the right and positive things.
h. Right contemplation—cultivating mental states or thoughts that
bring inner peace.
All the steps above are interdependent and are divided into three groups
of training: ( 1 ) the way of morality or good conduct (consisting of right speech,
right action, and right work); (2 ) the way of mental development (consisting
of right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration); and (3) the way of
wisdom (consisting of right understanding and right intention).
UNIT II 181
DEPENDENT ARISING
The Buddhist belief in the principle or law called Dependent Arising
or Dependent Origination (Pratitya-samutpada in Sanskrit; Panicca-
samuppada,Paticda-samuppada, and Patichcha-samuppada in Pali) is
understood on two levels: the general and specific levels. On the general level,
it mainly states that everything is causally interconnected or that everything
affects everything else. Another way of putting this is that all things in the
world are interdependent, such that nothing happens, exists, and ceases to
exist independently of certain conditions. The Buddha explains this in this
way: “When this is, that is. This arising, that arises. When this is not, that is
not.This ceasing, that ceases.’This principle strongly affirms that everything
is subject to the law of cause and effect. Whatever happens or occurs is an
effect of certain causes, which in turn are effects of certain other causes,
and so on. There is no first cause or a cause that is not an effect of other
causes. Nothing exists that is not causally related to some other things. This
principle explains why there can never be anything permanent in the world.
For something to be permanent, its existence should not be dependent on
anything.
On the specific level, the law of dependent origination is intended to
explain the phenomenon of rebirth (or samsara) and suffering. We noted that
samsara is governed by the moral law of karma—a good action will produce
good consequences, while a bad action will produce bad consequences.The
law of karma is part of the law of dependent arising. It explains why good and
bad consequences arise from certain types of actions.The law of dependent
arising also explains how rebirth and suffering are possible even if there is
no eternal soul or enduring self. The law explains it in terms of the causal
interplay among the so-called Twelve Links, which consist of the following: (1)
ignorance; (2) volitional (or mental) formations; (3) consciousness; (4) mind/
body (or name and form); (5) senses and sense objects (or the six senses);
(6 ) the contact between sense organs, sense objects, and consciousness;
(7) feelings; (8 ) craving; (9) attachment (or clinging); (10) coming to be
(or becoming); (11) birth; and (12) old age and death (see Santina 1984,
107-116; and Piyadassi 1991, 137-169 for an in-depth discussion of this
Buddhist teaching).
S ome B uddhist P ractices

The Five Precepts. The basic code of ethics for lay followers of Buddhism
is called the Five Precepts, which are training rules whereby one commits

oneself to abstain from five kinds of action, namely, ( 1 ) killing and harming
living beings, (2) stealing, (3) engaging in sexual misconduct, (4) lying,
and (5) drinking alcohol. The first precept cultivates the virtue of ahimsa or
nonviolence. In some Buddhist traditions, those who wish to practice Buddhism
more strictly follow eight precepts instead of just five. The additional three
are avoiding the following actions: (6 ) eating at the wrong time; (7) singing,
dancing, playing music, attending entertainment performances, wearing
perfume, and using cosmetics and garlands (decorative accessories); and
(8) using luxurious places for sitting or sleeping, and oversleeping. There are,
however, novice monks and nuns in Buddhism who commit themselves to
ten precepts which divide the seventh precept into two and add another one.
The additional actions that must be avoided are (7) singing, dancing, playing
music, and attending entertainment performance, (8 ) wearing perfume,
cosmetics and garlands; (9) using luxurious places for sitting or sleeping,
and oversleeping; and (10) accepting money (Matthews 2010, 109-110).
M e d ita tio n and C hantin g. T hrough
m editation, one prim arily trains the mind
to control its own thoughts. The practice of
meditation is central to most Buddhist traditions
for its important role in achieving enlightenment.
Chanting is also one way of training the mind by
repetitiously uttering the Dharma or Buddha’s
teachings.
Bowing, Lighting Incense, and Altar Offerings. Buddhists show respect
to a statue of the Buddha or a boddhisattva by putting their palms together
and bowing (or prostrating) in front of the statue three times. Lighting incense
is another way of showing respect to the Buddha. It is also done as part of
the offerings to the Buddha when asking for his blessings. Altar offerings at
temples, in the form of flowers, fresh fruits, and small vegetarian dishes, are
a form of thanksgiving for Buddha’s teachings and blessings received from
the Buddha or a boddhisattva.
Some Major Holidays and Festivals. Most holidays and festivals
celebrated by Buddhists commemorate important events in the life of the
Buddha or various boddhisattvas.
Some of them are as follows: (a)
Buddha Day ( Vesak), the most
important Buddhist festival for
it celebrates the birthday of the
Buddha on the first full moon day
in May; (b) Sangha Day (Magha Vesak
UNIT II 183
Puja Day or Fourfold Assembly Day), which is celebrated on the full moon
day of the third lunar month (March) to commemorate the visit of the Buddha
to the Verunan Monastery in the city of Rajagaha, where he was welcomed
and honored by 1,250 arhats; (c) Dhamma Day, which is celebrated on the
full moon day of thg eighth lunar month (July) to commemorate the Buddha’s
first sermon at the Sarnath Deer Park (where “the wheel of the Dharma was
turned”); (d) Kathina Ceremony (Robe Offering Ceremony), where the laity
offer new robes and other necessities to monks and nuns; (e) Festival of
Floating Bowls (Loy Krathong), which takes place in all parts of Thailand
on the full moon night of the twelfth lunar month, where people float bowls
made of leaves and flowers, incense sticks, and candles on the water to
commemorate the holy footprint of the Buddha on the beach of the Namada
River in India; and (f) the Buddhist New Year, which is celebrated on different
days by Buddhists in different countries.
1. Recall the second point in the Four Noble Truths—that the cause of
suffering is craving or desire. How true is this point? Can you identify
an experience of yours that demonstrates this truth?
2. From your point of view, how can human suffering be eliminated? Or
can it really be eliminated? Explain your answer.
lA ctivit^l
Write a short paper comparing and contrasting the views of Hinduism and
Buddhism on the nature of human suffering and how it can be eliminated.
Guide Questions
What are the denominations of Buddhism? What are some of its major
challenges?
Most Buddhist scholars identify two major traditions of Buddhism:

Theravada Buddhism, described as the “Way (or Teaching) of the Elders”;
and Mahayana Buddhism, described as the “Great Vehicle” (Molloy 2010,
142-43, 149; Matthews 2010, 117-119). Some add a third one: Vajrayana

Buddhism, described as the “Diamond (orThunderbolt) Vehicle” (Molloy 2010,
168-173). These three Buddhist traditions are no doubt the dominant forms
of Buddhism today. Theravada Buddhism is dominant in Thailand, Sri Lanka,
Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar (formerly Burma). Mahayana Buddhism is
dominant in China, Japan, and Korea. Vajrayana Buddhism is dominant in
Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Mongolia. Those who identify the Theravada and
Mahayana Buddhist traditions as the only major Buddhist traditions regard
the Vajrayana tradition as a form of the Mahayana tradition. On the other
hand, those who consider the Vajrayana tradition as the third major Buddhist
tradition see the Vajrayana tradition as something that developed on its own
and thus should be treated as an independent Buddhist tradition. For our
purposes, we shall follow those who classify the Vajrayana tradition under the
Mahayana tradition, and thus regard Theravada Buddhism and Mayahana
Buddhism as the two major Buddhist traditions.
T he T heravada and Mayahana T raditions

The Theravada and Mahayana forms of Buddhism accept the basic and
important Buddhist teachings we discussed in the previous section—the three
jewels, the three marks of existence (impermanence, no-self, suffering), the
four dharma seals (three marks of existence plus nirvana), the four noble
truths, the eightfold path, samsara and karma, dependent origination, and
the moral precepts.There are, however, significant differences which concern
the following points: first, the sacred writings or texts they regard as canonical
or authoritative; second, what they consider as their ideal Buddhist (what
their followers are aiming to become); and third, how they understand the
nature of the Buddha. We have already dealt with the first consideration in
the first section of this chapter. (Recall that Theravada Buddhism accepts the
Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon, as the only canonical sacred texts.
In contrast, Mahayana Buddhism considers the Tripitaka and some other
writings, collectively known as the Mahayana Sutras, as canonical sacred
texts). In what follows, we will discuss the second and third considerations
more elaborately.
A rhats and B odhisattvas

For Theravada Buddhism, the ideal Buddhist is called an arhat (Sanskrit;
Pali: arahat, which means “perfect being,” “one who is worthy— Molloy 2010,
143); while for Mahayana Buddhism, it is called a bodhisattva (Molloy 2010,
151). Before we proceed, it must be noted that Theravada Buddhism also
has a concept of the bodhisattva, which has a meaning different from the
UNIT II 185
Mahayana concept. For Theravadins (the followers of Theravada Buddhism),
a bodhisattva is anyone who is on his/her way to enlightenment (he/she has
not yet attained enlightenment but he/she is on his/her way to attain it). For
this reason, in the previous lives of the Buddha, Theravadins consider him
to be a bodhisattva. To avoid confusion, we shall use the word “bodhisattva”
to refer to the Mahayana concept of it.
Both the arhat and the bodhisattva (in the Mahayana sense) have already
achieved enlightenment and are thus worthy to enter the state of nirvana.
The arhat automatically proceeds to the state of nirvana, and because of
this, the arhat is also understood as one who has attained nirvana. As earlier
noted, the arhat, however, differs from a Buddha in that a Buddha attains
enlightenment by means of his/her efforts alone, while an arhat attains
enlightenment with the help and under the guidance of a Buddha. The
bodhisattava, on the other hand, is one who has attained enlightenment also
with the help and under the guidance of Buddha, but, unlike the arhat, the
bodhisattva postpones his/her entry to the state of nirvana out of compassion
in order to help others attain enlightenment. A bodhisattva’s state of mind is
called bodhichitta, referring to the desire to achieve enlightenment in order
to help others also attain enlightenment.
G reat and S mall V ehicles

Closely related to the difference concerning the Buddhist ideal is the
contrast of what the names of these two major traditions signify. Accordingly,
the expression “Mahayana” signifies “The Great Vehicle,” while the expression
“Flinayana” (“Hinayana Buddhism” is the other name of Theravada Buddhism)
signifies “The Small Vehicle.” Vehicle here is meant “way, means, or path
toward nirvana.” The following is one common illustration to explain the
contrast between the great and the small vehicles. The term “vehicle” can
be imagined as a ferryboat used by enlightened beings to travel toward (the
state of) nirvana. In the Mahayana tradition, they believe in a bodhisattva,
who postpones his/her entry to the state of nirvana to help others attain
enlightenment. A bodhisattva helps others to be on the same ferryboat that
he/she is riding toward nirvana. The bodhisattva therefore needs to be in a
large ferryboat (thus a “great vehicle”). In contrast, in the Theravada tradition,
each enlightened person, called an arhat, enters nirvana individually. Thus,
each arhat needs to be in just a small ferryboat, enough to accommodate
one enlightened being (thus a “small vehicle”).
Theravadins, however, do not like the derogatory connotation of
“Hinayana” as a small vehicle and its suggestion that an arhat is selfish (for

just thinking of his/her own enlightenment and nirvana), for after all, anyone
who is selfish cannot attain enlightenment. Consequently, they prefer the
name “Theravada” to “Hinayana.’T h e name “ Theravada” means “teaching of
the elders,” which indirectly suggests that the Theravada way, compared to
the Mahayana way, is the one true to the original teachings of the Buddha.
Another reason why some prefer the name “Theravada” to “Hinayana” is the
hypothesis that these two names do not actually refer to the same tradition.
According to this account, the Buddhist school originally named “Hinayana”
has long ceased to exist (Rahula 1996).
T he N ature of the B uddha

Theravadins and Mahayanists both believe that Gautama Buddha is not
the only Buddha. They also share the belief that after Gautama Buddha, there
will be another historical Buddha, named Maitreya (in Sanskrit; Matteya in
Pali), who will come to usher in the golden age of Buddhism. Theravadins
believe that Buddhas are historical persons who have achieved enlightenment
on their own, the last of which was Gautama Buddha. The Buddha, for the
Theravadins, is therefore essentially human and nothing more. Furthermore,
the other Buddhas that they accept are limited to the previous historical
Buddhas before Gautama Buddha. Mahayanists, on the other hand, has
a different view on the matter. They advance the doctrine of the Trikaya,
according to which a Buddha has three bodies (777 means “three,” and Kaya
means “body”); namely: ( 1 ) manifestation (or emanation) body (Nirmanakaya),
(2) truth (or reality) body (Dharmakaya), and (3) bliss (or enjoyment) body
(Sambhogakaya).Therefore, a Buddha for Mahayanists is essentially not just
a human being. And so in addition to Gautama Buddha, the previous historical
Buddhas, and the future historical Buddha (Maitreya Buddha), they believe
in other Buddhas in other worlds (Molloy 2010, 151-154).
The manifestation body of a Buddha is his/her historical body or his/her
body that appears in space and time. It is a Buddha’s physical body that is
born, walks on earth, and dies. Gautama Buddha is one personification of
the manifestation body of a Buddha. The truth body of a Buddha refers to
the very principle of enlightenment or the Truth (referring to the truth of the
Buddha’s teachings or Dharma) that a Buddha has known (or the Reality that
a Buddha has come to realize) during enlightenment. Truth is independent of
the Buddha that comes to know it, and it remains the same whoever Buddha
comes to know it. A Buddha’s truth body is therefore not subject to change
and is not in space and time. It is what makes someone a Buddha and so it
is the essence of Buddha nature. The bliss body is the body or aspect of the
UNIT II 187
Buddha that experiences the joy of having achieved enlightenment, known
the Truth, or entered the state of nirvana. It is the joy of being released from
the cycle of rebirth and suffering.
These three bodies of the Buddha, said to be the three appearances
of the Buddha, however, are also believed to be personalized or embodied
by certain Buddhas. As such, there are the Nirmanakaya Buddhas who
embody the manifestation body. Gautama Buddha is an example of this kind
of Buddha. There are also the Dharmakaya Buddhas who embody the truth
body. An example of this kind of Buddha is Dharmakaya Samantabhadra,
who is believed by some (in Tibetan Buddhism) as the Primordial Buddha
(being the embodiment of timeless awareness of the Truth). Finally, there are
the Sambhogakaya Buddhas who embody the bliss body. These Buddhas
are celestial, cosmic, or heavenly beings, for while they have physical forms
or figures, they are not subject to space and time. These celestial Buddhas
are usually objects of devotion, for they are the Buddhas in “Pure Lands”—
referring to heavenly places characterized by the bliss of enlightenment
and nirvana. Amitabha Buddha is an example of a Sambhogakaya Buddha.
Examples
Names of Buddhas
The 3 Bodies What the 3 Bodies of Buddhas
Personalizing
of a Buddha Represent Personalizing
the 3 Bodies
the 3 Bodies
Manifestation The physical body Nirmanakaya Gautama Buddha

Body of a Buddha Buddhas
Truth Body The enlightenment Dharmakaya Dharmakaya

of a Buddha Buddhas Samantabhadra
Bliss Body The joy of a Sambhogakaya Amitabha Buddha

Buddha in nirvana Buddhas
S ome Mahayana S chools

TheTheravada tradition as practiced in the different countries in which it is
dominant is basically the same.The differences in the practices of Theravada
Buddhism are minor to constitute subschools within the tradition. While
Theravada Buddhism is practiced alongside some other religious practices
in these countries (for instance, 90 percent of Thais are Theravadins and
yet most of them also engage in some Hindu practices), the main teachings

of Theravada Buddhism remain intact. It is the Mahayana tradition that has
subschools, and there are a lot of them. Let us briefly describe some of the
major ones (as discussed in Molloy 2010, 160-167; and Matthews 2010,
122-130).
V ajrayana B uddhism
The Vajrayana School is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, but because of
its unique components, some consider it the third major Buddhist tradition.
Also called the Thunderbolt Vehicle or Diamond Vehicle, this school is
mainly characterized by its view that one can quickly achieve enlightenment
and become a bodhisattva in one’s present life by following some esoteric
(mysterious) practices. Its beliefs and practices are described as esoteric
or mysterious for they are not openly taught. Instead, they are taught by a
teacher exclusively to his/her students. Vajrayana Buddhism is also called
Tantric Buddhism as it follows the teachings of the Tantras, which advance
the view that the body and all its energies, including those manifested in
sexual union, could be used to attain enlightenment. In this connection,
sexual imageries are sometimes used to describe the union of wisdom and
compassion. This view opposes the belief that enlightenment could only be
achieved by denying the body of sensual pleasures.
T ibetan B uddhism
Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Vajrayana Buddhism. When Vajrayana
Buddhism entered Tibet, it, blended with the indigenous religious practices
of Tibetans, which included nature worship and shamanism. The resulting
Tibetan Vajrayana includes the practices of meditation and yoga, and
the use of mantras, mandalas (sometimes sands are used to tediously
create mandalas but once done, they will be destroyed to emphasize the
impermanence of things), and prayer wheels (the belief is that turning a
cylinder containing papers bearing sacred phrases will create good karma).
The spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism is generally called a lama (aTibetan
translation of the Indian word guru). A dominant form of Tibetan Buddhism,
called Gelug-pa (also called the Yellow Hat sect), calls its superior head
the “Dalai Lama” (literally means “ocean superior one”). The lamas are
believed to be reincarnations of previous lamas, who in turn are believed
to be emanations of certain bodhisattavas. When a Dalai Lama dies, the
search for his successor is a search for his reincarnation.
UNIT II 189
Madhyamika and Y ogacara S chools
Madhyariuka is Sanskrit for “Middle Way.” The Madhyamika School
developed from the works of Nagarjuna. Nagarjuna, who lived around
150 CE, is known to have extended the notion of no-self to ail things. Recall
that the no-self doctrine states that there is no unchanging, eternal, or
enduring substance that is responsible for one’s sense of self or personal
identity. Nagarjuna is said to have advanced the concept of emptiness
(sunyata), which states that all things, including persons, do not have
essences— referring to abstract, unchanging substances inherent in things.
The Yogacara School, on the other hand, is associated with Asanga,
who lived around 400 CE. The Yogacara School went beyond the view of the
Madhyamika in claiming that it is not just that things are without essences,
but the things that serve as the objects of consciousness do not really exist,
being just creations (or constructs) of consciousness. It further claims that
even the I, the subject of consciousness, does not also exist. In the end,
there is just a stream of consciousness. For this reason, this school is also
called the “Mind-Only” School of Buddhism (Matthews 2010, 119-21).
C han B uddhism
Chan Buddhism was established in China by Bodhidharma when he
brought Buddhism to China in 520 CE. The Chan School of Buddhism,
sometimes called the Meditation School for Bodhidharma, emphasized
that meditation is more important than scriptures in knowing the Truth and
reaching enlightenment. It is said that Bodhidharma was inspired by Kashyapa
who smiled when the Buddha, in one of his sermons, just kept silent and
held a flower. Kashyapa’s smile indicated that he understood the Buddha’s
sermon which for him was about the “True Dharma” (the true teaching behind
the teachings, which is beyond words). It is said that Chan Buddhism was
greatly influenced by Taoism, the indigenous Chinese religion traditionally
believed to have been founded by LaoTzu.
Z en B uddhism
When Chan Buddhism was brought to Japan, it became known as Zen
Buddhism. The Zen type of meditation is called zazen, meaning “sitting or
seated meditation.” Enlightenment in Zen is called satori, understood as a
return to the original condition of the human mind before it was contaminated
by various concerns in life. Zazen is practiced through either of the following

two methods: (1) shikantaza, the practice of just sitting (cross-legged) and
thinking of nothing, or emptying one’s mind; and (2) the use of koans, which
are riddles, stories, or sayings that one focuses on during zazen to free the
mind from its everyday concerns and from traditional ways of thinking (which
act as barriers to the mind’s spontaneity or free-flowing nature). Here is one
popular koan: “Two hands clap and there is a sound, what is the sound of
one hand?” Here is another one, entitled A Cup of Tea:
Nan-in, a Japanese master during the Meiji era (1868-1912),

received a university professor who came to inquire about Zen. Nan-in
served tea. He poured his visitor’s cup full, and then kept on pouring.
The professor watched the overflow until he no longer could restrain
himself. “It is overfull. No more will go in!” “Like this cup,” Nan-in said,
“you are full of your own opinions and speculations. How can I show
you Zen unless you first empty your cup?”
(Quoted in “Zen Koans," online: http://www.ashidakim.com/zenkoans/zenindex.html)
P ure L and B uddhism

Pure Land Buddhism is the largest form of Mahayana Buddhism in East
Asia, most especially in China and Japan. It is a popular devotional form of
Buddhism for it can be practiced by lay people and monks alike with the same
results. This school believes that there is a sphere or level of reality beyond
the earth, called the Pure Land, that is ruled over by Amitabha Buddha—a
celestial Buddha (a personification of the bliss body of a Buddha). To be in
the Pure Land is to experience the bliss of nirvana. The belief is that having
complete faith or devotion to the Buddha Amitabha, instead of performing
good deeds, is sufficient to be reborn in the Pure Land. One popular practice
of devotion to Amitabha Buddha is the repetitious recitation of the name
“Amitabha Buddha” with complete focus and sincere faith. Once in the Pure
Land, the belief is that people will easily attain complete enlightenment and
enter the state of nirvana.
T endai B uddhism
The Tendai Buddhism in Japan began in China as the Tiantai sect. It was
named after the mountain, Mount Tiantai, where the Chinese monastery in
%
which the sect is thought to have begun is located. A Japanese monk by

the name of Sacho (767-822 CE) went to this Chinese monastery to study
Tiantai Buddhism and later on returned to Japan to establish the Tendai
UNIT II 191
Sect, whose center is located on Mount Hiei, north of Kyoto. One significant
feature of Tendai Buddhism is its arrangement of the various and often
conflicting Buddhist texts in a meaningful way, as different stages leading to
full enlightenment. The Tendai monks are known for their practice of Kaihogyo,
a kind of meditation !hat requires the extremely difficult challenge of circling
Mount Hei on foot for many days in a row (that takes place over seven years).
It is believed that those who will be able to complete the challenge will attain
enlightenment. In reference to this practice, Western scholars describe Tendai
monks as “marathon monks.”
N ichiren B uddhism
Nichiren Buddhism has the distinction of being the kind of Buddhism
that began in Japan. Its founder, Nichiren (1222-1282), was a former
Tendai monk. One distinctive feature of the Nichiren sect is its view that the
Lotus Sutra contains all the essential religious teachings of Buddhism. Its
devout followers use a chant or mantra to profess their faith in the teachings
of the Lotus Sutra. The chant goes as follows: “ Namu Myoho Renge
Kyo,” translated as “Praise to the mystic law of the Lotus Sutra.” Nichiren
Buddhists believe that repetitiously saying this mantra will enable them
to connect with the divine power of the universe.
S ome C hallenges
Buddhism is becoming popular in the Western world. Part of its attraction
is that some of its teachings seem to be consistent with some modern values
and can be used to deal with the pressures of modern life.The Buddhist idea
that one can attain enlightenment with one’s individual efforts seems to be in
accord with modern-day individualism. The Buddhist practice of meditation
can be used to deal with everyday stress. The Buddhist ideal of nonviolence
is also attractive to some people. There are, however, some modern values
that directly oppose some Buddhist teachings, foremost of which is the value
of consumerism, which contradicts the Buddhist teaching of detachment from
one’s desires and self. The danger, thus, is that people may just take from
Buddhism aspects or elements of it that are useful to them and just ignore
the rest. This may contribute to a popularized understanding of Buddhism
which ignores its true meaning and goals.
One challenge facing Buddhism concerns women. Women, in principle,
can be ordained as nuns in Buddhism. But the reality is that not all Buddhist

sects ordain women as nuns. There are some sects where there is still
opposition to ordaining Buddhist nuns, but efforts continue to make the
ordination of Buddhist nuns a universal practice in all Buddhist sects.
Just like any other religion, Buddhism, generally perceived as a peace-
loving religion, sometimes get caught in political issues that put its followers
in difficult situations. The Chinese invasion of Tibet (on October 7, 1950) is
one clear example. The Chinese, some of whom are Buddhists, destroyed
many of the Buddhist temples in Tibet when the Chinese Communist
government under Mao Tse Tung invaded Tibet. The religious practices of
Tibetans, majority of whom were Buddhists, were also outlawed. Until today,
the Dalai Lama, who assumed the leadership of the Tibetan government
(a theocratic form of government being ruled by spiritual leaders) when the
Chinese invaded Tibet, is still in exile in India.
If you had the time to study a form of Buddhism more extensively,

which form of Buddhism would it be? Why?
^ ^ A c t iv it ^ l
I. Visit a Buddhist temple in the Philippines. Describe your experience.This

can be an oral or a written report.
map.
Nirvana Tripitaka Sangha
Gautama Buddha Mahayana Nichiren
Meditation and chanting Tibet impermanence
Dependent Arising Vajrayana no-self
UNIT II 193
Buddhism
Review Questions
I. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. The title “Buddha” m eans__________

a. the anointed one c. the chosen one
b. the enlightened one
2. In her dream prior to her pregnancy, Queen Maya dreamt about a
w hite__________
a. cow c. elephant
b. monkey

3. A Brahmin hermit predicted that the baby Gautama would one day
b e __________
a. a great spiritual teacher c. a great king
b. a great leader
4. The last of the Four Passing Sights that Gautama had was the sight
of:
a. an old man c. a dead man
b. a sick man d. a contented ascetic
5. One who has achieved enlightenment with the guidance of a Buddha
is generally called------- ----------
a. an arhat c. a guru
b. a Buddha
6 . The sacred Buddhist text recognized by both Theravada Buddhism
and Mahayana Buddhism is th e -----------------
a. Tripitaka c. Heart Sutra
b. Lotus Sutra
7. The following part of the Tripitaka consists of records of the teachings
and sermons mostly of the Buddha on theological matters and moral
behavior for all Buddhists.
a. Discipline Basket c. Special Teachings Basket
b. Discourse Basket
8 . The Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha are regarded as Buddhism’s
a. Three Marks of Existence c. Three Sutras

b. Three Jewels
9. _________ refers to the community of Buddhist monks and nuns.
a. Dharma c. Annica
yb. Sangha
10. This Buddhist concept rejects the belief in an eternal soul or the
Hindu concept of Atman.
a. impermanence c. no-self
b. suffering
11. The addition o f _________ to the three n w k s of existence makes
up the Four Dharma Seals.
a. impermanence c. suffering
b. no-self d. nirvana
UNIT II 195
12. The cause of suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths, is
a. craving or desire c. immorality

b. misfortune
13. This law, on the general level, states that everything is interconnected
a. karma c. samsara
b. dependent arising
14. Right action, right speech, and right work of the eightfold path belong
to the following group.
a. way of mental development c. way of wisdom
b. way of morality
15. The basic code of ethics for lay followers of Buddhism is called the
a. Law of Dependent Arising c. Law of Karma

b. Five Precepts
16. T h e _________ is described as the “Diamond Vehicle.”
a. Mahayana Buddhism c. Vajrayana Buddhism
b. Theravada Buddhism
17. T h e _________ is described as the “Great Vehicle.”
a. Mahayana Buddhism c. Vajrayana Buddhism
b. Theravada Buddhism
18. The Mahayana doctrine that Buddha has three bodies is called
a. Trimurti c. Tripitaka
b. Trikaya
19. The ideal Buddhist of Mahayana Buddhism is called__________
a. an arhat c. a bodhichitta
b. a bodhisattva
20. Gautama Buddha is considered as an example of a __________
a. Nirmanakaya Buddha c. Sambhogakaya Buddha
b. Dharmakaya Buddha
21. Celestial Buddhas, like Amitabha Buddha, a re __________
a. Nirmanakaya Buddhas c. Sambhogakaya Buddhas
b. Dharmakaya Buddhas

22. The spiritual leader of the following form of Buddhism is called a
lam a__________
a. Tendai Buddhism c. Chan Buddhism
b. Tibetan Buddhism
23. This form or school of Buddhism is also called “Mind-Only” school
for its rejection of the existence of the objects and subjects of
consciousness.
a. Yogacara c. Pure Land
b. Madhyamika
24. A technique for meditation in this form of Buddhism uses koans.
a. Tendai c. Zen
b. Nichiren
25. The monks of this form of Buddhism are described as “marathon
monks” in reference to their form of meditation wherein they circle
Mount Hei for many days in a row.
a. Tendai c. Zen
b. Nichiren
II. Identify and explain the following:
1. The Four Dharma Seals-----------------------------------------------------------
2. The Four Noble Truths
KWL Chart
after the lesson
UNIT II 197
K W
What 1know about Buddhism What 1want to know about Buddhism
L
What I have learned about Buddhism

O verarching Q uestion
What are the main features of Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto in

terms of their origin, sacred texts, doctrines, practices, denominations,
and challenges?
EX PECTED L EA R N I N G OUTCOME
The chapter aims to examine the basic elements of the major

religions that originated in China (Confucianism and Taoism) and Japan
(Shinto). Specifically, the chapter looks into the origin, sacred texts,
doctrines, practices, denominations, and challenges of these religions.
At the end of the chapter, you must write and submit a comparative
analysis of these three religions (the themes are to be specified by the
teacher). Such themes may include the religions’ founders; sacred texts;
notions of the Absolute; views on the essential human condition, morality,
and liberation (or way to achieve ultimate happiness); practices (which
include rituals and celebrations); denominations; and challenges (which
include issues concerning gender, relation with the state, modernization,
and technology and the expanding understanding of human rights. The
following is a sample template for this activity the teacher is free to make
changes as he/she sees fit.
Religion Confucianism Taoism Shinto
Founder(s)
Sacred Texts
UNIT II 199
The Absolute
The Human
Condition
Morality
Liberation and
Ultimate Happiness
Practices
Denominations
Challenges
L EA RNI NG COMPETENCIES
Learning Competency
Lesson 8. Confucianism •s- Trace the origins of Confucianism and identify

its sacred texts.
w Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Confucianism.
Distinguish the different denominations
of Confucianism and discuss some of its
challenges.
Lesson 9. Taoism **■ Trace the origins of Taoism and identify its
sacred texts.
cr Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Taoism.
«■ Distinguish the different denominations of
Taoism and discuss some of its challenges.

Lesson 10. Shinto ■s- Trace the origins of Shinto and identify its
sacred texts.
**■ Explain the basic doctrines and practices of
Shinto.
«*■ Distinguish the different denominations of
Shinto and discuss some of its challenges.
EXPL ORING INITIAL IDEAS AN D VIEWS

can associate with Confucianism.

can associate with Taoism.

can associate with Shinto.
UNIT II 201
l
i
Ess
j
QNj
S;
S9?ife BBSS: S # ' i*p- SSp & t#
CONFUCIANISM
Guide Question
What are the basic features of Confucianism?
TOPICS
♦ Section 1 : Origins and Sacred Texts

♦ Section 3: Sects and Challenges
Key Concepts is- Confucianism *r The Basic Relationships

is- Ru Tradition «*■ The Confucian Virtues
•a- Confucius is- Ren or Benevolence
is- The Five Classics «s- Li or Propriety
(Book of Rites, Book ^ Shu or Reciprocity
of Changes, Book of US’ Xiao or Filial Piety
History, Book of Poetry,
Spring and Autumn Wen or Culture
Annals) lt3' Mohists (Mozi)
is- The Four Books Ejr Legalists (Han Feizi)
(Analects, Great ISP Taoists
Learning, Doctrine of ^ Mencius
the Mean, Mencius)
Xunzi (HsunTzu)
is- Mandate of Heaven
Neo-Confucianism (Han Yu,
«• Rectification of Names Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming)

EXPECTED L EA R N I N G COMPETENCIES

•s- Explain the relation between Confucianism and the Ru Tradition.
■sr Narrate the key events in the life of Confucius.
» Distinguish the books consisting the Five Classics of Confucianism,
ear Distinguish the books consisting the Four Books of Confucianism.
«*■ Explain the Confucian concepts of a noble person and the Mandate
of Heaven.
ear Explain the meaning of the Confucian principle of the rectification of
names.
<>*• Identify and explain the Confucian virtues by giving concrete examples,
i®- Identify and differentiate the rival theories of Confucianism: the
Schools of the Mohists, Legalists, and Taoists.
ear Identify and differentiate the different Confucian Schools: the Schools
of Mencius, Xunzi, and the Neo-Confucians.
•a- Identify and elaborate on some of the challenges of Confucianism.
|Â ctivityJ
Fill in the K W L Chart placed after the Review Questions. This can be
CULTIVATING
How did Confucianism originate? And what are its sacred texts?
C hina ’ s T hree T eachings *

There are three major religions in China, namely, Confucianism, Taoism,
and Buddhism. These three religions are collectively called the Three
UNIT II 203
Doctrines (Molloy 2010, 215) or the Three Teachings (Deming 2015, 119),
suggesting their harmonious co-existence throughout Chinese history. It is
said that it is typical among Chinese, though some may consider themselves
as belonging to one of these religions, to engage in some of the practices of
these three religions at the same time. Of these three religions, Confucianism
and Taoism originated in China, for Buddhism was only brought to China.
These three religions flourished in China almost within the same period,
and they influenced each other’s development. We have already examined
Buddhism in a previous chapter and some of the forms it has taken when it
was brought to other countries, especially China and Japan. In this chapter
and the next, we shall then focus on Confucianism and Taoism.
C onfucianism
In 2007, it was estimated that there were 6,447,200 followers of
Confucianism in the whole world; and majority of them (6,376,000) lived in Asia
(Matthews 2010, 172). The term “Confucianism” was originally used by the
Jesuits of the sixteenth century to refer to a Chinese cultural tradition named
the Ru Tradition, which generally meant “the tradition of the scholars.” The
Jesuits, accordingly, wanted to transform the tradition into a school of thought,
or an “ism.” Referring to the said tradition as “Ju,” Rule (1986, 2, 195) writes:
Until Nicholas Trigault published his version of Ricci’s journals in 1615,

there was hardly any knowledge of, not to say debate about, Confucianism
.. .The Jesuits were virtually the first Europeans to discover Confucius
and Confucianism, ‘the sect of the literati’ as they not inaccurately called
it . .. The Jesuits, representatives of European values and intellectual
methods, attempted . . . to understand Chinese intellectual life in terms
of systems, and transmuted the tradition of the Ju or Chinese ‘scholars’
into an ‘-ism’, Confucianism. (Quoted in Yao 2000, 16-17)
Consequently, “Confucianism” has been thought of, especially in the West,

as referring to a distinct Chinese tradition that was founded or originated by
its leader, Confucius. While it is true that Confucius and his followers have
successfully transmitted and transformed the ancient cultural tradition of ru,
it must be noted that this tradition existed long before Confucius was born.
What then was the ru tradition? Roughly, the ru tradition, or ru jia {ru jiao or
rue xue), means “the doctrine or tradition of the scholars” (Yao 2000, 17).
But who were the ru or scholars in this regard? Yao (2000,18-20) explains
that the meaning of “ru” went through a number of stages before the time of
Confucius: “Firstly, ru referred to dancers and musicians in religious rituals

... Secondly, ru were masters of rituals and ceremonies .. . Thirdly, ritual
masters became teachers in official education. To be able to look after
rituals, ru must have mastered history, poetry, music, astrology, archery
and mathematics which were closely related to rituals in ancient times.”
In addition, ru were devoted to the study of the “six classics” (the Book of
Poetry, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the Book of Music, the Book
of Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals) and emphasized the virtues
of humaneness (ren) and righteousness (yi) (Yao 2000,17).
The association, and eventually the identification, of the ru tradition with
Confucianism was based on the recognition of Confucius as the highest figure
in the ru tradition. He was a great master, teacher, and innovator of the ru
tradition. In light of these considerations, we thus say that Confucianism has
its roots in the ru tradition.The originality in Confucianism, as a religion or as
a philosophy, lies in the changes that Confucius and his followers introduced
to the tradition to nurture or cultivate it (Yao 2000, 21). It must, however, be
noted that while all Confucians (followers of Confucius) then were followers
of the ru tradition; not all followers of the ru tradition were Confucians. This
means that there might have some who resisted the innovations Confucius
introduced to the ru tradition.
Confucius
C on fuciu s is the recognized fo u n d er of
Confucianism.Though there are some disagreements
about the details in his life, there is no doubt that
Confucius was a historical figure. Also, there was
nothing extra-human or supernatural, or mythical,
about the events in his life. He was born in the
normal human way, and he lived and died in the
normal human way. Confucius is believed to have
lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His original Chinese Confucius
name was “Kong Qiu” (or “K’ung Ch’iu); but he later on became known by
the title “Kong Fuzi” (or “Kung Fu Tzu”), which meant “Master Kong.” The
name “Confucius” was actually a Romanized/Latinized version of his name,
created and spread by sixteenth century Jesuit missionaries (Molloy 2010,
235; Littlejohn 2011, xviii).The following were the highlights of Confucius’ life
as gathered from the accounts by different scholars* which vary in
emphasis and level of detail (see, for instance, the accounts of Molloy 2010,
235-236; Matthews 2010,182-183; Urubshurow 2009, 458-463; Yao 2000,
21-26).
UNIT II 2 0 5
Confucius was born in the state of Lu, or Shantung province— (presently
Qufu, south of Beijing). His father, named Shulianghe, was a tall soldier who
later on worked as a minor official in Lu (as head of a certain county in Lu).
His father died when he was just three years old. This later on forced the
young Confucius to engage in various forms of physical labor to help his
family and finance his studies. But despite the difficult circumstances in his
life, Confucius was still able to study and master the skills being studied by
educated boys of aristocratic families, namely, ceremonies, music, archery,
carriage driving, calligraphy, and calculation (or mathematics). It is said that
Confucius pursued these things for he simply loved doing them. He also
studied works that later on were called Confucian classics. While being
poor, Confucius grew up as a gentleman. When his mother died when he
was seventeen years old, he mourned for twenty-seven months, refraining
from work, sexual relations, eating refined food, wearing fine clothes, playing
music and others. He later on got married and had a son and a daughter.
He first worked as a keeper of the granary accounts of the Chi family.
This experience opened his eyes to social injustices. Later on he became
a successful teacher. But he still longed to play an influential part in the
government, for he believed that he could institute social changes once in
a government post. At the age of 51, he became the head of a county in
Lu, just like his father. After a few years, he became the Minister of Industry,
Minister of Public Security, and acting Prime Minister of Lu. His political career,
however, was cut short when he offended one of Lu’s powerful noblemen.
At the age of fifty-five, he left Lu and went into exile in 497 BCE. Along with
his disciples, he travelled to several states to search for other positions while
approaching princes and dukes to promote his social teachings. He was
often rejected and once he was even imprisoned and their lives (his and
his students) were endangered. In 484 BCE, Confucius and his disciples
returned to Lu, when the Duke of Ai of Lu invited Confucius to act as his
adviser. He spent his last years as a scholar editing the classics. He died in
479 BCE at the age of seventy-two or seventy-three.
T he S acred T exts
The sacred and authoritative texts of Confucianism consists of two
collections of books named the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five
Classics (Wujing, Wu-ching) consist of the following:
1. Book of History {or Book of Documents) {Shujing, Shu Ching): a
collection of historical materials (speeches and reports) on the deeds
of emperors, and pieces used in ritual dance performance at the Zhou

royal court (roughly from 3000 BCE to 700 BCE). The documents
contain the idea of the Mandate of Heaven, the belief that Heaven
grants its mandate to emperors who care for their subjects.
2. Book of Poetry (Shijing, Shih Ching): a collection of 305 poems of
the Zhou period, whose topics include love and war, and are grouped
into folk songs, festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and hymns
and eulogies sung at sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the
royal house. It is believed that there were originally 3,000 poems but
Confucius just chose 305 and “edited them into a book to be used
for education” (Yao 2000, 59).
3. Book of Changes ( Yijing, / Ching): a book containing a divination
system, referring to a system that shows the patterns of the universe
through the use of the hexagrams (patterns of six yin-yang, divided-
undivided, lines), and which, consequently, enables us to foresee or
predict future events. It was in this book that the concepts of yin and
yang were introduced.
4. Book of Rites (Liji, Li Chi): a book containing detailed rules for
performing rites and court ceremonies.
5. Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqui, Ch’un Ch’iu): a collection of
historical records about the state of Lu, the state where Confucius
was born and died.
It must be noted that another book, called the Book of Music, used to
be regarded as the sixth classic. But this book no longer exists. Some think
that parts of this book may have been incorporated in the Book of Rites.
Some (Yao 2000, 57) think that it might have been included in the books
burned during the Burning of the Books, a period, during the Qin Dynasty in
221 BCE, when Confucian teachings were seen as a threat to the then
existing political power (the ban on Confucian books was lifted when the Qin
Dynasty was later on overthrown by the Han Dynasty in 191 BCE.).
What is the significance of these classics to Confucianism? Confucians
generally believe that these classics contain the heavenly principles or the
Way of Heaven (Yao 2000, 50). In particular, Yao (2000, 50-51) identifies
four primary roles these classics played in the transmission of the Confucian
tradition: “Firstly, they were the key textbooks for students ... Secondly, the
classics were considered to be the source of the Confucian way of life . . .
Thirdly, the classics were the root from which numerous Confucian branches
developed . . . Fourthly, the Confucian classics were appreciated primarily
for their political functions and applications.”
UNIT II 207
These classics were called “Confucian Classics” not only because of their
relation to the teachings of Confucius, but also because it was traditionally
believed that Confucius played a significant role in their formation. In particular,
it was traditionally believed that Confucius was the one responsible for the
form in which each’ of these books presently appears. The writings were
already there but they were disorganized. Confucius edited and rearranged
them so that he could take them as textbooks for his students (Yao 2000,
53; see also Matthews 2010,188). Some contemporary scholars, however,
have raised some questions about this belief (Yao 2000, 53-54).
The Four Books, on the other hand, consist of the following:

1. Analects (Lunyu, Lun Yu):a collection of the sayings, speeches, and
discussions of Confucius and his followers. The sayings and short
stories often begin with the phrase “The Master said.” As Confucius
did not write down his teachings, his students took notes of them.
These notes were later on compiled to form the Analects.
2. Great Learning (Daxue, Ta Hsueh): a text discussing the character
and influence of the noble person, and deals with the three central
Confucian concerns: education, morality, and politics. It teaches
the cultivation of the self and development of one’s virtue, through
learning, as the way to produce order in the family and state. This
book is actually a chapter in the Book of Rites.
3. Doctrine o f the Mean (Zhongyong, Chung Yung): a book that
demonstrates the relation of the Way of Heaven and human nature.
Accordingly, it is the way prescribed by heaven that humans achieve
virtue or happiness by living a life of moderation or equilibrium. This
book is another chapter in the Book of Rites, which is believed to
have been written by Zisi, a grandson of Confucius.
4. Mencius {Mengzi, Meng Tzu): a collection of the teachings of Mencius,
often in the form of conversations that Mencius had with kings during
his time. The sayings of the Mencius, just like the Analects, often begin
with the phrase “Mencius said.” Mencius, who lived some generations
after Confucius, is regarded as the second great Confucian thinker
after Confucius. Among the key ideas of Mencius is the thought that
human nature is good.
These Confucian texts, for a long period of time, became the “core
curriculum” of Chinese education and for the civil service examinations in
China—China is the first country in the world to require such examinations
for eligibility for governmental employment. Previously the Five Classics were

the key textbooks for education and for state examination (from the Han to
the Tang Dynasty, 206 BCE-905 CE), but they were later on replaced by the
Four Books (during the Song-Ming dynasty, 960-1628 CE).The Four Books
were compiled and edited by Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi, 1130-1200 CE), the Chinese
philosopher who started the Neo-Confucian movement. Yao (2000,64) further
notes: “In 1313 the Imperial court of the Yuan Dynasty (1260-1370) decreed
that the questions of state civil examinations had to be taken from the Four
Books . . . This decree effectively promoted the Four Books to a position
above on the Five Classics. From then until the beginning of the twentieth
century, a majority of Confucian scholars concentrated on the Four Books
rather than the Five Classics, and every schoolboy had to learn them by
heart before he reached adolescence.” This system of state examination,
however, was stopped in 1905 by the Qing dynasty in light of attempts to
catch up with modernization. And when the Qing dynasty was overthrown
in 1911/12, the entire civil-service system was abolished.
sc us si o n Q uestions
1. What were the skills Confucius interested in acquiring? Do you think

that these skills are still relevant in our time? Why?
2. Do you think knowledge of our own rites, rituals, and ceremonies
(and how they should be performed properly) should be part of our
education? Why?
3. What for you should one know to be considered an educated person?
IÂctivityl
Watch a movie about the life of Confucius (one movie is entitled

“Confucius” which stars Chow Yun-fat). This activity can be done as a class.
Write a reflection paper on the life of Confucius as depicted in the movie.
G uide Q u e s t i o n
What are the basic doctrines and practices of Confucianism?
UNIT II 209
Mandate of H eaven
The belief in the Tao, which generally means Way or Path, as the ultimate
principle governing the universe and which must be realized by every human
being in his/her actions is shared by both Confucians and Taoists. They,
however, have different attitudes towards the nature of the Tao, or ways of
dealing with it, and different views on how the Tao is to be realized or cultivated
by humans in their lives. Taoists believe that the Tao is beyond concepts
and words and thus no amount of education will enable us to know its
real nature. The Tao that can be talked about does not refer to the real,
eternal Tao, as the Tao Te Ching (the main Taoist text) states. What we can
do is simply go with its flow, as manifested in the way nature moves. We
shall explore this Taoist attitude towards the Tao in the next chapter.
Confucians, in contrast, think of the Tao as contained in the Way of Heaven
(“Heaven” is Tian, the Will of Heaven or Mandate of Heaven is Tien ming),
which can be known or learned through proper education (by studying the
Confucian books).
The emperors of the past, for instance, who ruled by serving the interests
of their people had the Mandate of Heaven. And so studying how these
emperors ruled (in the Book of History) is one way to know the Way of
Heaven. The ideal of Confucians is thus to know the Way of Heaven through
education and to conduct their lives accordingly. “Thus they devote their life
to learning, education and the transmission of ancient culture because of
their belief in the Mandate of Heaven which can be known through learning,
divination and observation . . . ” states Yao (2000, 147). For “[t]he Way of
Heaven signifies morality, and to follow the Way of Heaven is to lead a virtuous
life” (Yao 2000, 148). Confucians, in sum, do not speak of a God or gods to
ground or justify their beliefs and practices. They instead speak of the Way
or the Mandate of Heaven.
T he N oble P erson ( J unzi, C hOn T zu )

The way of humans should be in harmony with the way of heaven. Another
way of saying this is that human actions should have the Mandate of Heaven.
The ideal human for Confucians is therefore one who has known the Way
of Heaven through education and acts in harmony with it. Such an ideal
human, from the Confucian point of view, is called a junzi {chun tzu), which
is translated as a superior man, an excellent person, a gentleman, a virtuous
person, an exemplary person, or a noble person. The goal of Confucian

education is to produce noble persons for it is only when rulers and subjects
are noble persons that social harmony would be ac! eved. Generally, the
noble person acts according to the Way of the Heaven, or act in ways that
have the Mandate of Heaven. In particular, this means that a noble person
knows and does his duties according to his role in the various relationships
he might be in, say in his roles of being a father, younger brother, son, ruler,
or husband. These duties are specified in Confucius’ discussion of the basic
relationships or the rectification of names.
Some scholars distinguish between three categories of persons described
in the Analects: apprentice {shi), exemplary person (junzi), and sage
(shenren) (Littlejohn 2011, 32). The goal of the apprentice is to become
an exemplary person. “While the exemplary person is the highest level to
which most of us can aspire, there is a loftier ideal in the Analects. It is to
become a sage (shengren),” explains Littlejohn (2011,34). While to become
a junzi is our ideal, but once a junzi there is still a higher ideal, being a sage.
Sages are rare, as Confucius says: “I will never get to meet a sage— I would
be content to meet an exemplary person” (quoted in Littlejohn 2011, 34).
Confucius recognized some sages in the past (Yao, Wu, Wen, and Shun).
And while he also deserved to be called a sage, he humbly refused the title,
saying: “How would I dare to consider myself a sage or ren? What can be
said about me is simply that I continue my studies without respite and instruct
other without growing weary” (quoted in Littejohn 2011,34).
T he B asic R elationships
Confucius is known to have identified five basic types of human
relationships. A typical list of these relationships consists of the following:
(1) father-son; (2) elder brother-younger brother; (3) husband-wife; (4)
elder friend-younger friend; and (5) ruler-subject. There are, however, some
variations in the list of some scholars. For instance, instead of the “elder
brother-younger brother,” some have the “elder sibling-younger sibling”
relationship (Littlejohn 2011, 26). And instead of the “father-son,” some
have the “parent-child” relationship (Deming 2015,150; Littlejohn 2011,26).
These variations indicate the desire to make the relationships more inclusive,
to accommodate other equally important relationships into the list, while
maintaining their number to just five. The main point, I think, is not that there
are only five basic relationships; but that there are basic relationships (which
can be more than five) in which each party in the relationship has duties or
responsibilities towards the other party. As these basic relationships have
UNIT II 211
this essential feature (they are defined by reciprocal responsibilities), the
other relationships that will emerge from them will therefore likewise have
the same essential feature.
Thus, a parent has responsibilities towards his/her child, and a child has
responsibilities towards his/her parent; a ruler has responsibilities towards
his/her subject; and a subject has responsibilities towards his/her ruler; and
so on. The relationships that will grow out of these basic relationships will be
the same: the doctor-patient relationship, the teacher-student relationship,
and employer-employee relationship, for instance, will also be defined by
reciprocal responsibilities (each party in a relationship has responsibilities
towards the other party). The other important point is that it is only when
the reciprocal responsibilities of a relationship are done that there will be
harmony in that relationship. And if we think of society as consisting of various
human relationships, then society will only achieve harmony if each of the
relationships that constitute it is in harmony. This last point leads us to the
principle of the rectification of names.
R ectification of N ames
The idea that everyone should know and do the appropriate duties or
responsibilities of every role that he/she assumes in society is referred to
as the principle or theory of the rectification of names. The roles that we
play are defined by certain names or designations, like the names “father,”
“son,” “elder,” and “ruler.” Rectification of these names means, in this context,
clarification of the duties or responsibilities required of each person who is
assigned or who assumes these names. In short, if you are called a “father”
then know and do what a father must do; if you are called a “ruler” then know
and do what a ruler must do, and so on. Social disharmony arises if we do
not know and do the responsibilities implied by our designations or names.
More generally, social irregularity arises when there is a “discrepancy between
names and reality, between language and action, and between rights and
duties” (Yao 2000,35). As Confucius writes: “If names be not correct (zheng),
language could not be fluently used. If language be not fluently used, affairs
could not be carried on to success... ritual/propriety (li) and music could not
be flourishing . . . the punishments could not be properly made .. . then the
people would not know how to behave” (quoted in Yao 2000, 35). If people
will not perform their duties in their capacities, for instance, as rulers, fathers,
husbands, wives, and sons, then they will abuse their titles and violate the
names or designations that define their duties (Yao 2000, 35).

T he C onfucian V irtues
Confucius identifies certain virtues, called the Confucian Virtues, which
a person must have to be a ju n z ior a noble person. These virtues are often
also called the five cardinal virtues of Confucianism. But except for the virtues
of ren (benevolence) and li (propriety), scholars differ on what the remaining
virtues are to comprise the five cardinal virtues. The following is one list (by
Molloy 2010, 241-43):
1. Ften (Jen) or benevolence or humaneness: generally doing things
that benefit other people. A person practicing ren has compassion
for others—as “[cjompassion for others is the mark of a good person”
(Matthews 2010, 185).
2. Li or propriety: generally doing things that are appropriate in a given
situation. It originally refers to proper ways of performing religious
rites and to proper behavior in court ceremonies. In its general
meaning, however, it includes proper ways of speaking, behaving,
dressing, and others, in given social situations. One has to observe li
in every area of life, as in the basic relationships we discussed above.
When the virtue of li is internalized, the result is the virtue of yi (“Yi
is internalized li”— Matthews 2010, 185). One has yi when one has
incorporated li in his/her life.
3. Shu or reciprocity: generally doing things in accordance to the Golden
Rule: “Do not do unto others what you do not want others to do
unto you.” In the Analects, Confucius emphasizes the importance of
reciprocity as follows: “Tsu-kung asked, ‘Is there a single word which
can be a guide to conduct throughout one’s life?’ The Master said, ‘It
is perhaps the word shu. Do not impose on others what you yourself
do not desire’” (quoted in Matthews 2010, 185).
4. Xiao or filial piety: generally doing things that show love, respect,
and devotion to the members of one’s family. Special emphasis,
however, is put on the duty of children to respect and take care of
their parents. In the Analects, we can read Confucius’ emphasis
on the element of respect when taking care of one’s parents; thus:
“Confucius’ pupil Ziyou asked about filial piety. Confucius said, Today
filial piety means being about the task of nourishing one’s parents.
But that is what we do for dogs and horses. If the/e is not respect,
how do these actions differ?”’ (quoted in Deming 2015, 125). The
living and those who passed away constitute the Chinese concept
of family; thus the virtue of xiao includes the celebration of ancestral
rites that prescribe specific actions, offerings and prayers.
UNIT II 213
5. Wen or culture: generally doing things that cultivate one’s sense and
appreciation of culture, which includes acquiring artistic skills (in the
areas of music, painting, dance, and others) and art appreciation (like
watching concerts, visiting art museums, attending art exhibits, and
others).
Some scholars (see Yao 2000,34), on the other hand, have the following
list: humaneness (ren), righteousness (y/), ritual/propriety (//), wisdom (zhi)
and faithfulness (xin). Still, some (Littlejohn 2011,31) add another one to the
list, namely, haoxue or “self-cultivation,” generally referring to the virtue of
doing things that enhances one’s own character and talents, and that refines
one’s humanity. It includes giving one’s utmost or best in one’s endeavors,
and requires the willingness to learn from others. Again, just like in the case
of the basic relationships, we take the position that the important thing here
is that these virtues are the ones that a noble person must possess, and not
that there must only be five of these virtues. And so, we prefer to call them the
“Confucian virtues,” instead of the “five cardinal virtues,” and accommodate
all the virtues identified by the various scholars in this regard.
R espect for A ncestors and T emple W orship

As noted above, the Chinese concept of family extends to those who have
already passed away. Consequently, the Confucian virtue of filial piety, which
requires respect for one’s family members especially the elders, extends to
one’s dead relatives.To show respect for one’s dead relatives one visits their
graves at least once a year (especially during Tomb Sweeping Day). Family
members clean the tombs of their dead relatives; they place the favorite
food and wine of their dead relatives on their graves, burn incense, and
kneel before their graves to pray for them. Respect for the dead relatives is
also done at home or at a temple. At home, families usually put up shrines
dedicated to their dead relatives. In these shrines are ancestral tablets (stones
in which the names of the deceased relatives are curved), portraits of the
dead relatives, and incense-stick holders. Confucians also visit temples to
show their respect to Confucius and to pray for his blessings. The rituals in
these temples vary from one region to another.
K ey F estivals and H olidays

Some of the main festivals and holidays celebrated by Confucians are
as follows: birthday of Confucius (September 28th, lasts 10 days), Chinese
New Year (January 31st), Ching Ming or Qingming, also known as Tomb-

Sweeping Day or Ancestors’ Day (takes place 106 days after the winter
solstice, families visit their ancestors or relatives’ graves), and Chongmyo
Taeje (to honor the kings and queens of the Yi dynasty, takes place on the
1st Sunday of May).
■a- Do you agree with the idea behind the principle of the rectification of
names? Explain your answer.
"s- How would you compare and contrast the Confucian principle of the
rectification of names with the Hindu concept of dharma?
Will it make a difference if we will understand the Confucian concept
of Heaven as a kind of God? Explain your answer.
^ A c tiv it^ l
Write a reflection paper on the Confucian virtues. How important are

they if we are to make ourselves noble persons? Cite examples in your life
in which you have demonstrated these virtues.

Guide Questions
What are the denominations of Confucianism? And what are some of

its challenges?
Forms of Confucianism are more properly called “schools” rather

than sects or denominations. Furthermore, Confucianism and its different
schools arose as a result of their interaction with non-Confucian schools
prevalent during that time. In this regard, we shall first briefly examine the
rival schools to Confucianism, after which we shall deal with the Confucian
schools.
T he R ival S chools
Two interrelated questions became the points of disagreements
between Confucianism and its rival schools. The first question concerns
UNIT II 215
human nature, whether humans are inherently good or bad. The second
question concerns the role and desirability of government in promoting
social harmony. These two questions are interrelated for the answer to
the first defines the answer to the question. If, for instance, humans are
naturally good, government intervention to human natural actions would
either be unnecessary or should be done on a minimal degree. But if
humans are naturally evil, then this intervention is absolutely necessary
and should be strictly done.
T he Mohist S chool
The Mohist school originated in the teachings of M ozi(M o Di, Mo Tzu,
Master Mo; 4797-381 ? BCE). Key elements of these teachings (based on
the discussions of Fraser 2000, Yao 2000, Matthews 2010, Molloy 2010,
and Urubshurow 2009) are as follows. Laws are necessary for without them
people are naturally predatory (will naturally take advantage of others).
Society needs to adopt two principles to establish social harmony and
justice. The first is the utilitarian principle which states that right or good
actions and policies are those that promote the overall welfare of society
(or one that provides the greatest benefit to most members of society).
The second is the principle of the universality of love, which states that
everybody ought to love everybody else equally and impartially. These
two principles allegedly conflict with some of the Confucian ideals. For
instance, practices, rites, and ceremonies that do not promote overall
welfare of society should be abolished. Another, virtues that conflict with
the universality of love, like filial piety which gives preference to members
of one’s family, should be discouraged.
T he L egalist S chool
Legalism or the Legalist School (Fajia, Fa-Chia) developed from the
ideas of Shang Yang, Li Si, and Han Feizi. Though he studied under the
Confucian philosopher Xunzi and was influenced by Xunzi’s view of human
nature as fundamentally evil, Han Feizi (Han Fei-tzu, c. 280-233 BCE)
later on abandoned his Confucian training and became the greatest of the
Legalist philosophers. Among his political ideas, Han Feizi advocated the
view that political duties take priority over other duties. “A soldier, it was
said ran from battle because he thought that, if he was killed, he could no
longer serve his father. Han Feizu commented: ‘A filial son to his father can
be traitorous subject to his ruler’” (Han Feizu, Encyclopaedia Britannica

2013). Legalism was the popular school during the violent Warring States
era (475-221 BCE); and it became the political framework of the Qin
Dynasty (221-207 BCE), China’s first imperial dynasty, in unifying the
whole of China. The following are some of its key ideas. Human beings
are naturally selfish. They naturally seek to satisfy their own self-interests
even if they have to lie, steal, cheat, and kill. This human nature cannot be
changed by education or self-cultivation. It, however, can be manipulated
to benefit the state, or to promote social order, by means of rewards and
punishments. Good rulers are therefore not determined on the basis of
their morality but by their ability to manipulate the selfishness of their
subordinates through a system of rewards and punishments. Consequently,
a strong state control and absolute obedience to authority are necessary
to establish social harmony. Against the Legalist School, the “Confucians
argued that history thus demonstrated that while Legalism was useful in
a time of war, it was unsuitable as the basis of a permanent government
. . . ” (Yao 2000, 82).
T aoism
Taoism developed from the teachings contained in the books Tao Te
Ching, traditionally believed to be written by Lao Tzu, and Chuang Tzu,
a book named after the philosopher Chuang Tzu who wrote a big part of
this book. Taoists believe that the Tao, the Way, though unknowable being
beyond words and concepts, should not be hindered as it flows or moves
within nature and human nature. Hindering the natural flow of the Tao will
lead to natural disasters and social disharmonies. On this perspective,
social harmony is to be achieved not through education and political control.
When the Qin Dynasty, which adopted the Legalist School, failed, the
early emperors of the succeeding Han Dynasty adopted the “naturalistic
and liberal” Taoist ideology which advanced little or no governmental
interference in economic affairs (laissez-faire). While this resulted in
economic recovery and increase in state resources, the ideology “could
not satisfy the needs of a strong and growing empire, and failed to provide
any coherent administrative policies” (Yao 2000, 82).
T he C onfucian S chools
*
The school that Confucius established has been called Ruism or the
Ru school. It will be recalled that Confucianism was identified with the
then existing Ru tradition, though Confucius, who was a ru master himself,
UNIT II 217
introduced significant changes to the tradition. After Confucius, several
Confucian schools have emerged, each with certain unique features while
maintaining the Confucian ideals. In what follows, we shall examine the
three prominent ones: the schools of Mencius, Xunzi (Hsun Tzu), and the
Neo-Confucians. •
S chool of Mencius
Mencius (371-289 BCE), as earlier noted, is considered the second
great Confucian after Confucius. In this connection, he is sometimes
referred to as the “second sage.” Mencius studied under Zisi, a grandson
of Confucius. Mencius’ writings, which form the fourth book of the Four
Books, were intended to elaborate on and glorify the teachings of
Confucius. Mencius’ teachings revolve around his view that human nature
is fundamentally good. This inherent goodness of humans, however, can
be corrupted; so it needs to be protected and cultivated by means of
education. Without proper education from good teachers, children, who are
by nature good, can turn into criminals. Like Confucius, Mencius extends his
teachings to the affairs of the state. Though not popular among the rulers
during his time, Mencius teaches that a good ruler is one who is morally
upright, for it is only then that a ruler will have the Mandate of Heaven.
Heaven is the source of all goodness and has instilled goodness in the
hearts and minds of humans. And so, it is only when humans cultivate
the goodness in them that their actions acquire the Mandate of Heaven.
Consequently, a humane government avoids war and governs not by
power or by means of harsh punishments but by the moral character of
the ruler who serves as the role model for his subjects. (See Yao 2000,
71-76; Molloy 2010, 245-246; Matthews 2010, 189-190 “ Mencius,”
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013.)
S chool of X unzi (H sun T zu )

Xunzi (c. 300-230 BCE) holds views different from Mencius. We noted
that for Mencius, Heaven is not just the source of everything that exists in
nature for it is also the standard of moral goodness. Heaven, in short, is both
natural and moral reality. What has the Mandate of Heaven is morally good;
what does not have it is morally evil. On this view, moral standards are not
human creations. Heaven has put the standard of moral goodness in the
hearts and minds of humans. And this makes human nature inherently or
naturally good. But since the innate goodness of humans can be corrupted,
education (in the Confucian Classics) is necessary. For Xunzi, however,

Heaven is just the source of everything that exists in nature; and is thus
morally neutral. It does not prescribe a standard for moral goodness.
Heaven is just natural reality; moral reality is not part of it. Moral standards
and values are therefore human creations. Without a standard of moral
goodness written in their hearts and minds, humans are naturally inclined
to satisfy their own needs and selfish interests. This makes humans, for
Xunzi, inherently or naturally evil. But this natural character of humans
can be corrected by education (in the Confucian classics) and the practice
of the Confucian virtues. (See Yao 2000, 76-80; “Xunzi,” Encylopaedia
Britannica 2013; Molloy 2010, 247; Matthews 2010, 189-190)
N eo-C onfucianism
The movement of Neo-Confucianism was started by Han Yu, but two
of the influential neo-Confucianists were Zhu Xi (Chu His, 1130-1200)
and Wang Yangming. Neo-Confucianism basically arose from the need
for Confucianism to assert its identity from two rival religions in China
during that time, namely Taoism and Buddhism. This event was a critical
stage in the development of Confucianism for it was during this time that
Confucianism acquired a religious status. In distinguishing itself from the
two religions, it has established itself as a distinct religion. Thus, statues
of Confucius and temples holding elaborate ceremonies, with sacrifice,
music, and dance, were set up. A hierarchy of authorities was also set up.
Soon, Confucianism, along with Taoism and Buddhism, formed China’s
Three Teachings or Doctrines. Molloy (2010, 249) notes that: “Pictures and
statues of the three founders— Laozi, Confucius, and the Buddha— began
to appear, with the three figures side by side in friendly poses.This practice
continues today.” (See Molloy 2010, 248-251; Urubshurow 2009, 469)
School o f Han Yu (768-824). Confucianism was declining when
Buddhism came to China and Taoism was becoming influential. Neo-
Confucianism was a movement whose goal was to revive the then
declining Confucianism. The one who led the movement was Han Yu
when he opposed the Buddhist influence on a Tang emperor (Matthews
2010, 189). He is said to have reminded his Taoist emperor “that Buddha
was a barbarian, and urged him not to honor the foreigner’s religion”
(Urubshurow 2009, 469).
School o f Zhu Xi (Chu His, 1130-1200 CE). In the course of redefining
the identify of Confucianism in light of the influences it had from Taoism
and Buddhism, Zhu Xi compiled, edited, and commented on writings
he deemed important for Confucianism. The result was the Four Books,
UNIT II 219
consisting of the Analects, Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, and
Mencius, which became the basis for the civil service examinations
(replacing the Five Classics). But while Zhu Xi wanted to rid Confucianism
of Buddhist influences (he, for instance, rejected the Mahayana doctrine
of emptiness)* he generally welcomed the Taoist influences, especially
the idea of the natural order of things (Molloy 2010, 249-250).
S chool o f Wang Yangming (1 4 7 2 -1 5 2 9 ). Among others, two
contributions of Wang Yangming were the emphasis on the mind and
the simplification of the rituals. Wang Yangming believed that it was by
means of reflection on one’s own mind, through meditation, rather than
a rational study of the things outside the mind that truth and virtue would
be known. His school was then called the School of the Mind. In this
connection, he taught that the way to deal with the troubles in the world
was by means of intuitive knowledge of the self, together with practical
action. Also, he argued that a simpler form of rituals and ceremonies in
temples, minimizing, for instance, the statues of Confucius, was more in
line with the teachings of Confucius. Wang Yangming is regarded as “the
fourth great Confucian after Confucius, Mencius, and Zhu Xi.” (Molloy
2010, 250; Urubshurow 2009, 471).
S ome C hallenges
In his discussion of “Confucianism and the Modern World,” Molloy
(2010,255-258) identifies some major challenges of Confucianism. First,
the educational curriculum of Confucianism which was adopted by the
government collapsed during the downfall of the Qing (Chi’ing) Dynasty in
1911. One reason was the challenge posed by modern education which
was more scientific and technology-based. When modern technology
coming from Europe was introduced in China, traditional Confucianism
appeared inadequate.
Second, the New Culture movement in China in 1916, led by those who
were able to study in Western universities, criticized Confucianism on many
aspects of it.The movement was heavily influenced by pragmatism—which
generally views truth in terms of its usefulness or practical consequences.
Among others, the movement criticized Confucianism for allegedly
“enslaving women to their fathers and husbands, of subjugating sons to
tyrannical fathers, and of keeping alive a culture and literature that only
looked to the past” (Molloy 2010, 255).
Third, Confucianism was greatly weakened when the Communists took
over mainland China in 1949.The communists were critical of Confucianism

for allegedly preaching elitism rather than egalitarianism, or for preaching
inequality in that some people are more privileged and noble than others.
While Confucianism teaches that everyone, in theory, can be a junzi or
a noble person, in practice, not all can avail of the Confucian training
necessary to achieve it. Communists, in contrast, hold that education
should be equal to all. Another, the communists accused Confucianism of
gender discrimination: Confucians, for instance, are accused of reserving
education and official power for males (except in the case of empress Wu,
who ruled China from 683 to 705 CE).The communists further criticized
Confucianism for its backward vision, for focusing too much on the value
of the old and the past rather than the new and the present.
While Confucianism was generally seen as a nonprogressive world
view, other Asian countries like Singapore and South Korea partly attribute
their economic development to their adherence to Confucian ethics and
virtues. Confucianism today is evolving and is adopting to the challenges
of the time; it is, for instance, slowly correcting its negative aspects (those
that are no longer applicable to modern life) like those concerning rights
of women.
What do you personally think, are humans naturally good or naturally

evil? Identify instances that seem to justify that humans are naturally good,
and instances that seem to justify that humans are naturally evil.
IÂ ctivit^l
I. Interview a Filipino-Chinese about Confucianism, how he/she regards

its teachings and whether he/she practices its teachings.
map.
Book of Changes Mandate of Heaven Ren Analects
Doctrine of the Mean educational system Rectification
Rectifi of Names
Confucius XunziHanYu China Ancestors
UNIT II 221
Confucianism
Review Questions
I. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Confucianism was originally identified with to the Ru tradition, which
generally meant:
a. tradition of rituals c. tradition of aristocrats
b. tradition of scholars
2. Despite his meager resources as a child, Confucius was still able
to acquire the skills expected of educated boys of wealthy families.
Among others, such skills included:

a. music d. all of the above
b. archery e. none of the above
c. calligraphy
3. Aside from the Five Classics, the other collection of books that forms
the sacred texts of Confucianism is called:
a. Four Books c. Six Books
b. Five Books
4. The follow ing is a book of d ivin a tion th a t makes use of
hexagrams:
a. Book of History d. Book of Rites
b. Book of Poetry e. Spring and Autumn Annals
c. Book of Changes
5. The following book contains historical records about the state of Lu,
Confucius’ hometown:
a. Book of History d. Book of Rites
b. Book of Poetry e. Spring and Autumn Annals
c. Book of Changes
6. The following book contains the sayings, speeches, and discussion
of Confucius and his followers:
a. Great Learning c. Doctrine of the Mean
b. Analects d. Mencius
7. The following book discusses the character and influence of the
noble person, and deals with the three central Confucian concerns,
namely, education, morality, and politics:
a. Great Learning c. Doctrine of the Mean
b. Analects d. Mencius
8. Confucians resort to the Way or Mandate o f ____________ in
explaining the nature of reality and justifying human actions:
a. God c. Nature
b. Heaven
9. According to the principle of the Rectification of __________ , our
actions should be appropriate to our roles in social relationships.
a. Nature c. Narr\es
b. Heaven
10. The following virtue originally refers to proper ways of performing
religious rites or to proper behavior in court ceremonies but it is now
UNIT II 223
generally understood as referring to doing things appropriate in a
given situation:
a. Ren c. Shu
b. Li d. Xiao
11. The following virtue generally means doing things that show respect,
love, and devotion to the members of one’s family:
a. Ren c. Shu
b. Li d. Xiao
12. The following virtue is usually translated as benevolence or
humaneness for generally referring to doing things that benefit other
people:
a. Ren c. Shu
b. Li d. Xiao
13. The following school advocates the utilitarian principle and the
principle of the universality of love:
a. Mohist School c. Taoist School
b. LegalistSchool
14. The following is regarded as the greatest philosopher of the Legalist
School:
a. Mozi c. ShangYang
b. Han Feizi
15. The following is considered the second great Confucian after
Confucius:
a. Mencius c. WangYangming
b. Xunzi
16. The following Confucian philosopher is known for his view that human
nature is fundamentally evil
a. Mencius c. Han Yu
b. Xunzi
17. The following Confucian philosopher is known for his view that human
nature is fundamentally good:
a. Mencius c. Han Yu
b. Xunzi
18. Among the contributions of the following was the publication of the
Four Books, which he complied, edited and commented on:
a. Mencius c. Zhu Xi
b. Xunzi

19. The following is said to have started the movement of Neo-
Confucianism:
a. Han Yu c. Zhu Xi
b. Xunzi
20. Among others, the following philosopher of Neo-Confucianism set
up a school called the School of the Mind:
a. Han Yu c. Wang Yangming
b. Xunzi
KWL Chart
Direction: Fill in the K"and Wcolumns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Confucianism What 1want to know about
Confucianism
L
What 1have learned about Confucianism
•
TAOISM
Guide Question
What are the basic features of Taoism?
TOPICS

Key Concepts ** Tao Te Ching m Feng Shui

• ra LaoTzU ra Taoist Alchemy (External
sa- ChuangTzu Alchemy, Internal Alchemy)
ra LeihTzu **■ Three Treasures in Internal
Alchemy (vital essence, chi,
ra Taoist Canon (Daozang)
spirit)
ra Tao
Philosophical and Religious
ra Yin and Yang, Law of Taoism
Reversion
Way of the Celestial Masters
ra Te and Wu-wei
IGF Chang Tao-ling
*§> Three Jewels
IGF Great Purity, Highest Purity,
ra Three Pure Ones (Jade
Numinous Treasure
Pure One, Supreme
Way of Orthodox Unity
S3*
Pure One, Grand Pure
One) » Greek Orthodox Church
ra The Eight Immortals ‘ar Way of Complete
Perfections
ra Taoist Meditation
ra Tai Chi

EXPECTED L EA R N I N G COMPETENCIES

**■ Discuss issues surrounding the identity of Lao Tzu as the founder of
Taoism.
«*■ Describe the Tao Te Ching and Chuang Tzu as the sacred texts of
Taoism.
«• Explain the meaning of the central Taoist concepts: Tao, Yin and
Yang, Te, and Wu-wei.
Discuss some practices associated with Taoism like Tai Chi and Feng
Shui.
«■ Identify the major deities of Taoism.
«■ Distinguish between Philosophical and Religious Taoism,
i®- Identify and differentiate the various sects of Taoism.
«■ Discuss some of the challenges of Taoism.
I^ A c tiv ity l
CULTIVATING
Guide Questions
How did Taoism originate? What are its sacred texts?
Taoism (Daoism) is another world religion that is native to China. It is

generally believed to have been founded by LaoTzu (or Laozi), the traditionally
recognized author of the primary foundational text of Taoism entitled Tao Te
Ching (or Dao-de Jing). In 2007, based on the estim ated Matthews (2010,
171) of the areas of Taoist concentration, there were 2,777,000 Taoists in
the whole world; 2,765,000 in Asia; and 12,000 in North America. Molloy
(2010, 229) notes that Taoism is particularly “strong in Taiwan, Hong Kong,
and in overseas Chinese communities, such as in Malaysia and Singapore.”
UNIT II 227
L ao T zu
There is a standing discussion
among scholars over the real status
of Lao Tzu as the author of the Tao Te
Ching: whether there really was such
a person who wrote such a text (Chan
2014). There is, for instance, the view
that the Tao Te Ching was not written
by one person alone but a group of
individuals; and that the name “Lao
Lao Tzu Statue in Yuanxuan Taoist Tzu” was used merely as a collective
Temple in Guangzhou, China
name to represent this group. Those
who hold this view believe that either there really was no individual named
“Lao Tzu” (that “Lao Tzu is a purely legendary figure”— Urubshurow 2009,
457) or there was such an individual but this individual was just one among
the writers of the Tao Te Ching—allegedly the one who wrote the first half
of the said text. For our purposes, however, we shall assume the standard
view that Lao Tzu was a historical figure who once lived in China around
640 BCE; and he wrote the whole of the Tao Te Ching.
Little is known about the life of LaoTzu.There are only some stories about
certain aspects of his life. One aspect of these stories concerns how Lao
Tzu got his name, which literally means “old man,” “old child,” or “old master.”
When Lao Tzu was born, it is said that he already had white hair (and white
beard too—adds some accounts); and thus had a general appearance of
being an old man already while still being a child. This appearance of Lao
Tzu is explained by a legend (Urubshurow 2009,218) which states that Lao
Tzu, after being conceived by a shooting star (this ties up to another legend
that states that he was a product of virginal conception—see Molloy 2010,
218), was in the womb of his mother for 62 years before he was born. In
any case, it is believed that it was because of this appearance that he was
given the name “LaoTzu” understood in the sense of being an “old man” or
an “old child.”
On the other hand, the name “Lao Tzu,” in the world of learning, also
means “old master” or “old scholar.” In this regard, the name “Lao Tzu” is
an honorary title given to a highly venerated senior teacher. In light of the
strong influence of Taoism on the development of Chan and Zen Buddhism,
it is supposed that the title “Lao Tzu” must mean something similar to the
title “Roshi” in Zen Buddhism, which refers to a highly respected senior Zen
master (Rosenthal, n.d.). In any case, on this side of the story, Lao Tzu got
his name for being a highly respected old scholar.

It is quite possible that Lao Tzu got his name for both reasons: having an
old appearance as a child, and being respected as a senior scholar. Whatever
is the case, the name “Lao Tzu” is not a proper name, or a specific name
of a particular individual, but is either a nickname (when understood as an
“old man” or an “old child”) or an honorary title (when understood as an “old
master” or an “old scholar”). And thus, even assuming that there really was
a historical person traditionally named or called “Lao Tzu” who wrote the
Tao Te Ching, it is possible that the real or actual name of this person might
have been different (Chan 2014).
Another aspect of these stories concerns Lao Tzu’s profession or line
of work. According to a popular account— based on the historical records
of Sima Quian (or Ssu-ma Chi’en) (c. 145-86 BCE)— Lao Tzu worked as a
librarian (curator, archivist, or a record keeper) at the Royal Library of Chou
for many years. Connected to this account is an interesting story in which
Lao Tzu had a philosophical conversation with the then young Confucius
who visited the said library to do research on the rituals and ceremonies
of ancient kings (though some doubt whether such a conversation really
occurred—see Matthews 2010, 174-75). In their encounter, Confucius is
said to have asked Lao Tzu about what he thought about his (Confucius’)
studies of the rituals of ancient kings. In response, Lao Tzu is said to have
given this advice to Confucius:
The ancients you admire have been in the ground a long time. Their
bones have turned to dust. Only their words remain. Those among them
who were wise rode in carriages when times were good and slipped
quietly away when times were bad. I have heard that the clever merchant
hides his wealth so his store looks empty and that the superior man acts
dumb so he can avoid calling attention to himself. I advise you to get rid
of your excessive pride and ambition. They won’t do you any good. This
is all I have to say to you (see Introduction to Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching,
translated by Red Pine, 2006).
Confucius is said to have been very impressed with Lao Tzu’s advice
that he later on told his disciples, “Today when I met Lao-tzu, it was like
meeting a dragon” (Ibid.).
Still another aspect of these stories concerns how Lao Tzu got to write
the Tao Te Ching. According to the story, one day Lao Tzu got tired of his
job as the state librarian and decided to retire from it. He resolved to travel
to the far west of China—some say also because he was disillusioned with
society or the politics in China (Urubshurow 2009,457). Carried by an ox, he
was about to cross the western border when the gatekeeper named Yin Hsi
UNIT II 229
(also referred to as Kwan Yin) stopped him. It is said that Yin Hsi recognized
Lao Tzu as the old scholar and prompted him to write down his teachings,
otherwise he would not let Lao Tzu pass the border. Lao Tzu obliged and
wrote down his teachings for two consecutive days; and the result was the
book Tao Te Ching. After passing the border and leaving China, nothing is
known about what happened to Lao Tzu. Some hypothesized that he might
have gone to other countries like India to preach and later on returned to
China. Some say he did not teach but lived a life of peace and contentment
until he died at the age of 87. Still, some (those inclined to think of Lao Tzu
as a kind of god— as the human incarnation of the Tao) describe him as
ascending into heaven in the form of a magnificent dragon (Mollloy 2010,220).
Ta o Te Ch in g and Ch u an g Tzu
The Tao Te Ching (sometimes called the Laozi) is the most important text
of Taoism. Tao basically means “way,” but the whole title has been translated
in various ways: sometimes as “The Way and Its Power,” sometimes as “The
Classic of the Way’s Virtues,” sometimes as “True Classic of the Way and
the Power.” Basically, the book talks about the “Tao” in terms of its reality
and fundamentality, how it can be known, whether it can be expressed in
words, and its different manifestations in various areas of life. It is relatively
a short book of around 5,000 Chinese characters, consisting of eighty one
short chapters, which are arranged in two sections. The first section is called
“Tao Ching,” comprising of chapters 1 to 37; the second is called “Te Ching,”
comprising of Chapters 38-81. The statements are usually poetic in form
and are often short.
Next in importance to the Tao Te Ching is the book that has been called
Chuang Tzu after the name of its recognized lead writer, the Chinese
philosopher Chuang Tzu (“Zhuang Zhou,” “Zhoungzi,” or “Master Zhuang”)
who lived during the fourth century BCE (c. 369 to 286 BCE). Just like Lao
Tzu, little is known about the life of Chuang Tzu. Sima Qian’s historical records
state that Chuang Tzu was a minor official from the town of Meng (in Modern
Anhui) in the state of Song. Chuang Tzu was described as a scholar with a
comprehensive scope of learning but who preferred the views of Lao Tzu.
Chuang Tzu, accordingly, wrote the book Chuang Tzu to elaborate on the
teachings of Lao Tzu—to make them more intelligible to common people.
If there are doubts on whether the whole Tao Te Ching was written by
Lao Tzu, it seems generally established that the book Chuang Tzu was not
entirely written by the philosopher Chuang Tzu. The latter book is generally
accepted as a collection of philosophical texts written during the fourth,

third, and second centuries BCE, which aims to expound and elaborate on
the teachings of the Tao Te Ching (Shuen-fu Lin 1994, 245-47). The book
consists of thirty-three chapters which are divided by modern scholars into
three parts. The first part, consisting of Chapters 1 to 7, is called the Inner
Chapters for all the chapters in this part are widely recognized by modern
scholars as written by Chuang Tzu himself. These chapters contain the core
Taoist teachings of Chuang Tzu. The second part, consisting of chapters 8
to 22, is called the Outer Chapters for these chapters are believed to have
been written not by Chuang Tzu but by his followers. These chapters basically
elaborate on the ideas discussed in the Inner Chapters. The third part,
consisting of chapters 23 to 33, is called the Mixed Chapters for they are a
combination of philosophical texts that are believed to have been written by
Chuang Tzu and his followers (Puqun Li 2012, 195).
Unlike most philosophers, Chuang Tzu presents his teachings not in a
discursive (formal and logical) way but in a form that is highly literary in nature
(usually in the form of short stories that are full of symbolisms). Incidentally,
for his style of writing, some modern scholars consider Chuang Tzu as the
greatest prose writer of the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy (Shuen-fu
Lin 1994, 248). But more importantly, in this way, he is able to give life,
through concrete illustrations, to the highly abstract ideas associated with
Taoism, thus making these ideas easier to grasp and their relevance easier
to appreciate. Sometimes he caricatures some rival thinkers, especially
Confucius, to establish the superiority of the Taoist teachings.
These two books, the Tao Te Ching and Chuang Tzu, are considered
to be the two foundational texts of Taoism, in both of its philosophical and
religious forms. Other important Taoist texts include the work of Lieh Tzu
(Leih-tzu or Liezi; estimated to have lived during the fifth century BCE) called
The Pure Classic of the Perfect Virtue of Simplicity and Vacuity. Lieh Tzu,
consequently, is regarded as the third greatest Taoist thinker in the history of
Taoism next to Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu. His work is a collection of stories,
sayings and short essays considered to be the most easily accessible of the
Taoist classics. Another is the I Ching {The'Book of Changes), which was
written before the Tao Te Ching, and in which the concepts of yin and yang
were first introduced. Though likewise included in the Confucian Classics,
this book has a profound influence on Taoist thought.
Philosophical Taoism, the view that regards Taoism as a purely
philosophical system, considers all these books as purely philosophical
works; while Religious Taoism, the view that regards Taoism as a religious
tradition, considers all these books as divine or sacred works. Religious
Taoism, in addition, recognizes other sacred texts, which, together with the
UNIT II 231
abovementioned Taoist texts, form the so-called Taoist Canon (also called
the Daozang or Tao Tsang). The other sacred texts of Taoism, which are
enormous in number, deal with a wide range of topics that include, among
others, guidebooks on meditation, breathing exercises, and sexual yoga;
stories of wonderworkers and of ecstatic excursions made to the stars; recipes
of longevity and magical powers; manuals of alchemy; and descriptions of
rituals (Molloy 2010, 228).
scussion/A ctivity
Think of your personal belongings. Group them into two: those that
you can do without (you can go on with your normal life even without
these things) and those that you cannot do without (you cannot go on
with your normal life without these things). Reflect on your classification.
What are the bases of your classification? Focus on the things you
considered you cannot do without. If you were to simplify your life (or
further simplify it), will the list of things under this group change? Elaborate
on your answer.
Guide Question
What are the major doctrines and practices of Taoism?
TAO AND RELATED CONCEPTS

The Nameless Origin of the All Things
The Tao Te Ching (translation by Lin 2006) begins with the following
passages:
The Tao that can be spoken of is not the eternal Tao.
The name that can be named is not the eternal name.
The nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth.
The named is the mother of myriad things.
The Tao, based on these passages, is the source of the universe—“the

origin of Heaven and Earth.” It is the origin of all kinds of things—“the mother of
myriad things.” But why can it not be spoken or named? For being the source

of everything, it is above all things. And being above all things, it cannot be
described, conceptualized, or classified. For the concept used to describe
or classify something must be higher than the concept being described or
classified. For instance, we are able to say that “blue is a color,” and that
“Pedro is a man,” because the concept of color is higher than the concept
of blue, and the concept of man is higher than the concept of Pedro. But if
no concept is higher than the Tao, then it cannot be described or classified.
This is why the Tao cannot be spoken of, for to speak about the Tao is to
describe it using higher concepts, which cannot be done since there is no
concept higher than the Tao.
What all this means is simply that the Tao cannot be fully grasped using
our concepts and words. In fact, even the word “Tao” itself does not really
capture what it is intended to represent. The word is used simply as a
convenient indicator, a linguistic device, or a “sign post” (following an analogy
of the philosopher Wittgenstein in the Philosophical Investigations 1953) that
points to or that directs our attention to a certain kind of reality— in this case,
the origin of all things. As the Tao Te Ching states in Chapter 25: “I do not
know its name. Identifying it, I call it Tao.’ Forced to describe it, I call it great.”
A very famous anecdote of Chuang Tzu is the so-called “Butterfly Dream,”
which goes like this:
Once upon a time, I, Zhuangzi, dreamt I was a butterfly, fluttering
hither and thither, to all intents and purposes a butterfly. I was conscious
only of my happiness as a butterfly, unaware that I was Zhuangzi. Soon
I awakened, and there I was, veritably myself again. Now I do not know
whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am
now a butterfly, dreaming I am a man.
— Translated by Lin Yutang and quoted in “Zhuangzi’s Butterfly Dream,” online: http Maoism, about.
com/od/chuangtzu/a/Butterfty_ Dream, htm.
The anecdote, among others, talks about the difficulty in distinguishing

between dreaming and waking states, or between reality and illusion. The
anecdote can be read as suggesting the idea that we cannot fully know the
ultimate reality of things, or that ultimate reality is something that will always
escape our understanding. Given this, what Chuang Tzu’s butterfly dream
is showing is the unknowability of the Tao. The situation is something like
this. We go on with our everyday life confident that we know the difference
between reality and illusion; but when we deeply think of it we realize that
we actually do not have a strong basis for distinguishing the two— reality
and illusion. We know that reality has an origin or source, otherwise nothing
could have existed at all. But whenever we try to know what this source is,
UNIT II 233
what we always come to know is not reality but an illusion. We know that
there is the Tao, but whenever we try to grasp it what we have always turns
out not to be the Tao.
In sum, the Tao is the origin of all things. Being so, it is the highest
kind of reality. And being the highest kind of reality, it cannot be described,
talked about, or conceptualized; for to do so would mean that there is still
something higher than it. An unavoidable question here is whether the Tao
is God. If we understand God as a person who cares about human beings,
and who punishes or rewards them according to whether they obey certain
rules, the Tao is not God (Molloy 2010, 221).Taoists, however, as we shall
later on discuss, believe in many kinds of deities (gods and goddesses).
(Some scholars think that the Tao is closer, if not equivalent, to the Hindu
concept of the Brahman.)
T he W ay and H armony of O pposites

The Tao is traditionally translated as “The Way,” sometimes more
particularly as “The Way of Nature.” Nature, or the universe, is not a static
reality. It flows in that it moves and changes. The Tao, being the source of.
everything in the universe, therefore is also the way, or principle, by which the
universe flows. The natural way for the universe, or the natural flow of things,
is directed towards stability or harmony among the various opposing forces.
Without harmony, these forces will eliminate one another, eventually leading
to the destruction of nature. The Tao flows (moves and changes) peacefully
and leads to the harmony among opposites. The / Ching, or the Book of
Changes, speaks of the natural way of harmonizing the opposing forces in
nature in terms of the principle of the yin and yang. Yin is the dark force (or
principle), while yang is the light force. They are opposite but complementary
forces, like dark and light, night and day, hot and cold, sky and earth, male
and female, right and left, front and back, birth and death, up and down, out
and in, strong and weak, and so many others. These forces or principles
are symbolized by the yin-yang circle.
This circle is divided into two intertwined comrria-
looking figures. One figure is light, representing
/ yang; the other is dark, representing yin. Inside
I each figure is a small dot of contrasting color: the
l dark figure has a light dot while the light figure
\ has a dark dot. The dot in each figure represents
the seed of the opposite figure. Meaning, the dark

figure will eventually turn light (with a dark dot), while the light figure will
eventually turn dark (with a light dot); and this will be repeated in endless
cycles. But as each turns into its opposite, a balance or harmony between
the yin and yang principles is maintained. The principle of the yin and yang
is also called the Law of Reversion—the forces of yin and yang reversing
with one another—which the Tao Te Ching (Chapter 2, translation by Mitchell
1995) describes as follows:
When people see some things as beautiful,
other things become ugly.
When people see some things as good,
other things become bad.
Being and nonbeing create each other.
Difficult and easy support each other.
Long and short define each other.
High and low depend on each other.
Before and after follow each other.
Te and W u -w e i
The Tao is impersonal or is indifferent in the sense that it is not influenced

by human actions and desires.TheTao will assert itself regardless of human
actions and preferences. Thus the Tao Te Ching (Chapter 32, translation by
Lin 2006) explains:
The Tao, eternally nameless
Its simplicity, although imperceptible
Cannot be treated by the world as subservient
If the sovereign can hold on to it
All will follow by themselves
Heaven and Earth, together in harmony
Will rain sweet dew
People will not need to force it; it will adjust by itself
What humans can only do is either go with the flow of nature or resist it.
Whatever humans do in relation to the Tao, however, will have consequences.
Generally, interfering with the Tao, or the natural course of things, will result
in conflict, chaos, and damages; while going with its natural flow, or living
in harmony with the Tao, will result in peace, order, and preservation. This
brings us to the Taoist concepts of Te and Wu-wei.
UNIT II 235
Te refers to the power to bring the Tao into realization. It means “virtue,”
both in the sense of “moral character” and the “power to act.” Thus the Tao
Te Ching (Chapter 21) states: “The appearance of great virtue follows only
the Tao.” Virtue, in this sense, does not refer to the virtue of following a moral
code but to the virtue of acting without effort or without following prescribed
rules. This kind of action is called Wu-wei, which literally means “no action.”
Chapter 63 tells us to “Act without action. Manage without meddling. Taste
without tasting.” Wu-wei particularly means detached actions, that is, doing
things with openness to their consequences and not being attached to them.
The following chapter (Chapter 2, translation by Mitchell 1995) from the Tao
Te Ching describes wu-wei as follows:
Therefore the Master
acts without doing anything
and teaches without saying anything.
Things arise and she lets them come;
things disappear and she lets them go.
She has but doesn’t possess,
acts but doesn’t expect.
When her work is done, she forgets it.
That is why it lasts forever.
Wu-wei also means living in harmony with the flow of nature, never resisting
it. In this connection, wu-wei is described as effortless or spontaneous action.
For if we are just going with the flow of nature, our actions are effortless, just
like how, for instance, plants and animals live, they just follow the natural
course of things to survive. This is also shown when one (say an athlete,
a tailor, or a carpenter) has become so skilful in what one is doing. Such
a skill has become second nature to the person that he does it effortlessly.
Detachment and living in harmony with the natural course of things are
demonstrated by the following story of Chuang Tzu about the Taoist attitude
toward death: that we should accept it as part of the natural course of things
like the passing of the seasons. Molloy (2010, 224) narrates this story as
follows:
Upon hearing of the death of Zhuangzi’s wife, a friend, Huizi (Hui
Tzu), goes to offer sympathy. Although he expects to find Zhuangzi
crying and in ritual mourning, Huizi finds Zhuangzi instead singing and
drumming on a bowl. Huizi is shocked—and says so. Responding in a
thoughtful way, Zhuangzi says that at first his wife’s death saddened
him terribly, but then he reflected on the whole cycle of her existence.
Before his wife was a human being, she was without shape or life, and

her original self was a part of the formless substance of the universe.
Then she became a human being. “Now there’s been another change,
and she’s dead. It’s just like the progression of the four seasons, spring,
summer, fall, winter.” When winter comes, we do not mourn. That would
be ungrateful. Similarly, a human being goes through seasons. Zhuangzi
describes his wife as now being like someone asleep in a vast room. “If
I were to follow after her bawling and sobbing, it would show that I don’t
know anything about fate. So I stopped.”
Wu-wei, acting in harmony with nature, does not only mean acting out
of respect for things outside of one’s self, it also means acting out of respect
for one’s own nature. This is explained by the following passages from Guo
Xian (quoted in Fung 1975, 101, which in turn is quoted in Urubshurow
2009, 486-87):
With conscious effort some people try to be great artists, but
they can never succeed. Yet without knowing how, the great artists
spontaneously become artists. With conscious effort some people try
to be sages, but they can never succeed. Yet without knowing how, the
sages spontaneously become sages. Not only that the sages and artists
are difficult to be imitated, we cannot even be fools, or dogs, by simply
wishing and trying to be.
The Three Jewels

Connected to te (virtue) and wu-wei (effortless action) are the three major
Taoist virtues, known as the Three Jewels (or Three Treasures) of Taoism (not
to be confused with the Three Jewels of Buddhism—the Buddha, Dharma,
and Sangha). These virtues are compassion, moderation or simplicity,
and humility. We will find these virtues stated in Chapter 67 (translation by
Mitchell 1995) of the Tao Te Ching thus:
Some say that my teaching is nonsense.
Others call it lofty but impractical.
But to those who have looked inside themselves,
this nonsense makes perfect sense.
And to those who put it into practice,
this loftiness has roots that go deep.
I have just three things to teach:

simplicity, patience, compassion.
These three are your greatest treasures.
Simple in actions and in thoughts,
UNIT II 2 3 7
you return to the source of being.
Patient with both friends and enemies,
you accord with the way things are.
Compassjonate toward yourself,
you reconcile all beings in the world.
Let us elaborate on the virtue of simplicity. An ideal Taoist prefers a simple

life. Living according to the natural flow of things means living a simple life.
Simplicity is avoiding extremes. As the Tao Te Ching (Chapter 29) states:
“Therefore the sage: Eliminates extremes; eliminates excess; eliminates
arrogance.” Chapter 9 (translation by Mitchell 1995) further states:
Fill your bowl to the brim

and it will spill.
Keep sharpening your knife
and it will blunt.
Chase after money and security
and your heart will never unclench.
Care about people’s approval
and you will be their prisoner.
Do your work, then step back.
The only path to serenity.
Simplicity includes contentment. A simple life is a life lived with

contentment. The Tao Te Ching has plenty of passages about contentment.
In Chapter 44 (translation by Mitchell 1995), we will read the following:
Be content with what you have;

rejoice in the way things are.
When you realize there is nothing lacking,
the whole world belongs to you.
Chuang Tzu has the following story to demonstrate the Taoist preference
for a simple life (quoted in Matthews 2010, 177):
Once Chuang Tzu was fishing the P’u River when the King of Ch’u
sent two of his ministers to announce that he wished to entrust to Chuang
Tzu the care of his entire domain.
Chuang Tzu held his fishing pole and, without turning his head, said:
“I have heard that Ch’u possesses a sacred tortoise which has been
dead for three thousand years and which the king keeps wrapped up in
a box and stored in his ancestral temple. Is this tortoise better off dead
and with its bones venerated, or would it be better off alive with its tail

dragging in the mud?” “It would be better off alive and dragging its tail in
the mud,” the two ministers replied. “Then go away!” said Chuang Tzu,
“and I will drag my tail in the mud!”
Furthermore, a person living a simple life is one who adopts to various

situations while maintaining one’ sense of stability or peace of mind. He is
like water that fills in any shape of container that it is poured into and remains
serene. In Chapter 8 (translation by Mitchell 1995) of the Tao Te Ching, we
will read:
The supreme good is like water,

which nourishes all things without trying to.
It is content with the low places that people disdain.
Thus it is like the Tao.
This is elaborated in Chapter 78 (translated by Mitchell 1995); thus:

Nothing in the world
is as soft and yielding as water.
Yet for dissolving the hard and inflexible,
nothing can surpass it.
The soft overcomes the hard;

the gentle overcomes the rigid.
Everyone knows this is true,
but few can put it into practice.
Therefore the Master remains
serene in the midst of sorrow.
Evil cannot enter his heart.
Because he has given up helping,
he is people’s greatest help.
True words seem paradoxical.
TAOIST DEITIES
As earlier noted, Taoism has philosophical and religious kinds.
Philosophical Taoism limits its studies of Taoism to its philosophical ideas.
The basic doctrines of Taoism that we have discussed above (the concepts
of Tao, Yin and Yang, Te, Wu-wei, and the Three Jewels) constitute the main
philosophical ideas of Taoism. Religious Taoism, on the other hand, treats
the same doctrines as religious or sacred. In addition, Religious Taoism,
UNIT II 239
influenced by Chinese folk religions, also believes in many deities (gods and
goddesses). Taoism, in this regard, is a polytheistic religion. It is said that there
are thousands of Taoist deities. Some are spirits of nature occupying rivers,
streams, and mountajns. Some represent different powers of the universe.
Some are holy men who are believed to have achieved immortality (they
include emperors). And some are ancestral spirits who are usually regarded
as protective household gods (Molloy 2010, 228-229).
T he T hree P ure O nes

The most important of the Taoist deities are the ones constituting the
so-called the Three Pure Ones or Three Purities (called Sanjing or San
Ching), which is regarded as the Taoist version of the Trinity. These gods are
considered the pure manifestations of theTao.The belief in the Three Pure
Ones is said to be based on, or is consistent with, the following passages
in Chapter 42 (translation by Mitchell 1995) of the Tao Te Ching-.
The Tao gives birth to One.

One gives birth to Two.
Two gives birth to Three.
Three gives birth to all things.
The three gods that constitute the Three Pure Ones are as follows. The
first is called the “Jade Pure One” ( Yuanshi Tianzun) or the “Primeval Lord
of the Heaven.” He is believed to be residing in the Heaven of Jade Purity.
He is described as eternal, limitless, without form, the source of everything,
and the administrator of Heaven. He is the highest Taoist deity. The second
is called the “Supreme Pure One” or “Lord of the Numinous Treasure”
(Lingbao Tianzun). He is associated with the principle of yin and yang, and is
considered the source of Taoist knowledge and scripture (the Tao Te Ching).
The third is called the “Grand Pure One” or “Lord of the Way and its Virtue”
(Daode Tianzun). He is believed to have been manifested or incarnated in
the form of LaoTzu. He is depicted as having pure white beard, symbolizing
his being an eminent, aged ruler.
T he E ight I mmortals
Another popular set of Taoist deities are the so-called Eight Immortals.
The Taoist Canon contains several biographical texts telling stories of various
immortals, ranging from historical figures that were deified (that is, put into
the status of a deity), such as noble emperors, Lao Tzu, and Chuang Tzu,

to characters that are purely mythological in nature. The most popular of
these immortals are the ones referred as the Eight Immortals (see Herman
2013, Chapter 14, 60-61), consisting of the following deities: (1) Chung-li
Ch’uan (Zhongli Quan), a former general depicted as having a bulging belly
and carrying a magic fan that can change stones into special metals that can
revive the dead; (2) Chang Kuo-lao (Zhang Guo Lao), a former hermit and
a wine-drinking eccentric depicted as having a long white beard and riding
a donkey backward; (3) Lu Tung-pin (Lu Dongbin), a forefather of internal
alchemy with skills in poetry, calligraphy, healing, and swordmanship; (4) Li
T’ieh-kuai (Taiguai Li), also known as “Iron Crutch Li,” depicted as a beggar
with a crippled leg and an iron crutch (it is said that his earthly body was
cremated when his spirit roamed the heavens and he had to inhabit the
body of a cripple); (5) Ts’ao Kuo-chiu (Cao Guo Jiu), a former emperor who
(fleeing corruption) turned into a hermit and is depicted as being dressed
like a government official; (6 ) Ho Hsian-ku (He Xian Gu), a female who, after
becoming immortal after eating an alchemical mixture, made a promise
of remaining a virgin; (7) Han Hsiang-tzu (Han Xiang Zi), a musician and
magician who could make flowers grow and is depicted as holding a flute
(being revered also as a patron saint of flute players); and (8 ) Lan Ts’aio-ho
(Lan Caihe), a male but also depicted as a female wearing a single boot,
and sleeping in snow.
O ther D eities
Other Taoist deities include the following: the Jade Emperor (who rules
heaven and earth and who judges people’s actions at the end of every year;
like the imperial bureaucracy on earth, he has officials—also gods—who look
after the spiritual and material welfare of humans and report to him at the
end of every year), the Divinities in Pilgrimage, Queen Mother of the West,
Four Heavenly Emperors, Three Divine Officials, and Thunder Patriarch.
Taoism also has several female deities, such as Mother Li (the mother of
Lord Lao); Mazu, the patroness of fishermen; and Doumou, the Mother of
the Big Dipper.
SOME TAOIST PRACTICES
T aoist Meditation
Like the Hindus and the Buddhists, the Taoists also use different methods
of meditation. One popular method is described as embryonic breathing for
UNIT II 241
it is like becoming an infant who breathes through the umbilical cord in its
mother’s womb. This technique basically requires the practitioner to hold
his/her breath for extended periods with the goal of harmoniously relating
with the divinities or sacred elements of one’s body. It is believed that if one
does not practice meditation, the divinities that inhabit one’s body will leave,
causing one to get sick. Meditation, in this sense, promotes both spiritual and
physical health. Another is called the inner alchemical meditation, which aims
to calm and empty the mind and circulate chi (referring to life energy). This
can be done sitting cross legged, sitting in a chair, lying down, or walking. It
can be done using mantras (like repeating the word “om”), focusing on an
object, or simply focusing on one’s breath.
T ai C hi
Tai Chi (or T a i Chi Ch’uan) is a popular
Chinese form of exercise and martial art that is
closely associated with Taoism (Molioy 2010,224).
It aims to harmonize the principle of the yin and
yang into a sequence of slow, rhythmic, and flowing
movements, with carefully prescribed stances and
positions. The goal is to stimulate and harmonize
chi— referring to life energy—for health, vitality and
self-defense. Tai Chi has many branches which
promote different styles. In practice, no two masters
teach exactly the same style of Tai Chi.
F eng S hui
Fung Shui is generally a system of harmonizing everyone with the
surrounding environment. Fung Shui, in its popular sense, refers to the
practice of choosing or configuring a structure or site in order for this structure
or site to be in harmony with the spiritual forces that inhabit it. It has its roots
in Taoism for emphasizing the interconnectedness of everything around us
and the harmonious flow of chi. Deming (2015, 136-37) explains:
One important application of qi theory is called fengshui, which
literally means “wind and water.” This is the art of arranging objects and
space—office furniture, houses, graves—with an awareness of the flow
and movement of qi through a certain area .. . The feng shui master
will give advice on how best to design a building and its landscape, or

arrange its office furniture, so that the flow of <7/ will benefit the people
living or working there.
T aoist A lchemy
Alchemy generally refers to “the transmutation of one substance, or a
combination of substances, into another substance, especially one that is
more valuable, powerful, or imbued with paranormal properties. Historically,
this often meant turning ordinary metal into gold, but it also referred to
creating potions that could cure diseases, prevent aging and death, or confer
supernatural powers” (Herman 2013, Chap. 15, 6-7). Alchemy has been
practised in various ways in different countries in different historical periods.
Alchemy was already practised in China even before the birth of Taoism, but
later on became closely identified with Taoism, as a Taoist practice intended
to achieve immortality and to establish spiritual harmony in the universe
through the cultivation of one’s physical body (Urubshurow 2009, 451).
Taoist alchemy is practiced in two ways. One is called external alchemy
( wai-tan or waidan), which involves the mixture of different physical
substances outside the human body (such as minerals and herbs) and
swallowing the “elixirs”—the combined substances. The other is called
internal alchemy (nei-tan or neidan), which involves harmoniously cultivating
key energies inside the human body. The original practice of Taoist alchemy
was the external one; but because this led to serious injuries, sickness, and
even deaths (due to poisoning) (the practice of external alchemy today is
limited to those considered safe and that promotes health), the internal kind
became the alternative way to practice alchemy—which also happens to be
more in tune with Taoism as the way of harmonizing one’s self with the Tao.
Q uigong
In the practice of internal alchemy—also called the practice of quigong—
one taps into the three key energies in the human body; namely: (a) vital
essence (ching or jing), the energy in the lower field (or the abdomen)
which is concretely identified with reproductive fluids; (b) ch’i (chi or qi),
the generic energy in the middle field (or the chest) which is concretely
identified with air, breath, and emotional states; and (c) spirit (shen), the
energy in the upper field (or the head or the brain) which is concretely
identified with mind, personhood, and access to spiritual beings. These three
elements correspond, respectively, to the following three forms of energy:
(a) reproductive energy, (b) life-force energy, and (c) spiritual energy. The
UNIT II 243
Taoist idea of achieving immortality, through internal alchemy, is said to have
been laid down by ChuangTzu in his story wherein the Yellow Emperor met
Master Kuang Ch’eng Tzu on Mount K’ung-tung thus (quoted in Urubshurow
2009, 485):
See nothing; hear nothing; let your soul be wrapped in quiet, and
your body will begin to take proper form. Let there be absolute repose
and absolute purity; do not weary your body nor disturb your vitality—
and you will live forever. . .
S ome T aoist F estivals

Just like the other world religions, Taoism celebrates the birthdays of its
various gods and goddesses on certain days following the lunar calendar.
Some Taoist festivals are celebrated in Taoist temples. Some are generally
Chinese festivals such as the Chinese New Year, the Festival of Lanterns,
the Dragon Boat Festival, the Ghost Festival, and the Mid-Autumn Festival.
1. Recall the concept of wu-wei, referring to effortless action, and

described as doing without actions and teaching without words,
among others. Can you identify experiences that you may have
had that seem to demonstrate this concept?
2. Recall the Hindu concept of the Brahman. Do you see similarities
between this concept and the Taoist concept of the Tao?
Elaborate on your answer.
IÂ ctivit^l
Read the following story. (Some members of the class may be asked to
dramatize the story.) How is Taoism demonstrated in the story? In what way
does the Taoist farmer embody the Taoist virtues?
The Story of the Taoist Farmer

One day in late summer, an old farmer was working in his field
with his old sick horse. The farmer felt compassion for the horse and
desired to lift its burden. So he left his horse loose to go the mountains
and live out the rest of its life. Soon after, neighbors from the nearby

village visited, offering their condolences and said, “What a shame.
Now your only horse is gone. How unfortunate you are! You must be
very sad. How will you live, work the land, and prosper?” The farmer
replied: “Who knows? We shall see.”
Two days later the old horse came back now rejuvenated after
meandering in the mountainsides while eating the wild grasses. He
came back with twelve new younger and healthy horses which followed
the old horse into the corral. Word got out in the village of the old
farmer’s good fortune and it wasn’t long before people stopped by
to congratulate the farmer on his good luck. “How fortunate you are!”
they exclaimed. You must be very happy!” Again, the farmer softly said,
“Who knows? We shall see.”
At daybreak on the next morning, the farmer’s only son set off to
attempt to train the new wild horses, but the farmer’s son was thrown
to the ground and broke his leg. One by one villagers arrived during
the day to bemoan the farmer’s latest misfortune. “Oh, what a tragedy!
Your son won’t be able to help you farm with a broken leg. You’ll have
to do all the work yourself, How will you survive? You must be very
sad.” They said. Calmly going about his usual business the farmer
answered, “Who knows? We shall see.”
Several days later a war broke out. The Emperor’s men arrived
in the village demanding that young men come with them to be
conscripted into the Emperor’s army. As it happened the farmer’s
son was deemed unfit because of his broken leg. “What very good
fortune you have!!” the villagers exclaimed as their own young sons
were marched away. “You must be very happy.” “Who knows? We shall
see!”, replied the old farmer as he headed off to work his field alone.
As time went on the broken leg healed but the son was left with a
slight limp. Again the neighbors came to pay their condolences. “Oh
what bad luck. Too bad for you”! But the old farmer simply replied;
“Who knows? We shall see.”
As it turned out the other young village boys had died in the war
and the old farmer and his son were the only able bodied men capable
of working the village lands. The old farmer became wealthy and
was very generous to the villagers. They said: “Oh how fortunate you
are, you must be very happy,” to which the old farmer replied, “Who
knows? We shall see!”
— Taken from the website http://www.rainbowbody.com/newarticles/farmerson.htm
with the title Who Knows? The Farmer’s Son: Fortune or Misfortune?
UNIT II 245
Guide Question
What are the denominations and challenges of Taoism?
P hilosophical and R eligious T aoism

Before we look into the Taoist denominations, let us first examine the
distinction made by some scholars between two general forms of Taoism,
namely, Philosophical Taoism (Tao-chia) and Religious Taoism (Tao-chiao)
(Matthews 2010, 178; Chan 2014). (Some identify a third form based on
Taoist alchemy, namely the Alchemical Taoism; but we shall follow those
who treat Taoist alchemy not as a form of Taoism but as a form of Taoist
practice.) Some of their main differences, which we have already touched
on in relation to certain topics, are as follows. First, for Philosophical
Taoism, Lao Tzu, assuming that he existed in history, was just a human
being who happened to be the philosopher who wrote the Tao Te Ching;
but for Religious Taoism, Lao Tzu is a god, being a divine manifestation
of the Tao who forms part of the Three Pure Ones (see discussion
above). Second, for Philosophical Taoism, the Tao Te Ching and Chuang
Tzu (and the work of Lieh-tzu) are mere philosophical works; while for
Religious Taoism these works are sacred texts, which, along with other
religious texts, constitute the Taoist Canon. Third, while Religious Taoism
believes in gods, Philosophical Taoism does not regard belief in gods as
necessary or important to the practice of Taoism. In this connection, for
Philosophical Taoism it is possible to be a Taoist and still be either an
atheist or an agnostic. And fourth, while both Philosophical Taoism and
Religious Taoism practice some types of meditation, it is only Religious
Taoism that engages in rituals (such as the alchemy) and ceremonies.
Some scholars understand these two forms of Taoism as simply
referring to certain necessary aspects or features of Taoism as a world
religion. Some believe that they refer to the beliefs and practices of Taoism:
its beliefs constitute its philosophical aspect while its practices constitute
its religious aspect. Some others believe that they correspond to the two
stages in the development of Taoism. Philosophical Taoism is the period
in which the main teachings of Taoism were written (referring to the period
in which the works of Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, and Leih-tzu were written;

this period is also referred to as the Classical Period of Taoism), while
Religious Taoism is the period in which the religious practices, rituals, and
organizations of Taosim developed.
Major T aoist D enominations

There are three majorTaoist denominations which can be classified as
ancient and modern forms of Taoism. The ancient form is the Way of the
Celestial Masters, while the modern forms are the Way o f Orthodox Unity
and the Way of Complete Perfection. The Way of Orthodox Unity generally
sees itself as a modern version of the Way of the Celestial Masters, while
the Way of Complete Perfection does not.
Way of the Celestial Masters
The first institutional Taoism, and thus we can say the first Taoist sect,
was called the Way of the Celestial Masters {T ’ien-shih Tao—also called
“Way of Orthodox Unity” and “Five Pecks of Rice Sect”), which was founded
by Chang Tao-ling around the second century. While Taoism was founded by
Lao Tzu, it was Chang Tao-ling who transformed Taoism into an institutional
religion, as an organized religious movement. This movement regarded
Lao Tzu, whom they referred to as “Lord Lao,” either as identical to the
Tao or as a divine manifestation of the Tao. It is said that Chang Tao-ling,
while living in a mountain, once had a vision of Lord Lao, descending from
the sky riding thousands of carriages and golden chariots, accompanied
by countless dragons and tigers. In this revelation, Lord Lao conferred
on Chang the title “Celestial Master,” told him of the coming of a new age
and to prepare for it (by making people repent for their sins and become
morally pure), gave him sacred scriptures that would serve as the guide
for preparing for the coming of the new age, and gave him healing powers
(powers to heal the sick and exorcise evil spirits).
Soon the movement required certain beliefs and practices, and
bureaucratic structures such as those concerning the ordination of priests,
confession of sins, and the division of the community into districts. One of
the practices was the recitation of the Tao Te Ching, which they believed
would produce powers to see spirits, cure illnesses, and prolong life.Those
who significantly contributed to the growth of the movement included
Chang Chieh (whose own movement, called Way o f Great Peace, spread
Taoism in northern China) and Chang Lu (who worked for the movement
to have political power).
UNIT II 247
M ovem ents Succeeding the Way of C elestial Masters
Later on, there were other revelations that formed other Taoist sects,
which introduced other features to Taoism. The three most important sects
were the following: (a) the Great Purity or Great Clarity (T’ai-chi’ing), whose
revelations,' among others, introduced the practice of alchemy; (b) the
Highest Purity or Highest Clarity (Shang-ch’ing), whose revelations, among
others, developed elaborate theories about different realms for spirits
of the dead, the deities that occupy those realms, and the otherworldly
processes for movement from one realm to another; and (c) the Numinous
Treasure or Spiritually Efficacious Treasure (Ling-pao), whose revelations,
among others, discouraged physical practices like alchemy, gymnastics,
and meditation, but emphasized observance of moral codes, the use of
talismans, and communal rituals. (See Herman 2013, Chapter 6 )
Way of O rthodox Unity and Way of C om plete Perfection
Taoism continued to grow after the founding of the Way of Celestial

Masters. Various new sects came and went, and other newly revealed texts
became part of the Taoist Canon. The culture and traditions of the regions
in which Taoism was introduced added new dimensions to the religion.
This growth continued until the late twentieth century when China came
to be under a communist rule, which cleansed the country of forces not
consistent with the communist ideology such as capitalism and religion.
This led to the destruction of Taoist temples and prohibition of Taoist
religious practices, which almost put Taoism into extinction. For thirty years,
Taoism was almost abolished in China. Some Chinese Taoists were forced
to flee China for Taiwan or Hong Kong. But after the death of Mao Tse Tung,
the new leaders lifted some major restrictions to the practice of Taoism.
Taoism was allowed to operate again but with government supervision.
Taoism since then is still rebuilding itself in China. And currently, there are
two major Taoist sects in China: the Way of Orthodox Unity, the liturgical
and ritualistic branch that is more common in southern China and Taiwan;
and the Way of Complete Perfection, the monastic branch that is more
common in northern China. The basic differences between these two Taoist
sects are summarized by Herman (2013, Chapter 6 ) as follows (see also
Molloy 2010, 227-228; Urubshurow 2009, 466-468):
(1) Orthodox Unity Taoism is more common in Taiwan and southern
parts of China. Complete Perfection Taoism is more common in
the northern parts of China. Orthodox Unity’s institutional center is

the Palace of Great Purity in Kiangsi, while Complete Perfection’s
institutional center is the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing.
(2) Orthodox Unity Taoism traces its history directly to Chang Tao-ling and
sees itself as continuing the generations of Celestial Masters, with
the 64th currently presiding in China (though that’s a controversial
point). Complete Perfection Taoism developed much later in the twelfth
century and is not interested in the line of Celestial Masters, though
it does acknowledge its connection to the Chang Tao-ling and his
original revelations and honors its own historical patriarchs.
(3) Orthodox Unity Taoism is the more liturgical lineage. Orthodox Unity
priests regularly preside over funerals, festivals, and rituals of offering
and purification. Complete Perfection Taoism is the more monastic
lineage, which makes it look more like Buddhism. Complete Perfection
priests, monks, and nuns tend to train or live in monasteries, where
they engage in personal self-cultivation.
(4) Orthodox Unity priests are not usually affiliated with a specific temple;
they perform their services for hire (sometimes at a local temple)
by families or communities. Complete Perfection monks, nuns, and
priests are usually teaching or training in a specific monastery, though
they may leave and continue their work elsewhere at other temples
or return to lay life (sometimes spreading their teachings to other lay
students).
(5) Orthodox Unity priests usually marry and have children; they live
very much as “ordinary” members of society. Complete Perfection
monks, nuns, and priests generally practice celibacy; they usually
live as cloistered monastics.
(6 ) Orthodox Unity priests generally do not follow the austerities you
might associate with monastics. They may eat meat, drink alcohol,
and cut their hair like a layperson. Complete Perfection monks, nuns,
and priests practice traditional monastic austerities. They generally
grow their hair long and tie it up in a bun under their hats. They’re
supposed to refrain from meat and alcohol.
C hallenges of Taoism
One challenge of Taoism concerns the practice of external alchemy,

referring to the use of external substances (chemicals, minerals, and
herbs) to come up with elixirs for immortality. Previous practices resulted
in poisoning and eventually deaths. This prompted the shift to internal
UNIT II 249
alchemy in which the elixirs are arrived at through the cultivation and
harmony of the basic energies of the body. External alchemy is still being
practiced but mostly to produce medicines (generally referred to as
“Chinese medicines”).
Another possible challenge concerns the recovery of Taoism in China
after it was almost abolished during the early years of the communist
takeover in the country. But with support from the current Chinese
government and outside, Taoism is experiencing a resurgence in China,
temples are being rebuilt (especially those located in the mountains), and
a large statue of Lao Tzu was erected in 1999 in southeastern China.
A possible worry is if there would be a change in the leadership in the
Chinese government. Another challenge concerns the popularization of
Taoism in the West, just like in the case of Buddhism, which deviates from
the original conception of Taoism as practised in China.
Gender issues are generally not a challenge to Taoism. There are
goddesses in Taoist deities. The characteristics traditionally associated
with women are encouraged in Taoist philosophy, like softness, flexibility,
passivity, and modesty. The Taoist principle of yin and yang promotes
harmony between opposing forces: in terms of gender, yin is associated
with femininity and yang with masculinity. There are also Taoist nuns and
women priests and teachers.
IÂ ctivit^l
I. Do the following tasks.

1. Write a short paper on how Taoist ideas can be applied to the
protection of the natural environment.
2. Visit a Taoist temple in the Philippines. Describe your experience
inside the temple.
3. Interview a Filipino Taoist about how Taoism has helped her/him
overcome the challenges of life.
map.
Wu-wei TaoTeChing Tai Chi 8 Immortals
Lao Tzu Celestial Complete external alchemy
Orthodox Chuang Tzu Dragon Boat Festival

Taoism
Review Q uestions
1. Lao Tzu is generally believed to be the author of the most important

text of Taoism, namely:
a. Chuang Tzu c. Tao Te Ching
b. I Ching
2. As an honorary title in the area of learning, “Lao Tzu” means:
a. old man c. old master
b. old child
UNIT II 251
3. The following is considered the third greatest thinker in the history
of Taoism, next to Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu:
a. LiehTzu c. Yin Hsi
b. Sima Qian
#
4. In the book Chuang Tzu, the part considered by scholars as written
by the philosopher Chuang Tzu, are the:
a. Inner Chapters c. Mixed Chapters
b. Outer Chapters
5. The following refers to the nameless origin of all things:
a. Tao c. Te
b. Wu-wei
6 . The Taoist concept of harmony among opposites is contained in the
principle of:
a. yin c. yin and yang
b. yang
7. Wu-wei means:
a. effortless action c. intentional action
b. planned action
8 . The Three Jewels of Taoism are compassion, humility, and:
a. generosity c. moderation or simplicity
b. decisiveness
9. Among the Three Pure Ones, he is believed to be the highest Taoist
deity:
a. Jade Pure One c. Grand Pure One
b. Supreme Pure One
10. As a deity, Lao Tzu is believed to be the incarnation of the:
a. Jade Pure One c. Grand Pure One
b. Supreme Pure One
11. The Taoist female deity believed to be the mother of Lord Lao is:
a. Mother Li c. Doumou
b. Mazu
12. The most popular of deities consisting of immortals (or humans who
achieved immortality) are the so-called:
a. Six Immortals c. Eight Immortals
b. Seven Immortals

13. The following is a popular Chinese form of exercise and martial art
that is closely associated with Taoism:
a. Feng Shui c. Quigong
b. Tai Chi
14. The following is the practice of choosing or configuring a structure
or site in a way harmonious with the spiritual forces that inhabit it:
a. Feng Shui c. Quigong
b. Tai Chi
15. In the practice of this kind of alchemy, one taps into the three key
energies in the human body consisting of vital essence, chi, and
spirit:
a. external alchemy c. middle-ground alchemy
b. internal alchemy
16. This practice of alchemy involves the mixture of different physical
substances outside of the human body to come up with elixirs believed
to have the power of making those who swallowed it immortal:
a. external alchemy c. middle-ground alchemy
b. internal alchemy
17. The first institutional Taoism founded by Chang Tao-ling was called:
a. Way of the Celestial Masters
b. Way of Orthodox Unity
c. Way of Complete Perfection
18. The following is a modern form of Taoism that sees itself as a modern
version of the Way of the Celestial Masters:
a. Way of Orthodox Unity
b. Teaching of the Great Unity
19. The following is a current major Taoist sect described as liturgical
and ritualistic that is more common in southern China and Taiwan:
a. Way of Orthodox Unity
b. Teaching of the Great Unity
20. When China came to be under their rule, Taoism almost got extinct
in China for they abolished Taoist temples and prohibited Taoist
practices:
UNIT II 253
a. democrats c. technocrats
b. communists
KW L C hart
w
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Taoism What 1want to know about Taoism
1
•1
.
L
What 1have learned about Taoism

Lesson 10,
SHINTO
Guide Question
What are the basic features of Shinto?
TOPICS

Key Concepts et Shinto car- Oharai

is- Kami «■ Misogi, Shubatsu, Harai, Imi
is Kojiki and Nihongi «*■ State Shinto
«■ Izanami and Izanagi ra- Shrine Shinto
is- Amaterasu, Tsukiyomi, <s Folk Shinto
Susanoo «■ Sectarian Shinto
is Jimmu er Shinto-based New Religions
is The Meiji Government
EXPE CTED L EA RNI NG COMPETENCIES

«s Explain how the term “Shinto” originated.
is Narrate the sacred story concerning the origin of the kami, the islands
of Japan, and the divine status of emperors, as based on the accounts
of the Kojiki and Nihongi—the two sacred texts of Shinto,
is Explain the nature of the kami and identify some of the major kinds
of kami.
UNIT II 255
■a? Explain Shinto ethical values based on harmony and purification,
os- Explain how the Japanese emperors derived their divine status.
■s- Identify some practices associated with Shinto, especially the
purification rituals.
■s- Identify and distinguish the major forms of Shinto: Shrine Shinto, State
Shinto, Sect Shinto, Folk Shinto, and Shinto-based New Religions
lA c t iv it ^ l
CULTIVATING
i £ Knowledge and Shills
ORIGINSAND SACREDTEXTS
Guide Questions
How did Shinto begin? What are its sacred texts?
M.
U r 99
S hinto
»Shinto (or Shintoism) is a religion indigenous
y / to Japan. The term “Shinto” was derived from the
Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese term shen
\ dao, which means “the way of the gods,” and which in
* Jj Japanese is pronounced as “shin-to.” The term shen
I P j* f dao or shin-to, as the name of a particular religion,
came about out of the need to distinguish it from
foreign religions that have established themselves
in Japan, referring to the religions brought to Japan
by the Koreans and Chinese in the sixth century, namely, Buddhism and
Confucianism. Prior to the coming of these foreign religions to Japan, the
Japanese did not feel the need to name their indigenous religion for the
simple reason that everybody was into it or engaged in its practices.

This particular religion has been called “the way of the gods” or “the
way of the kamf’ for two reasons. First, it is because central to this religion
is the ideal of living a life in harmony with what the Japanese call kami. The
kami, translated as “gods,” generally refer to spiritual beings responsible
for the mysterious forces of nature. Second, which concerns the use of
the expression “way,” it is because the religion, namely Buddhism, which
this religion (Shinto) was specifically distinguished from was then called in
Japanese as Butsu-do, which meant “the way of the Buddha.” Given this,
it was natural for this religion to be called also in terms of being a “way”;
thus, to distinguish it from Butsu-do or “the way of the Buddha,” it was
called “kami-no-michi” in Japanese, which meant “the way of the gods”
(see Picken 1994, xxii). Now, during this time (when this religion was being
named), Chinese culture was looked up to as an advanced culture and the
Japanese where importing various aspects of this culture (such as in the
areas of writing, architecture, poetry, ceramics, arts, and others) to improve
theirs. Accordingly, the Japanese thought it proper to give “kami-no-michi”
an equivalent Japanese expression that was patterned after its Chinese
translation, which was shen-dao (shen means “gods” while dao means way).
“Shen-dao” was pronounced “shin-to” in Japanese, thus the religion called
“kami-no-michi” in Japanese has been formally called “Shinto.”
In short, the early Japanese called Buddhism “the way of the Buddha” or
“Butsu-do” in Japanese.To distinguish their indigenous religion from Buddhism,
the Japanese called it “the way of the gods” or “kami-no-michi” in Japanese. The
Chinese translated “kami-no-michi” as “shen-dao,” which was pronounced in
Japanese as “shin-to.” Because of their high regard for Chinese culture at that
time, the Japanese adopted “Shinto” as the official name of their indigenous
religion. Nowadays, however, the names “Shinto” and “Kami-no-michi” are
used interchangeably to refer to the same religious tradition.
While the religious tradition of Shinto has been existing long before the
foreign religions came to Japan, the need to distinguish it from the foreign
religions came at a later time. This was because for a long period of time the
religious beliefs and practices of Shinto blended harmoniously with those
of the foreign religions, especially those of Buddhism. When (Mahayana)
Buddhism came to Japan (through the Chinese and the Koreans), Buddhism
tried to accommodate Shinto beliefs and practices into its own. Buddhists,
for instance, explained that the Shinto kami were actually boddhisattvas and
buddhas. At the same time, Shinto reacted to this encounter with Buddhism
also by accommodating Buddhist beliefs and practices into its own. Shintoists,
for their part, explained that the Buddhist boddhisattvas and buddhas were
actually kinds of kami.
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The mutual accommodation between these two religions resulted in
most Japanese practicing both Shinto and Buddhism at the same time.
Consequently, it is said that Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines contained
elements of one another, from rituals to architectural designs. Those who
regarded themselves as Buddhists were also engaging in Shinto practices;
while those who regarded themselves as Shintoists were also engaging in
Buddhist practices. And there were those who did not feel the need to regard
themselves as either Buddhists or Shintoists; they just engaged in the practices
of both religions. This went on smoothly until the late nineteenth century
when the Meiji government assumed power in Japan. The Meiji government
started a movement, called the Meiji Restoration, of restoring the national
roots of Japan. And central to this movement was the use of Shinto, being
the religion indigenous to the Japanese, as a way to instil nationalism (or
patriotism) among the Japanese. This required that Shinto be made pure by
separating from it elements that were foreign to it— referring to Buddhist (and
Confucianism) influences on its beliefs and practices. And for the government
to have greater control over the people, it began to assert and propagate
the Shinto teaching about the divine status of emperors—that they were
descendants of a principal kami, the sun goddess Amaterasu (Molloy 2010,
264-69).
T he K ojiki m N ihongi
When Shinto had to define its identity to distinguish itself from the foreign
religions, along with giving it a distinct name was the writing down of the
creation story or mythology which served as the basis of its rituals and
practices.This story, which was previously preserved orally over generations,
was mainly about the origins of the kami, the islands of Japan, and the divine
status of emperors. Thus, upon the initiation of the government, this story
was recorded; and the result was the Kojiki (Chronicle of Ancient Events,
or Record of Ancient Matters), compiled in 712 CE; and the Nihongi
(Chronicle/History of Japan), which came out in the eighth century CE
(see Molloy 2010, 271). In addition to the creation story, these texts also
contain some accounts of the historical events that occurred after 400 CE
(Urubshurow 2009, 502). Both were written in a Chinese style of writing
making them difficult to read (Picken 1994,54); but it is said that the Nihongi
is relatively easier to read being more influenced by Chinese thought and
literary conventions (Williams 2004, 46).

As the creation story recorded in the Kojiki and Nihongi is sacred in
Shinto, these texts thus constitute the sacred texts of Shinto. These texts,
however, do not function in the same way, or on the same level, as the sacred
scriptures of other religions. For one, while other religions rely heavily on the
doctrines as articulated in their sacred scriptures to justify their existence,
Shinto relies heavily on practices and rituals in justifying its existence. As
Picken (1994, 54) writes: “Shinto has no official holy writings because its
survival has been guaranteed almost entirely by the preservation and
perpetuation of its rituals. Nevertheless, the origins of Shinto... are recorded
in a compilation of Japanese mythology that dates to around 682 CE. This
is the Kojiki, the records of ancient matters.... Another version of essentially
the same material, known as the Nihongi (or Nihon Shdki), dates to around
720 CE.” That being the case, the creation story of the Kojiki and Nihongi
has nonetheless become the bases of central Shinto beliefs and practices.
As Williams (2004, 47), referring to the Kojiki and Nihongi as the “Classics”
(of Shinto), notes: “.. . the Classics did not become sacred scripture, yet
their central idea (rule by a divine descendant of the Sun Goddess) became
an unquestioned belief in all later types of Shinto, as well as in later state
ideology.” The writers of the Kojiki and Nihongi only recorded the Shinto
creation story. They were not its authors. Who came up with this story and
how the story was formed, nobody knows. While some forms of Shinto (like
the Shinto sects that we shall later on discuss) have known founders, Shinto
has no known founder or founders (Molloy 2010, 264).
T he S acred S tory
Let us now examine the Shinto creation story. Our account of the story
is based on the narrations of some scholars (Molloy 2010, 266; Matthews
2010,197-98; Williams 2004, 47-50; Picken 1994, 61-63; and Urubshurow
2009, 521-24). Though the general story is the same in these narrations,
they, however, differ in some details. As much as possible, our account tries
to combine these details in a complementary way (filling in the gaps of one
narration by the details of the other narrations). To begin with, though the
Kojiki and Nihongi more or less have the same account of the events involving
the principal kami, they differ in their account of the origin of the cosmos or
the universe (Urubshurow 2009, 521). For the Kojiki, the universe emerged
from a plant with seven branches growing out of steaming mud and water.
Two kami, who were brother and sister, were held by each branch; thus
UNIT II 259
forming seven pairs in total. These seven pairs of kami were then scattered
throughout the universe; and after some time, a brother-sister pair of kami
was born: the brother was called “Izanagi” (Izanagi-no-mikoto, which meant
“He-who-invites”); the sister was called “Izanami” (tzanami-no-mikoto, which
meant “She-who-invites”). On the other hand, for the Nihongi, the universe
emerged from an egg-like mass that divided into two portions: a male portion
(yang) and a female portion (yin).
The early generations of kami were all residing in the High Plain of
Heaven, and were thus sometimes referred to as the Sky-Kami. It is said
that the Sky-Kami gave the couple Izanagi and Izanami the task of creating
the islands of Japan. To do this, the couple were given a heavenly jewelled
spear by means of which they were to stir the ocean while standing upon a
floating (rainbow-shaped) bridge of heaven. The brine (the salted water of
the ocean) that dripped down from the end of the spear piled up and formed
an island. Soon the islands of Japan were produced. Izanagi and Izanami
then proceeded to the task of producing further kami. At first, they failed
to perform the right ritual for this task: for at a certain point in the ritual the
woman (Izanami) spoke first when it should be the male (Izanagi) who should
have spoken first. The consequence of this mistake was that the kami that
were produced displeased them (one kami, for instance, was deformed).
But after taking the advice of the Sky-Kami, they were able to do the ritual
the right way the second time around. The creation of further kami then went
well until a great disaster occurred. In giving birth to the fire kami, Izanami was
burned, got seriously sick, and eventually died. Izanagi, so saddened by this
incident, cried. As he cried, his tears gave birth to a kami (described as the
“Crying-Weeping-Female kami”). Izanagi then buried Izanami on Mount Hiba
near Izumo. Consumed by his anger towards the fire-child that killed Izanami,
Izanagi drew his sword and killed his fire-child. The blood of the fire-child gave
birth to eight kami. When his anger and grief receded, Izanagi missed Izanami
so much that he resolved to look for her in the underworld (the place of the dead
called Yomi-no-kum). Once in the underworld, he was not allowed to see Izanami
but he found a way to do so. He then saw Izanami, who looked so ugly because
of the burn and decay, and the maggots crawling all over her body. Izanagi was
shocked and dismayed, and decided to return to the living world alone.
Finding himself dirty after his contact with the underworld, Izanagi washed
himself with water in a small river. Further kami were born as he threw off
his garments and washed his body. When he washed certain parts of his
face, three kami were born. The sun goddess, Amaterasu (Amaterasu-o-
mi-kami, which meant “shining in heaven”), was born as he washed his left
eye; the moon god, Tsukiyomo ( Tsuki-yomi-no-mikoto, which meant “moon

night possessor”), was born as he washed his right eye; and the god of wind,
storms and thunder, Susanoo (Susanoo-no-mikoto, which means “impetuous
male”), was born as he washed his nose. Among these three kami, it was
Amaterasu who was the most important, as she would later on become the
ruler of the High Plain of Heaven.
Meanwhile, Susanoo did a lot of bad things that especially displeased
Amaterasu, such as ruining the land through his storms, and destroying
Amaterasu’s rice fields and silk weaving looms. Amaterasu was so upset
that she decided to hide in a cave (the rock-cave). Amaterasu, in so doing,
deprived the world of her light, and consequently plunged the world into
darkness. The Sky-Kami were so concerned that they sent various kami to
persuade Amaterasu to come out of the rock-cave. To this end, the kami
performed a series of acts that included bringing roosters to the cave to
call each other, ornamenting branches of a tree they put in the cave with
mirrors and strings of jewels, and bringing a troupe of kami to dance and
make music. But all these failed. Then the kami Uzume (Ame-no-uzume-
no-mikoto, or the “Heavenly-alarming woman”) danced that made the other
kami laughed (in another account, Uzume recites a liturgy while dancing).
Amaterasu became curious why the kami were laughing when the world was
in darkness. She then came out of the cave, and the world was no longer in
darkness. This cave was later on sealed (by a rope) so that the world would
never again be in darkness. Meanwhile, Uzume, for her successful effort to
entice Amaterasu to come of out of the cave, became the kami of dance,
culture, and literature.
1. Look at the Japanese flag. What do you think is the symbolism of
the sun in the Japanese flag? How do you think is the design of the
Japanese flag influenced by the Shinto creation story?
2. What do you think is the symbolism of each of the three objects
constituting the Shinto Imperial Regalia, namely, a mirror, a jewel, and
a sword?
Make an artistic interpretation of the Shinto creation story. This can be

done by doing making illustrations of the story or of a major event in the
story, or doing a skit about the story (students may be allowed to introduce
some variations to make the story modern).
UNIT II I 261
Guide Question
What are the major doctrines and practices of Shinto?
K ami
The kami, as noted, generally refer to sacred, spiritual beings, which are
also thought of as gods and goddesses. The word “kami” is used in both
singular and plural; we can thus say “this particular kami” or “this group of
kami.” It literally means “high,” “above” and “lifted up” (Urubshurow 2009,
502), but it is often translated as “god” or “gods.” Furthermore, while the word
is naturally understood as referring to the entities with divine character, the
deities, it is also used to refer to the divine character itself, the essence of
all divine beings (Picken 1994, xxii; Williams 2004, 32).
While being mindful of these two senses of the word “kami,” we shall,
in our discussion, assume the standard understanding of the word “kami”
as referring to divine entities. We have already identified some of the major
kami (those who play significant roles in the creation story of Japan), such
as Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu, Tsukiyoma, and Susanowo. Shinto believes
in many more kami. Anything that evokes striking emotions and attitudes
in humans such as awe, fear, and the feeling of reverence is believed to
be inhabited by some kami. The kami are the forces or powers in things
responsible for evoking such emotions and attitudes. Typical examples of
these things are places of natural beauty, like a mountain, a waterfall, and
a lake, and natural power, like the blow of the wind, the heat of the sun,
earthquakes, and volcanoes spewing lava. In relation to the last, kami are
also the energies that make things in nature move. And thus there are,
among others, fire, ocean, mountain, trees, rivers, and waterfalls kami. The
kami also include the spirits of some ancestors and animals thought to have
mysterious skills and intelligence like the fox and the snake. One unique
feature of the kami is that though they are spiritual beings they do not reside
in a world distant from the humans. Their presence can be readily felt as
they are powers in the world of humans. The kami, in short, are everywhere
in the human world. They are treated as persons, as co-inhabitants of this
world, and are given names (Molloy 2010, 271).

Some scholars classify the various kami into some basic types for a better
view of their diversity. One such classification (Urubshurow 2009, 503-505)
distinguishes four general types of kami; thus:
1. Nature Kami: they include the kami of trees, animals, mountains,
geological entities (such as clay, stones, lightning, metals, stars,
sun, moon, minerals, and gemstones), food (especially agricultural
foods), and forms of water (such as wells, rivers, oceans, springs,
storms, and rain).
2. Mythic Kami: they consist of all the kami mentioned in the Shinto
myth or creation story which include Izanagi, Izanami, Amaterasu,
Tsukiyoma, and Susanowo.
3. Clan Kami: they include all the kami that serve as protectors of
divine clans, foremost of which is the kami Amaterasu, of whom the
members of the imperial family, the primary divine clan, are believed
to be descendants through the first divine emperor Jimmu. They
also include the kami of other (secondary) divine clans, such as the
descendants of Jimmu’s companions and the noble families who ruled
Japan prior to the reign of Jimmu. As regards the Imperial Family,
Urubshurow (2009, 506) notes that, the members of the Imperial
Family, being descendants of Amaterasu, are all divine in nature; but
only the member of this family who becomes the emperor acquires
the status of a kami.
4. Guild Kami: they consist of all the kami worshipped by various guilds
(associations of craftsmen and artists), foremost of which are the
kami worshipped by the guild of mirror makers (referring to the kami
believed to have made the mirror that enticed Amaterasu to get out
of the cave she hid in for some time), the kami worshipped by the
guild of jewellers (referring to the kami believed to have made the
eight-foot long string of 500 jewels worn by Amaterasu), and the kami
worshipped by the guild of dancers and geisha (referring to the kami
Uzume who danced to entertain Amaterasu).
Another classification (Picken 1994, 94-96) divides the kami into two
categories; thus:
1. Kami of the Japanese mythology, which consist of the following:
a. Kami of Heaven (Amatsu-no-kami)
b. Kami of Earth (Kunitsu-no-kami)
2. Kami not named in the mythology, which consist of the following:
a. Kami associated with natural phenomena
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b. Kami derived from historical personalities
c. Kami traceable to political origins
d. Kami associated with commerce and prosperity
Ethics of H armony and P urification

Shinto does not have a clearly defined code of morality or a formalized
set of moral rules, just like the commandments of the Jews. A kind of morality,
however, naturally follows from the Shinto system of values and general
attitude towards life. For instance, as Shinto worships the natural forces
that give life, Shinto has a positive attitude towards those that enhance or
promote life, like fertility and health, and a negative attitude toward those
that do otherwise, like the acts of killing and inflicting pain, and the state of
sickness. As Shinto worships nature in its natural beauty, it gives value to
purity or freedom from pollutants. This includes our own bodies, houses,
clothes, and environment; and extends to our character (especially honor)
and spiritual life. If they become dirty or contaminated, we must cleanse
them to regain their purity. In this connection, it is said that in Shinto, the
acts of washing, sweeping, and cleaning have a religious and ethical value.
As regards human character, it is polluted when one has done misdeeds;
and so one needs to restore its purity by fulfilling his/her responsibilities,
making amends like repaying debts, and sincerely apologizing for these
misdeeds. And since the kami are sacred, then humans ought to show them
reverence. This is done, among others, by visiting their shrines and showing
respect to nature by refraining from doing anything that may damage or pollute
nature (Molloy 2010, 271-72). Purity is a central concept in Shinto ethics.
Humans become unclean when they are separated (or alienated) from the
kami, family, ancestors, community, or emperor through misdeeds or failure
to perform what has been expected from them. The solution is reconciliation
through the process of purification (Matthews 2010, 204). Generally, Shinto
ethics can thus be described as an ethics of harmony and purification.
D ivinity of the E mperors

“All forms of Shinto share the belief that the ruler of Japan, the land of
the kami, is divine” (Williams 2004, 114). As earlier noted, it is believed that
the first human Japanese emperor, Jimmu, was a descendant of Amaterasu,
the sun goddess. The succeeding emperors inherited the divinity of the first
emperor. The divinity of Japanese emperors was highlighted during the
time when the Japanese government wanted to instil patriotism among the

Japanese people and to have greater control over them—specifically, for the
Japanese people to serve their emperor in the same way that they worship the
kami. As Shinto became an instrument in building up Japanese nationalism,
Shinto was made a national religion in 1882. This form of Shinto has been
called State Shinto. Shinto then received support from the government. Many
Shinto shrines were built and priests received financial support from the
government in return for maintaining traditional values. The other religions
in Japan, especially Buddhism, suffered during this time. The divinity of the
emperor was officially taught in schools. State Shinto was, however, also used
to build the military power of Japan and to justify its expansion (conquest of
other countries) through military means. This happened during the Japanese
war with the Russians in 1905, which the Japanese won. And this continued
during World War II. But after its defeat in World War II, Japan was forced to
make changes in its government. Consequently, State Shinto was abolished
and the emperor (Emperor Hirohito), in 1945, gave up his divinity. Shinto
became a private, non-governmental religion again, with equal status as the
other religions in Japan. (Molloy 2010, 269-270).
O ther D ivine H umans

Aside from the emperors, there are other humans who are considered
divine either by their association with the kami or by being kami themselves.
Shinto tradition does not have a clear distinction between humans who are
divine and humans who are themselves kami (Urubshurow 2009, 506). In
any case, these divine humans include: (a) the ritual specialists or the female
shamans (miko) who can be possessed by the kami when seeking protection,
praying for fruitful harvests, and communication with the dead, among others;
(b) the shrine priestesses {saio), referring to the young women of the Yamoto
ruling families who for generations have served as shrine priestesses (who
could communicate with the kami) in Amaterasu’s shrine at Ise; and (c) the
spirits of the dead, referring to the war heroes who, because of their unusual
loyalty and commitment to the emperor and heroic service to Japan, have
been recognized as kami.
L ife after D eath

With regard to what happens after death, Shinjo follows traditional
Japanese views that the body should be cremated and that the dead person
joins his or her ancestors. And as discussed above, some dead people, the
remarkable ones, are believed to have become kami. Some forms of Shinto
UNIT II 265
incorporate Buddhist beliefs about death such as reincarnation (Matthews
2010, 206).
»
S ome P ractices and R ituals
Worship
Worship of the kami is done

at the shrines, public shrines or
personal ones (those set up at
homes). People visit shrines to pray
to the kami (prayers to the kami are
called norito) to give praises to them
and to request for health, success
in their endeavors (school, career,
Shinto Shrine business, etc.), safety in travels,
and well-being of their loved ones.
A Shinto shrine is called jinja in Japanese (jinja literally means “place of
the kami”), in contrast to the Buddhist temples which are called tera in
Japanese. Picken (1994, xxxi) estimates that Shinto, in 1994, “comprises a
loose agglomeration of approximately 800,000 shrines. Among these are
200 that are central shrines of various kami, cults, or districts; and over
2,000 that could be called major shrines.” There are certain ceremonies one
goes through during a visit to a public shrine, like washing one’s hands and
mouth at a water basin located at the entrance to the shrine, climbing the
stairs leading to the haiden (the space in front of the place where the kami
is enshrined), giving respect to the kami by bowing in front of them, donating
money, ringing a bell and clapping several times (allegedly to get the attention
of the kami), and praying either silently or by chanting. Sometimes devotees
leave their prayer requests written on a piece of paper or on small wooden
plaques which they tie to the fences or branches of a sacred tree near the
kami’s shrine. During festival days, there are processions which people may
join and booths where they can buy souvenirs and amulets. Worship can
also be done daily at home. Shinto devotees set up a small Shinto shrine,
called kamidana, at their houses, sometimes in the garden area. Prayers
and food offerings, like rice and water, are done at the kamidana.
Shinto priests officiate the worship ceremonies at public shrines. They give
their blessings on various occasions, such as when children are brought to
a shrine a month after birth and when they reach a certain age. The priests
also perform ceremonies outside the shrines like during weddings held at

homes or hotels. The emperor has been traditionally considered as a high
priest in Shinto (this is despite the renunciation of the emperor of his divinity
after the Second World War) and thus performs certain ceremonies too. He,
for instance, participates every spring in rice-planting ceremonies done in
the palace to guarantee a good rice harvest for the entire nation. Another,
he and his family annually visit the shrine of Ise to pray for the country. The
shrine at Ise, Mie, Japan is known as the Ise Grand Shrine, which is dedicated
to sun goddess Amaterasu and is considered the holiest among the Shinto
shrines, for it is believed that the sacred mirror of Amaterasu, one of three
Imperial Regalia, is preserved there. The emperor’s reign is inaugurated
with Shinto rites; and when he dies, he is buried with Shinto rites (which is
unlike most Japanese, including devotees of Shinto, who are usually buried
with Buddhist rites).
Purification Rituals
Shinto rituals are mainly

purification rituals. Purification
(oharai) is the process of removing
an impurity (tsuml). Picken (2004,
176) explains that the state of purity
is a necessary condition to be in
communion or harmony with the
kami. Impurities take various forms.
There can be physical impurities, Ritual Misogi
like sickness, injury, and death. There can be moral impurities, like the
acts of inflicting pain on other people, stealing properties of other persons,
killing, and others. Purification likewise takes various forms. The following
are basic forms of Shinto purification rituals (Picken 2004, 172, 174).
Misogi. This is a form of purification that uses water. Worshippers, for
instance, wash their hands with water at the entrance of a shrine. A form of
misogi is called misogi shuho, a ritual in which one stands under a flowing
waterfall. The devotee stands for some period of time while the water of the
waterfall falls full-force on his or her shoulders. Before the ritual, the devotee
does some stretching and deep-breathing exercises and is cleansed with a
bit of salt. After the ritual, the devotee may drink sake (rice wine) with other
practitioners usually before a meal. Misogi is primarily based on Izanagi’s act
of washing himself when he found himself dirty after going to the underworld
to see Izanami.
UNIT II 267
Shubatsu. This is a form of purification using salt. Salt is sprinkled by
Shinto priests on the objects, humans, or places to be purified.
Harai. This form of purification uses a harai-gushi, a wand consisting of
a stick and streams of paper attached to the stick. A Shinto priest waves a
harai-gushi over the person, place, or object to be purified.
Imi. This is a form of purification that one does to oneself by refraining
from saying inappropriate words and avoiding doing inappropriate actions.
For instance, the word “cut” (kiru) is taboo in a wedding ceremony. On the
other hand, attending a party or a celebration is inappropriate when a loved
one has just died.
A nnual Events and F estivals

The following are some of the major annual events and festivals
celebrated in Shinto (see Picken 2004, 181)
New Year Celebration (Oshogatsu). This is the biggest celebration of the
year. Before the holiday, the house is thoroughly cleaned for the kami who
are invited to visit. They have their own decorations (kadomatsu, a special
arrangement consisting of pieces of cut green bamboo, small branches of
pine, and leaves of plum) and kind of food—mochi, a soft dough made of
pounded rice; ozone, a special soup of vegetables and mocha. Men and
women dress in kimono and make offerings to Shinto shrines; they pray
for blessings for the coming year. They also visit relatives and friends. The
overall spirit of celebrating the New Year is cleansing and the renewal of life.
Spring Festival (Haru Matsuri). The purpose of holding this festival is to
guarantee the safety of rice planting.
Summer Festival (Natsu Matsuri). The purpose of holding this festival is
to protect the crops from pests and diseases during the hot seasons.
Autumn Festival (Aki Matsuri). The purpose of holding this festival is to
express gratitude to the kami for the gathered harvest. This is a ritual of
thanksgiving.
Setsubun-sai. The purpose of holding this festival is to drive away bad
luck and invite good luck. This is done by throwing beans and a Shinto high
priest firing an arrow. Worshippers later on take the beans home for good luck.
D isc us si on Q u e s t i o n s
1. Do you think belief in nature spirits still useful today? Explain

your answer.
2. Can a belief in nature spirits be used to promote environmental
protection? Flow?

IÂ ctivit^l
Write a research paper on early Filipino belief in nature spirits. Compare

this system of belief with the Shinto belief in the kami.
Guide Questions
What are the different forms of Shinto? And what are its major
challenges?
Shinto’s flexibility as a religion enables it to adapt to social conditions

and to intermingle with the beliefs and practices of other religions such as
Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and even Christianity.This resulted in the
emergence of many forms of Shinto. For our purposes, we shall examine
the following major forms of Shinto: (1) Shrine Shinto (Jinja Shinto), (2)
State Shinto (Kokka Shinto), (3) Folk Shinto (Tsuzoka Shinto), (4) Sect
Shinto (Kyoha Shinto), and (5) Shinto-based New Religions (Shinko
Shukyo). Let us begin with what we have already touched on, namely,
State Shinto. It is, of course, not the earliest form of Shinto, but it serves
as a convenient point of reference for describing the other forms of Shinto.
S tate S hinto
As already noted above, State Shinto (Kokka Shinto) was the form
of Shinto that was made the national religion of Japan in 1882 when the
Japanese government (the Meiji government) was instilling patriotism
among its citizens and establishing powerful control over them by
presenting the emperor as a divine being, with a status of a kami, being
a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu. Previous to the Meiji
government, Buddhism was the state religion of Japan (under the Tokugawa
government where Japan was under the military rule of the shogun). When
the Meiji government took over, they started the process of nationalizing
Japan known as the “Meiji Restoration” (Williams 2004, 120). One key
element in this nationalizing process was the institution of Shinto as the
state religion of Japan. Shinto was separated from Buddhism to return to
its pure form, and to serve as Japan’s “unifying national ideology” (Pickens
1994, xxxi). Under State Shinto, the shrines were put under the control of
the government (shrines were declared national institutions), the rituals to
UNIT II 269
be performed were listed, and a system of ranking priests was formalized
(the system of hereditary priesthood was abolished). Shinto priests were
treated as governmental officials (see Picken 1994, 36). State Shinto,
however, was abolished after the defeat of Japan in the Second World
War in 1945, when the Japanese surrendered to the Allies. The Allies
demanded the separation of Shinto and the government. After this event,
State Shinto became known as “ Imperial Household Shinto” (Williams
2005, 119), which still performs the “special Shinto practices at the three
shrines within the grounds of the imperial palace” (Williams 2005,17,119).
S ect S hinto
Under State Shinto, several Shinto shrines (most of which were run
by different Shinto organizations) were put under government control.
There were, however, Shinto shrines or forms of Shinto that were not put
under government control and were considered not part of State Shinto,
but which nevertheless were recognized by the government. These forms
of Shinto which were not considered to be part of State Shinto were
collectively called by the government Sect Shinto or Sectarian Shinto. As
Molloy (2010, 270) states: “All other nongovernmental Shinto shrines and
organizations were treated as independent, self-supporting institutions
and together were called Sect Shinto.” Sectarian Shinto thus were forms
of Shinto that “did not receive state support” (Matthews 2010, 200). As
State Shinto is mainly a political form of Shinto, Sect Shinto, in contrast, is
seen as a purely religious form of Shinto. In this connection, Sect Shinto is
often also called “Religious Shinto” (Williams 2005, 20). This means that
Sect Shinto has features that cannot be reconciled with or accommodated
by the political objectives of State Shinto. During the Meiji government
(around 1868), there were 13 forms or organizations of Shinto that were
classified under Sect Shinto or Kyoha Shinto (Picken 1994, 37).
S hrine S hinto
Generally, Shrine Shinto refers to all forms of Shinto in which the
shrines, regarded as the homes of the kami, are the centers of Shinto
religious activities. During the time when Shinto was flourishing in Japan
and building its places of worship, there were also many Buddhist temples
that were established.To distinguish Shinto places of worship from Buddhist
places of worship called temples, the Shinto places of worship were called
shrines. As there are many kinds of kami and forms of Shinto, there are

also many forms of shrines. There are, for instance, public shrines (the
public places of worship) and private shrines (the shrines put up by families
at their homes).
From the varying accounts of scholars on the nature of Shrine Shinto,
we can distinguish between two senses of Shrine Shinto. In one sense,
Shrine Shinto simply refers to traditional Shinto, for traditionally Shinto
religious activities center around shrine worship. In another sense, Shrine
Shinto is identified with State Shinto, and it refers to the kind of Shinto
in which the government-recognized shrines are the centers of religious
activities. We may call the first sense the “apolitical account” while the
second the “political account.” Under the apolitical account, even the forms
of Shinto not under government control of the Meiji government fall under
Shrine Shinto. On the other hand, only the government-controlled forms
of Shinto fall under Shrine Shinto (Urubshurow 2009, 517-18). What
happened was the Meiji government also called State Shinto “Shrine
Shinto” to contrast it with Sect Shinto. In this connection, the government
called the shrines of Sect Shinto “churches” (kyokai) to distinguish them
from the shrines (jinja) of State Shinto (Urubshurow 2010, 517). When
State Shinto, however, was abolished after Japan’s defeat in World War
II, Shrine Shinto became apolitical, that is, no longer under government
control.
F olk S hinto
Folk Shinto and Sect Shinto are forms of Shinto that were not put
under government control; the difference is that while Sect Shinto was
recognized by the government, Folk Shinto was not. Another difference
between Sect Shinto and Folk Shinto is that while Sect Shinto is organized,
systematized, and institutionalized, Folk Shinto is not. For unlike in Folk
Shinto, in Sect Shinto one “could identify a founder and a formal set of
teachings, and may even have produced sacred writings” (Picken 2004,
212). For instance, rituals in Folk Shinto can be performed in the absence
of Shinto priests. Furthermore, Folk Shinto is called such because it
blended with folk culture and local beliefs, which have influences from
Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. On some accounts, Folk Shinto is
equated with Shamanic Shinto (see Williams (2004,20-21). The shamans
(and shamanesses) were people who could communicate with the spirits
(the kami); they “became possessed, and gave guidance in oracles about
all of life’s concerns—crops, health, war, pestilence, and death” (Williams
2004, 115).
UNIT II 271
S hinto - based N ew R eligions
Sect Shinto traditionally only included 13 Shinto sects when they
were recognized and distinguished from State Shinto. But after World
War II, new religious forms, called New Religions, emerged. Some of
these new religions were Buddhist-based while some were Shinto-based.
The Shinto-based New Religions developed from some of the original
13 sects of Sect Shinto. The Shinto-based New Religions were then
included in Sect Shinto (Williams 2005, 123). Based on the account of
Matthews (2010, 201-202), Shinto sects are generally divided by Japan’s
Agency of Cultural Affairs into three groups, based on their history and
unique practices. These are: traditional sects, mountain worship sects, and
sects based on revelation. Let us examine two prominent sects based on
revelation: Tenrikyo (“heavenly reason teaching”) and Omoto-kyo (“great
origin teaching”)— or simply Omoto (Matthews 2010, 201-02; Molloy
2010, 282-283). As these two Shinto forms are generally classified under
Sect Shinto, they are also sometimes classified under Shinto-based New
Religions.
Tenrikyo, founded by Nakayama Miki (1798-1887), is a spiritual healing
group. It teaches that physical health is a consequence of mental or
spiritual health. In this connection, it practices healing by faith. Its sacred
texts consist of the poetry composed by Nakayama Miki that speaks of
her revelations. It is said that Nakayama Miki received her revelations
accidentally. She sought the help of a shaman (to talk to the kami) to
help her deal with her problems—among others, it is said that her eldest
son was unable to work because of suffering extreme pain in his leg. In
one session, she assisted the shaman; and what happened was that she
went into a trance for several days. When she came out of the trance, she
reported that she received a message from a kami, Tenri-o-no-mikoto (“lord
of divine wisdom”), that she was to spread the “Teaching of the Heavenly
Reason” that whoever lives according to the Heavenly Reason will have
health and long life.Tenrikyo has established a strong institutional structure
that enables it to spread outside Japan.
Omoto was founded by Deguchi Nao (1836-1918). One striking
teaching of Omoto is that all art is religious. It sees the creative process
leading to an artwork as an essential manifestation of religion. In this
connection, it runs a school near Kyoto teaching traditional Japanese art
to non-Japanese. Another is its promotion of world peace through the
study and adoption of a universal language (a language all nationalities
can understand)—the language of Esperanto—and through sponsored

dialogues among members of other religions such as the Christians and
Muslims. It is said that Deguchi Nao, like Nakayami Miki, lived a very
miserable life— extreme poverty, death of her husband and three of her
eight children, mental illness of her two children, among others. In her
moment of hopelessness, she had a vision urging her to lead the creation
of a new, perfect world.
S ome C hallenges
Shinto has managed to survive despite the challenges that it has
faced. Some of these challenges are as follows. First, its growth has been
threatened by thfe growth of Buddhism in Japan and its association with
military build-up of Japan during World War II. Many have thought that
Shinto would not survive after the Second World War; but it did and it
continues to flourish. In 2007, it was estimated that there were 2,797,700
in the world; 2,729, 000 in Asia; and 61,200 in North America (Matthews
2010,171). Second, part of the appeal of Shinto is the importance it gives
to nature. Shinto, in this regard, is presenting itself as a religion of ecology.
One challenge in this area is how to reconcile the seeming conflict between
this ecological ideal of Shinto and the pervasive Japanese commercial and
business goals that resulted in the decimation of the forests of Japan and
other countries (Williams 2004, 140). Third, Shinto still generally lacks a
strong institutional structure to enable it to spread outside of Japan or to
do missionary work. This is, however, compensated by the fact that the
Japanese bring their religious practices with them wherever they settle in
(see Molloy 2010, 283-284).
And fourth, because of Shinto’s association with the Japanese
government during World War II, how to deal with questions concerning
the divine status of the Japanese emperor remains as a challenge to
Shinto. Williams (2004, 136) articulates such questions as follows: “First,
what does it mean for modern Japan, no longer culturally or militarily
imperial, to have a divine emperor? Second, can Shinto and Japan take
responsibility for mistakes made and atrocities committed in the name
of a divine emperor? . . . Third, can the symbol of the divine emperor
guide the Japanese people toward acceptance of the responsibilities and
possibilities of being human?”
D i sc us si on Q u e s t i o n s
1. Are you for the total separation of religion and state? Should
religion completely stay away from political concerns or
activities? Explain your answer.
UNIT II 273
IÂctivityl
I. Watch the movie “Spirited Away” and write a reflection paper on it

afterwards focusing on how Shinto is depicted in the movie. (“Spirited
Away,” a 2001 Japanese animated fantasy film, was written and directed
by Hayao Miyazaki.)
map.
Misogi Buddhism Nihongi Purification Kojiki
Emperors animists World War II State Sect
Review Questions
1. The term Shinto, which is equivalent to “kami-no-michi,” means:

a. the way of the truth

b. the way of the gods
c. the way of the heaven
2. The sun goddess in Shinto creation story, considered to be the most
important kami, is:
a. Izanami b. Amaterasu c. Susanoo
3. After his travel to the underworld, he found himself unclean and so
he washed himself with water:
a. Izanagi b. Tsukiyomi c. JimmuTenno
4. He was the first human emperor of Japan who was a descendant of
Amaterasu:
a. Izanagi b. Tsukiyomi c. JimmuTenno
5. The three Im perial R egalia are a m irror, a sword, and a
a. shield b. crown c. jewel

6. Because of his mischief, Amaterasu hid herself in a cave:
a. Tsukiyomi b. Susanoo c. Ninigi
7. In one classification of the kami, the kami worshipped by mirror
makers belong to:
a. nature kami c. mythic kami
b. guild kami d. clan kami
8. In the same classification of the kami, the kami that protects the
members of the imperial family belong to:
a. nature kami c. mythic kami
b. guild kami d. clan kami
9. The Imperial Regalia that is preserved at the Ise Grand Shrine is
the:
a. mirror b. sword c. jewel
10. This form of purification uses salt:
a. misogi b. shubatsu c. harai
11. This form of purification uses a wand, consisting of a stick and paper
streamers, waived by Shinto priest:
a. mosogi b. shubatsu c. harai
12. This a festival of thanksgiving, expressing gratitude to the kami for
the gathered harvest:
a. Summer Festival b. Autumn Festival c. Spring Festival
UNIT II 275
13. It was during the reign of this government that Shinto was made into
a national religion:
a. Tokugawa b, Edo c. Meiji
14. This form of Shinto was controlled by the government:
a. State Shinto c. Sect Shinto
b. Shrine Shinto d. Folk Shinto
15. This form of Shinto is also regarded as purely religious:
a. State Shinto c. Sect Shinto
b. Shrine Shinto d. Folk Shinto
KW L Chart
after the lesson.
K W
What 1know about Shinto What 1want to know about Shinto
L
What 1have learned about Shinto

( f Q i , REFERENCE?
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Allinson, Robert. 1989. Chuang-tzu for spiritual transformation: An analysis of
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Altman, Ruth. 1985. The Jewish way of life. Jerusalem: Nezer David.
Breen, John and Mark Teeuwen. 2010. A new history of Shinto. Oxford: Wiley-
Blackwell.
Chan, Alan. 2014. Laozi. The Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy (Spring 2014
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).Online: <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/
spr2014/entries/laozi/>.
Chang, Chung-yuan. 2014. Tao: A new way of thinking: A translation of the Tao
Te Ching with an introduction and commentaries. London: Singing Dragon.
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study of religion, traditional and new religions. London: Routledge.
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University Press.
Deming, Will. ed. 2015. Understanding the religions of the world: An introduction.
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Durkheim, Emile. 2008. The elementary forms of religious life. In A reader in
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Fielding, Julien. 2008. Discovering world religions at 24 frames per second.
Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
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archives/win2015/entries/mohism/>.
Harap, Louis. 1987. Creative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century
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UNIT II 277

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K °i2

Introduction to World Religions

T he N ature of R eligion and the A brahamic F aiths

Lesson 2\ Studying Religions

Chapter Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, 41-133

Chapter^ Confucianism, Taoism, and Shintoism, 199-276

Lesson 10. Shinto

iv INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

■sr What is the nature of religion?

Demonstrate your understanding of Perform the activities specified in

Chapter Content Competencies

1 The Nature of Religion «• How did the word religion come

2 Judaism, Christianity, How did Judaism, Christianity,

P relearning C oncept C heck

2 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

14. Abraham and Moses were the founders

15. The Hebrew or Jewish Bible, called the

4 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

26. Islam was founded by Mohammad, who

What is the nature of religion?

EXPECTED LEA R N IN G OUTCOME

The chapter aims to explain the nature of religion by clarifying its

Lesson 1. Understanding «■ Explain the meaning of religion in terms of its

6 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

EX PLORING IN IT IA L IDEAS A N D V IEW S

1. How would you define religion?

2. What characteristics do you think are common to all religions?

3. What do you think is the value of studying the different religions in

4. Identify three benefits of having a religion.

5. Identify three benefits of studying the different religions in the

6 . What do you think is the relationship between spirituality and

♦ Section 1: Meaning and Key Elements

Key Concepts religion 1® materialism

8 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

MEANING AND KEY ELEMENTS

What does the word religion mean? .

In examining the meaning of religion, we shall look into the etymology

D efinitions from S ome S cholars

10 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

12 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

14 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

1. Take a look again at the definitions of religion given by some scholars.

16 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Choose a world-renowned work of art considered to be religiously

SPIRITUALITY AND DIVINE ABSOLUTES

»*■ How does spirituality relate to religiousness?

I. SPIRITUALITY AND RELIGIOUSNESS

A . O n the I ncompatibility of S pirituality and R eligiousness

Separating the Substantive and Functional Aspects of Religion

First is the view that religiousness is substantive (or substance-oriented)

18 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Separating the institutional and Subjective Aspects of Religion

Second is the view that religiousness is institutional and objective, while

B. On the C ompatibility of S pirituality and R eligiousness

Religiousness as a Form of Spirituality

Spirituality as Part of Religiousness

20 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

II. FORMS OF DIVINE ABSOLUTES

G od-C entered and N ongod-C entered F orms of S acredness

V iews on the E xistence of G od/ s

V iews on the N umber of G od/ s

22 INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS