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Running head: PARENTAL DIVORCE

A Retrospective Study: Lived Experiences of Adults Exposed to Parental Divorce in Childhood

Samantha Muia & Sarah Sanclimenti

BCD 806 KAA

Jo Ann Iantosca

March 18, 2019


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Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the lived experiences of adult children who have

experienced parental divorce in childhood. Parental divorce can impact the child’s overall well

being in a variety of ways. Researchers looked into the impact of divorce on the child, parent-

child relationships, children’s perspectives and support and resilience throughout and post

divorce. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with five consenting participants that

consisted of 11 open-ended questions. Findings of this study suggest the importance of an

effective co-parenting plan in connection with positive behaviour outcomes of the children. This

study also discusses how meaningful relationships with people close to the child were affected

post- divorce. Furthermore, the current study highlights the significance of communication for

the child throughout the divorce process. Recommendations for future research and practitioners

are also mentioned as findings may help educate people on the lived experiences of children who

experienced parental divorce.

Key words: divorce; children; academic performance; relationships; mental health; support
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Statement of Contributors

From the development of the research project to the creation of the literature review, the

researchers worked together to form this study. Researchers both completed the Research Ethics

Board (REB) application then recruited and conducted interviews with participants. Information

was then coded, analyzed and findings were developed. Both researchers contributed equally

throughout this entire research process.


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Acknowledgements

This study acknowledges that this research would not have possible without contributions from a

variety of supporters. Researchers would like to show gratitude to the participants who took time

to participate in the interview process. We would like to recognize the Seneca College Research

Ethics Board for their approval of this study, as well as the support received from the professors

in the Honours Bachelor of Child Development Degree. Researchers would like to give special

thanks to our co-investigator and research supervisor Jo Ann Iantosca for all the time and efforts

dedicated to the completion of this study. Jo Ann Iantosca should be acknowledged for her

continuous support and guidance throughout the entire research process.


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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: Introduction……………………………………...………………………………...9

Literature Review……………………………………………………………….…..……10

Impact of Divorce on the Child……………………………………………...…..10

Demographic Factors and Divorce………………………………………10

Academic Achievement …………………………………………………11

Mental Health ……………………………………………………………12

Genetic and Environmental Conditions Associated with Risk…………..13

Parent-Child Relationships………………………………………………………13

Father Child Relationships ………………………………………………14

Interactions and Proximity……………………………………………… 14

Mother Child Relationships ……………………………………..………16

Children’s Perspectives ………………………………………………………….16

Childhood Construction of the Meaning of Divorce…………….………18

Support and Resilience…………………………………………………..………19

Conclusion ……………………………………………...……………………….20

CHAPTER 2: Methodology..…………………………………...……….…………………...…..22

Philosophical assumptions…………………………………………………………..…...22

Reflexivity ………………………………………………………………………...……..23

CHAPTER 3: Qualitative research design…………………………………………...…………..24

Participants ……………………………………………………………………......……..24
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Data Collection……………………………………….……………………...…………..24

Procedure and Timeline …………………………………………………………………25

Data Collection Instrument and Measurement…………………………………..………25

CHAPTER 4: Data Analysis…………………..…………………………………………………27

CHAPTER 5: Findings ……………………………………………………………………..…. 28

Global Theme: Changes ………………………………………………………...……….28

Theme: Roles…………………………………………………………………….28

Theme: Living Arrangements……………………………………………………29

Theme: Academics……………………………………………………………….31

Theme: Behaviour ……………………………………………………………….32

Theme: Parent Relationships…………………………………………………… 33

Theme: Parenting Styles…………………………………………………………36

Theme: Communication…………………………………………………….……37

Theme: Familial and Extra-Familial Relationships…………………………...…39

Theme: Coping ……………………………………………………………………….….41

CHAPTER 6: Discussion ……………………………………………...……………………..….43

Effects of Divorce on the Child……………………………………………..……..…… 43

Relationships………………………………………………………………..……...…… 44

Communication………………………………………………..…………….…..……… 45

Strengths and Limitations…………………………………………..………..…..…...… 46

Recommendations ………………………………………………………..…..…..…..… 47

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………..……. 48

References………………………………………………………………………………………..49
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Appendix A: Recruitment Poster………………………..…………………………………....….52

Appendix B: Interview Questions……………………………………………………………..…53

Appendix C: Letter of Information …………………………………………………………...…54

Appendix D: Consent form: Participant copy……………………………………………………57

Appendix E: Consent form: Researcher copy …………………………………………….…..…58

Appendix F: REB Letter of Approval ………………………………………………...…………59


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List of Figures

Figure 1. Theme: Roles ………………………………………………………….………………28


Figure 2. Theme: Living Arrangements…………………………….……………………………30

Figure 3. Theme: Academics ………………………………………………...…………………31

Figure 4. Theme: Behaviour………………………………………………………..……………32

Figure 5. Theme: Parent Relationships………………………………..…………………………34

Figure 6. Theme: Parenting Styles ………………………………………………………………37

Figure 7. Theme: Communication…………………………………………….…………………38

Figure 8. Theme: Familial and Extra-Familial Relationships …………...………………………39

Figure 9. Theme: Coping……………………………………………………………...…………41


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Chapter 1

Introduction

Divorce is defined as, when legally married couples go to a court to officially end their

marriage (Department of Justice, 2015). According to the 2011 General Social Survey on

Families, approximately five million Canadians had separated or divorced within the last 20

years (Statistics Canada, 2015). When going through a divorce where children are involved, the

most important thing for parents to consider is what is best for the child (Department of Justice,

2015). The Federal Divorce Act enforces the idea that parents must do what is best for the child

and states that for the child’s best interest, it is important that the child is allowed to have as

much contact as possible with each parent (Department of Justice, 2015). When debating about

what is best for the child, the parents must make decisions on a variety of issues, such as where

the child is going to live, go to school, what religion they will practice in the home, among other

decisions (Department of Justice, 2015).

In this review, we will be discussing a variety of positive and negative factors divorce has

on the child, the child’s perception of the experience, and the parent’s relationship with the child

post-divorce. Finally, this research will outline how negative factors can be buffered through
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support, which in turn creates resiliency. This is a qualitative study that focuses on the detailed

and contextual data collected from the participants (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). The researchers

used a phenomenological lens throughout this study to look at the lived experiences of adult

children who experiences parental divorce. Participants were recruited through posters posted on

the walls around Magna Hall and Garriock Hall at Seneca King Campus and on Facebook. Both

researchers of this study conducted interviews with consenting participants which were

conducted either in person, over the phone or though email. Participants of this study included

adult children who experienced parental divorce as a child before the age of 16 and had

experienced parental divorce at least five years prior to interview. Through this research, we

have sought to learn about divorce and children, and specifically answer the following research

question; what are the lived experiences of adults exposed to parental divorce in childhood?

Literature Review

Impact of Divorce on the Child

Divorce can impact a child’s overall well being in many ways and there are multiple

variables to consider. Studies have found that divorce can impact children’s academic

achievement, well-being and mental health. Research suggests that the effects of divorce on a

child are far reaching, and not caused by one single factor, but from a variety of sources during

the divorce process (Potter, 2010).

Demographic Factors and Divorce. The parent’s education level plays a role in the

parent-child attachment post-divorce as fathers with more education are more aware of how

divorce can negatively impact a child (Kalmijn, 2015). Evidence also suggests that if the mothers

have a high education level, the divorce will have less of a negative impact on the child’s
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development, and there may even be a slight positive effect on the child, but if the mother has a

lower education level there can be a significant negative impact on the child (Mandemakers &

Kalmijn, 2014). Whereas, results imply that fathers with higher education can create a slightly

negative impact on the child’s psychological well-being if the mother has lower education

(Mandemakers & Kalmijn, 2014). Children with more highly educated fathers show less of a

decline in academics after experiencing parental divorce (Mandemakers & Kalmijn, 2014).

Other variables should be considered, including socio-economic status and nurturance.

Children who came from poverty as defined in the Economic Deprivation Index (EDI) , had a

harder time dealing with the divorce, and children whose parents consistently read to them prior

to the divorce were not as negatively impacted academically after the divorce (Mandemakers &

Kalmijn, 2014). Mandemakers & Kalmijn (2014) suggest that children are able to better cope

with parental divorce if parents are able to uphold their material well-being and continue to

provide the same level of monetary involvement. Parental education seems to affect the child’s

academic achievement, this will be further discussed in the next section.

Academic Achievement. A study conducted by Potter (2010), set out to examine the

correlation between divorce and the child’s psychosocial well‐being and academic achievement

after a parental divorce. Information gathered from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study

Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) found that divorce typically lessens a child’s psychosocial well-

being, which in turn leads the child to have poorer performance in academic achievement (Potter,

2010). A child’s approaches to learning (ATL) includes their ability to stay motivated and

engaged, as well as being able persist and ask questions when needed (Anthony et al., 2014).

Results from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study — Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-

K) were examined in this study to look into the timing of parental divorce, observable classroom
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behaviours and how the child’s learning environment impacts how much they learn (Anthony et

al., 2014). Findings show that children who experienced parental divorce were slightly less

successful in math than children who are not in divorced families. Divorce showed a clear

connection to the child’s decline in their ATL post-divorce which may be due to the fact that

divorce can negatively influence a child’s motivation, which then can lead to a decline in

engagement (Anthony et al., 2014). In regard to gender, these results indicate that divorce

negatively impacted both boys and girls’ academic achievement, but this gap was most

noticeable in girl’s mathematics scores (Anthony et al., 2014). Age and timing of divorce also

had an impact on the child’s academic achievement as children who experienced parental

divorce at an older (9 to 11 years old), rather than a younger age, experienced further decline

(Anthony et al., 2014). There are other notable factors that relate to academic achievement such

as the mental health of children.

Mental Health. In a study conducted by Uphold-Carrier and Utz (2012), they find

associations between a child’s mental health and family solidarity in relation to the timing of

divorce. Researchers found that children who experienced divorce at any age had higher risks for

depression than of those children of non-divorced families (Uphold-Carrier & Utz 2012). This

increased risk of depression may be due to their lack of ability to maintain higher quality family

camaraderie (Uphold-Carrier & Utz 2012). Researcher Short (2008) discuses that children of

divorce reported more aggressive behavior, greater substance use and depression than those

children who have not experienced parental divorce. These children also reported more stress

and less problem- focused coping (Short, 2008). The study on children’s mental health found that

the ways in which the divorce later affects the child, is related to the timing of which the divorce

occurred; not just the amount of time which a person has experienced after it (Uphold-Carrier &
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Utz 2012). Results of this study show that the amount of time since the divorce occurred did not

have a major impact on the probability of depression for the children. However, age at the time

of parental divorce and time since the divorce did have a significant affect on family solidarity

for both a child and adult that experienced divorce (Uphold-Carrier & Utz 2012). In addition to

mental health affecting the academic achievement of divorced children genetics and the

environment also play an important role.

Genetic and Environmental Conditions Associated with Risk. In a study by Robbers

et al., (2012), authors discuss the influence of genetics and the environment on children’s

behaviour in relation to divorce. Researchers from this study found that for twin siblings of

divorced parents, internalizing and externalizing problems were higher than of children from

intact families. Thus, divorce leads to an increase in phenotypic expression of behavioural

difficulties, but this is due to environmental differences. Internalizing problems consisted of the

child showing signs of depression, anxiety and withdrawn behavior (Robbers et al., 2012).

Externalizing problems consisted of overactive behaviors, aggression and opposition (Robbers et

al., 2012). Genetic factors only accounted for only 25% of the variance in the results related to

internalizing and externalizing behaviours for the children; concluding that environmental factors

can have a greater impact on behaviour problems in childhood (Robbers et al., 2012). A genetic

factor that seemed to have the most impact on children’s social behaviours as children with

antisocial personalities create a vulnerability to environmental adversity (Feinberg, et al., 2007).

Thus, when children experienced negative parenting moments, it triggered the social gene in

children that makes them more susceptible to their environment (Feinberg, et al., 2007).

Furthermore, there is evidence that a parent-child relationship influences the impact of divorce

on a child as well.
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Parent-Child Relationships

Research shows that marital conflict strongly impacts the relationship between children

and their parents. Higher levers of self-blame that the divorced children experience is often due

to parental conflict as children often blame themselves for the divorce (Goodman & Pickens,

2009). This conflict has a weaker effect on father–child relationships as opposed to mother-child

relationships (Kalmijn, 2015). Both father-child and mother-child relationships will be explored

as the researchers look into the impacts of the divorce on the child.

Father Child Relationships. In a study conducted by Stone (2008), factors that influence

the relationship between a father and child post-divorce were examined. The findings show that

the three most influential factors that impact the relationship between a father and child after a

divorce are the father’s clarity on his role, his view that his parenting style is effective and his

perception that the mothers parenting style is not effective. This study suggested that a father’s

clarity and understanding of his role as a parent is essential for creating a positive father-child

relationship post-divorce (Stone, 2008). This study also shows how a father’s perception of his

own ability to be a high-quality parent gives him more confidence when interacting with the

child, thus improving the quality and relationship with the child (Stone, 2008). Fathers who had

a negative outlook on the mothers parenting abilities worked harder to create a positive

relationship with their child post-divorce as they felt that had to be a positive influence for the

child (Stone, 2008). Fathers have also shown higher quality support and more frequent contact if

the mother is the one who re-partners (Kalmijn, 2013). This study suggests that divorce

education programs should place more value on building up fathers’ self-efficacy as parents, and

ensuring fathers are clear on their role as a parent to help them and the child adjust to the stress

caused by divorce (Stone, 2008).


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Interactions and Proximity. Divorces are an already difficult process for the whole

family, a few factors that contribute to this is the amount of time the child is able to spend with

the father, the proximity to where the father lives and re-partnering of either parent (Kalmijn,

2013, Kalmijn, 2015 &Viry & Gil, 2014). Research from a variety of studies has found that

parental divorce has negatively impacted the relationship between fathers and their children,

especially older children as the fathers usually spend less time with their children, and there is

usually more conflict with their father (Kalmijn, 2015). In a separate study conducted by

Kalmijn (2013), the researcher expresses the negative affects that re-partnering can have on a

father-child relationship post-divorce. When a divorce transpires, the fathers have less contact

with their children regardless of them re-partnering and when the father re-partners they show

less support to their child (Kalmijn, 2013). If the divorce occurs early in their life, the children

expressed their relationships with their fathers as more inferior (Kalmijn, 2013). This study states

that when a father post-divorce forms a new relationship, this in turn leads to them to spending

less time with their child in comparison to a father that remains single. Evidence suggests that

divorced mothers who are the child’s primary caregiver are 63% less likely to re-partner post-

divorce as compared to mothers who share custody with their ex-partner (Schnor, et al., 2017).

The distance at which a father lives from his child can affect a child’s adjustment to the

divorce depending on his proximity (Viry & Gil, 2014). More specifically, if closer in proximity,

the child demonstrates a higher level of pro-social behavior, as well as less difficulties in regards

to behavior (Viry & Gil, 2014). For the father to maintain a strong relationship with a child after

divorce, it is key that the father is actively involved with the child during the marriage, especially

since arrangements of the divorce are not generally beneficial for the father (Kalmijn, 2015). The

interactions and involvement of the father during the marriage helps determine the custody and
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visitation rights of the father with the child post- divorce (Juby et al., 2005). Mothers who seem

to have a positive family value, with positive attitudes towards re-partnering are more likely to

have sole custody of the child post-divorce (Schnor, et al., 2017). Finally, research notes that

fathers are more capable of negotiating custody and visitation arrangements after the divorce if

they are more educated, possibly increasing the likelihood of visitation rights (Kalmijn, 2015).

Mother Child Relationships. In a study by Wallerstein, Lewis, Packer, Jurist and Elliot

(2013), researchers address the mother child relationship post-divorce. This study found that

post- divorce, over half the mothers were less available and less responsive to their children. This

was particularly noticed from mothers who had two or more children, these findings also were

seen more so post- divorce than during the deteriorating of the marriage (Wallerstein et al.,

2013). Mothers of children who had experienced parental divorce also seemed to express more

humor than mothers of intact families which may be a coping mechanism from the traumatic

experience of divorce (Brenner & Hyde, 2008). One third of the mother’s priorities post-

divorce went from parenting, to trying to rebuild intimate relationships and become finically

stable (Wallerstein et al., 2013). As a result, the children of these mothers displayed irresponsible

activities, which later improved when the mothers provided stability and responsiveness

(Wallerstein et al., 2013). Mothers who experienced divorce seemed to have less maternal

sensitivity post-divorce which made them less able to match their child’s zone of proximal

development meaning how aware the mother is of the child’s level of understanding (Brenner &

Hyde, 2008). One quarter of the mothers struggled with parenting do to their lack of well-being

from the divorce (Wallerstein et al., 2013). Next, we will explore how parental divorce can

impact a child’s perspectives on the situation and one’s self.

Children’s Perspectives
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Every child has a different perspective on parental divorce, each of which can have an

influence on their parental relationships, and their overall view of themselves (Kelly 2017 &

Goodman & Pickens, 2009). Children of divorced and non-divorced families were compared,

and findings showed that children of divorce had lower self-esteem and more self-blame

(Goodman & Pickens, 2009). Children’s self-perception was much lower for children of divorce,

though in a later measure, the scores had increased due to the children’s resiliency and their

reclamation of self esteem over time (Goodman & Pickens, 2009).

In a study by Kelly (2017), the importance of father-daughter relationship after the

divorce occurs was discussed. More specifically, the perception the daughters had on their

father-daughter relationships post-divorce affected them later in life (Kelly, 2017). Daughters

who experienced a positive relationship with their fathers were confident and had high self-

esteem which later impacted their future partners, friends and children in positive ways due to

their high values (Kelly, 2017). If the daughter did not feel they were impacted by the

relationship after the divorce, they had no anticipation of healing (Kelly, 2017). However, these

failed relationships then led these women to seek sympathetic partners in life and other people

who were receptive to their distresses (Kelly, 2017). Interestingly, daughters who had negative

experiences with their father’s post-divorce, placed higher standards on themselves later in life,

had awareness of their importance in life and believed they were the ones that control their own

happiness (Kelly, 2017). When a father is accepting, supporting and loving, research shows that

daughters perceive this as a positive relationship (Kelly, 2017). Furthermore, children who

expressed having fathers that made them feel safe, secure and protected, was a result of the

consistent presence of their father (Kelly, 2017). The high regard daughters have for their fathers

will often motivate them to make choices to make their fathers proud (Kelly, 2017). With regards
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to mothers, it was discovered that children took on a caring role, which then led them to have

less parental support (Wallerstein et al., 2013). This may change the perspectives that children

have when regarding their parents, until stability is restored. Not only does the child’s

perspective influence the relationship they have with others, how they construct the meaning of

the divorce is also a mediating factor.

Childhood Construction of the Meaning of Divorce. Research conducted by authors Dj

Maes, De Mol and Buysse (2011) explain the experience children have when going though

parental divorce and their contractual meaning of divorce. To help children construct meaning

during a parental divorce it is beneficial for the children to have an understanding about what is

going on (Dj Maes et al., 2011). It is more difficult for the children to accept the divorce if they

do not understand why the divorce is happening (Dj Maes et al., 2011). These types of

discussions allow children to feel that they matter to their parents and that their voice counted in

regards to issues such as living arrangements (Dj Maes et al., 2011). When children do not feel

as though they are taken into account during these decisions, they often feel that their post

divorce life did not reflect whom they were (Dj Maes et al., 2011). A study conducted by

Ängarne-Lindberg, Wadsby, & Berterö (2009) looked into adults’ reflections on their experience

of parental divorce in childhood. Many children who experienced divorce expressed feelings of

disappointment either towards their parents or towards their friends and family (Ängarne-

Lindberg, Wadsby, & Berterö, 2009). Children were disappointed in their parents for making

them feel lonely throughout the divorce process, and also for their parent’s lack of discussions

related to the divorce (Ängarne-Lindberg, Wadsby, & Berterö, 2009). With this disappointment

also came some resignation for putting the responsibility on the child to take care of the angry

and unhappy parent, making the child feel that they have to put themselves second (Ängarne-
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Lindberg, Wadsby, & Berterö, 2009). These children reported being disappointed in their friends

and family as most children reported not having many people to talk to about the divorce and the

feelings caused by the situation they were in (Ängarne-Lindberg, Wadsby, & Berterö, 2009). A

separate study conducted by Du Plooy and Rensburg (2015) discussed a variety of coping

strategies that adult children tend to use after experiencing parental divorce. Results of this study

show that people who persevere through the changes that come with parental divorce helped

them to cope with the entire situation (Du Plooy & Rensburg, 2015). Open and effective

communication within the family that is experiencing divorce, as well as in the extended family

and friend group is a large and effective part of the coping process including sharing thoughts

and feelings as a form of interpersonal connections (Du Plooy & Rensburg, 2015). Other

children of parental divorce reported feeling content with the situation as they felt that the family

was better off after the divorce, they were happy with the way their parents handled the divorce,

and happy with the amount of support they received during and after the divorce (Ängarne-

Lindberg, Wadsby, & Berterö, 2009). If parents work out a proper parenting plan it will help in

creating cohesive parenting which leads to fewer behavioral difficulties, less difficulties with

peers and less difficulties with behaviour (Viry & Gil, 2014). Ultimately, children can interpret

divorce in both positives and negative ways according to the support and experience they have

throughout the adjustment of the divorce process and the way in which they interpret the event

(Ängarne-Lindberg, Wadsby, & Berterö, 2009).

Support and Resilience

In spite of the negative effects of divorce, recent qualitative studies explored different

factors that contribute to the child’s well being throughout the process of divorce. Milam and

Schmidt (2018) explored how social support and spirituality can impact a child’s posttraumatic
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growth after experiencing parental divorce as well as how resilient the children have become

after the divorce. Posttraumatic growth is when people are able to positively move on from a

traumatic event, in this case, after a parental divorce (Milam & Schmidt, 2018). Themes of pain

were associated with parental divorce, and when adult children were asked to list negative

outcomes of divorce, many of them mentioned that they experienced disappointing and changed

relationships with their parent’s post-divorce (Milam & Schmidt, 2018). Findings of this study

suggest that higher levels of emotional social support resulted in higher levels of posttraumatic

growth, while spirituality did not play a significant role (Milam & Schmidt, 2018). Research

states that even after the stress of divorce, these children can have the potential to be resilient and

strengthen their identity and personal relationships (Milam & Schmidt, 2018). The adult-childs’

awareness of available social supports is more important than the amount of times they actually

use the supports (Milam & Schmidt, 2018). It was also noted that these children felt more

comfortable in their living environment after a divorce as their parents were often happier and

more at peace, which helped them with their posttraumatic growth as well (Milam & Schmidt,

2018).

Conclusion

Divorce impacts a child’s lived experiences in several ways. Some themes in which this

paper further explores are the impact on the child, the parent-child relationship, the child’s

perspective on the divorce and support and resilience post-divorce. In relation to these themes,

studies have found that divorce negatively impacts the child by diminishing their psychosocial

well being which in turn negatively impacts a child’s academic achievement, as well as their

behaviours. Father- child relationships post-divorce seems to have major impacts on the child’s

development. How the child perceives the divorce can have lasting effects on their future
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relationships. These negative effects can be buffered through a variety of positive relationships

and though having some control over decision making through the process of divorce.

When investigating relevant literature on the topic of divorce, a gap of research was

noticed in a variety of areas. Information about step parents and how they may affect the child

seemed not to be as prominent when researching this topic. Another area of knowledge in which

does not have a large amount of research is on the mother-child relationship post divorce, as

most research studies focus on both parents, thus not looking in depth at the child’s relationship

solely with the mother. Additionally, research in this area is lacking on the variety of coping

methods used by children after experiencing a parental divorce.

The research that is found will benefit people working with children who have

experienced parental divorce. Another way this information can be used is by a variety of people

and professionals such as social workers, RECE’s, other researchers and parents who interact

with children of divorce. This information can be used when creating support programs and

workshops for these children. This information is relevant to understanding how parental divorce

can affect a child’s daily life.

Researchers of this study intend to interview adult children and their unique experiences

of going though parental divorce. Throughout this paper, the authors are hoping to gather

information on the lived experiences of adults who have experienced parental divorce in

childhood.

Chapter 2

Methodology

The methodology that was used in this study is qualitative, defined as detailed information on

a small population with an emphasis on words or pictures (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). Qualitative
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studies focus on the variety of meanings that people connect with different phenomena and

experiences (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). For the purpose of this study, qualitative methodology is

best as it looks into rich and contextualized detail in the data (Mukherji & Albon, 2015).

Qualitative research empowers individuals to share their stories as they describe what they felt in

time, body, space, and relationships throughout their experience of parental divorce. The

methodology within qualitative research which will be used in this study is phenomenology,

which looks at the lived experiences of oneself or others. Our intent is to look at the lived

experiences of adult children who experienced divorce as a child using the paradigm of

interpretivism. The researchers have also phenomenologically experienced parental divorce at a

young age. Through semi-structured interviews were able to collect data from participants which

offered us multiple views and perspectives (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). A semi- structured

interview allows the researchers to ask detailed questions where the participant is able to freely

express themselves (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). We were able to create common codes and

themes and group them into common views and perspectives (Mukherji & Albon, 2015).

Philosophical Assumptions

The ontology of this research takes on an interpretivist lens as the researchers have

collected information taking into account the multiple realities and subjective truths of the

participants. Interpretivism can have multiple explanations for actions and meaning towards

those actions (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). These findings will not be universal as there are no

generalizations of people’s experiences (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). The researchers have sought

to discover how people interpret phenomena in different ways (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). The

epistemology of this study is based on knowledge that is obtained through the experiences of
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parental divorce of the participants. The researchers know this information to be true as people

have subjective experiences and the researchers cannot quantify their experiences.

Reflexivity

The authors of this paper have examined the responses of adult children who experienced

parental divorce. The information from the interviews has been interpreted with the authors

biases towards the phenomena. A bias may be that both researchers have experienced parental

divorce as children, which may influence the way information from interviews is interpreted.

The information that the researchers have chosen to focus on may be influenced by their own

experiences. Due to the researchers experiencing parental divorce in a more positive way than a

negative way this may also influence the material we choose to focus on. Both researchers have

studied child development and have background knowledge on what may be viewed as typical or

appropriate behaviours in regards to child rearing. Moreover, authors of this paper were

interpreting the information from the interviews through a student lens in which may have

persuaded the authors to view general themes were explored in the Honours Bachelor of Child

Development Degree program.

Chapter 3
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Qualitative Research Design

The following research design will outline the participants, data collection, procedure and

timeline as well as the data collection instruments and measurement. Qualitative studies often

include interviews to collect descriptive data about the participants lived experiences. In this

case, researchers have sought to find information on adult children’s lived experiences of

parental divorce.

Participants

For the purpose of this study, the researchers have conducted interviews with five adult

children who experienced parental divorce as a child. Participants were recruited through posters

posted on the walls around Magna Hall and Garriock Hall at Seneca King Campus and on

Facebook (Please see Appendix A). This was an example of opportunity sampling which can be

defined as researchers who gathering information from participants who are part of a particular

population and are available and willing to participate (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). Inclusion

criteria included men and women who experienced parental divorce as a child before the age of

16 and must have experienced parental divorce at least five years prior to interview. Participants

were between the ages of 18-30. Exclusion criteria included people under age 17 who have

experienced parental divorce in the last five years and if parental divorce occurred when the

person was over the age of 16. These criteria help to mitigate the potential risks to the

participants due the sensitivity of this topic.

Data Collection

To collect data needed for this research paper, the researchers conducted interviews

(Please see Appendix B). These interviews consisted of a combination of 11 open-ended and

closed- ended questions (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). Participants were required to drive to the
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local library to conduct the interview in a private meeting room. The time needed to complete the

interview was approximately 15- 45 minutes. This study was approved by the Research Ethics

Board (REB) at Seneca Collage (Please see Appendix F).

Procedure and Timeline

Participants were recruited, given a letter of information which informs them about the

study and how to contact the researchers if they are willing to participate in the study (Please see

Appendix C). Both researchers of this study have conducted interviews with consenting

participants which were all conducted in person (Please see Appendix D & E). Before the

interviews had begun, the participants were reminded about the study, signed any necessary

consent forms and told that they are able to withdraw from the study at any point in time. Once

the participants consented, researcher’s audio recorded the interview. The participants were

asked to verbally answer 11 questions about their experience of parental divorce. The

participants were then thanked for their time and cooperation. The researchers started recruiting

participants in January 2019 and recruitment was closed once five interviews have been

conducted which ended in the beginning of February 2019. Researchers had all data collected by

February 2019 and then used the data to code information to then use it to answer the research

question.

Data Collection Instruments and Measurement

The instrument used in this qualitative study is an interview, which can be defined as people

asking questions to another person or group of people with the expectation to gather information

about their views on a particular topic (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). Interviews are usually used

when researchers are looking for an in-depth explanation (Mukherji & Albon, 2015).

Researchers created the interview questions with the intention to gather information about the
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lived experiences of adult children. These interviews touched upon the overall relationships,

emotions, changes and support that the participants may have experienced throughout the

process of parental divorce. Questions for the interview were also created in relation to the

scholarly articles discussed in the literature review. Researchers created prompts for certain

questions to ensure that they are receiving the information needed to help answer the research

question. The questions that will be used in the interviews were reviewed by experts and all

variables have been defined in the literature review. Through the responses of the participants,

researchers will look for consistency to help validate the study.


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Chapter 4

Data Analysis

The researchers of this study have analyzed all the data collected from the interviews of adult

children’s lived experiences of parental divorce. Once the researchers became familiar with the

data by reading the transcripts from the interviews and putting the information into context, the

data was coded (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). In order to code the data, the researchers grouped the

data by colour coding similar ideas, attitudes, thoughts and feelings that are consistent

throughout the interview (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). The questions created for the interviews

evoke participants to deeply discuss their experiences through their senses, space and time. Next

the codes were categorized by combining the codes that fit together (Mukherji & Albon, 2015).

To create themes and relationships among the codes, the researchers searched for a broad theme

that will reflect the fundamental meaning of the participants responses (Mukherji & Albon,

2015). The researchers then developed concepts and came to general themes by developing a

narrative explanation of the findings to represent the data (Mukherji & Albon, 2015). Although

this is a phenomenological study in which participants are asked to express their personal

experiences, coding allows the researchers to gather similarities within the interviews.
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Chapter 5

Findings

The present study investigated the participants responses to the interviews in which they

discussed their lived experiences of parental divorce. The coding process led to a global theme,

sub themes and codes that were generated to describe the experiences of adult-children who went

through parental divorce.

Global Theme: Changes


One global theme that was developed was Changes, in which the subthemes of roles,

living arrangements, academics, behavior, parent relationships, parenting styles, communication

and familial and extra-familial relationships all relate to changes that come with divorce. Many

of the participants spoke about variations in their experiences, which were grouped into similar

categories.

Theme: Roles. Participants described the many roles that they played, such a becoming a

financial contributor to the family, or increasing the amount of help around they provided for the

house. The participants felt that these roles turned them into a caregiver in the home, rather than

remaining in the role of a child. Step parent also fits under roles, as post-divorce some

participants parents had re-partnered, leading the new individual in the home to take on a role,

which had both positive and negative effects on the adult-child. This relates to the global theme

of Changes, since the child and parent roles changed, with new duties assigned and new

individuals present in the home and taking on the work of the former parent.
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Table 1. Theme: Roles
Becoming a Caregiver Participant 003:
“After the divorce, my oldest brother felt that
he needed to take over the role of the man of
the house so he stopped focusing on school
and he worked a lot so he was bringing in
money and helping my mom”

“I took over the role of the caregiver so at


first I was angry then I realized that my mom
needs my help around the house”

Participant 002:
…I notice that I am more independent that I
would have been if the divorce didn’t occur, I
notice a few little things.”

Step Parent Participant 001:


“Okay so step parents had a negative impact
just because they tried to take over the role of
the missing parent so the step dad tried to be a
dad and the step mom tried to be a mom.”

Participant 003:
“So my relationship with my stepfather was
that I was glad to have him because I saw
how happy he made my mom and I cared for
him. He took care of us, he would come over
all the time, bring us food and help out, he
genuinely cared for me.”

“He needed that love of a daughter and I


needed that love of a father so in that sense
the relationship was good.”

Participant 005:
“I believed that due to my situation, my mom
was my mom and my dad was my dad. No
one else could or would come in and try to act
like my parents if they weren’t”
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Theme: Living Arrangements. Codes that appear to connect to an overall theme of

living arrangements include travel, frequency, convenience and needed us. Travel fits under

living arrangements since the distance to visit the other parent made traveling between homes

more difficult. Frequency fits under living arrangements as the location that the child resided at

impacted how often the child visited the other parent. Convivence fits under living arrangements

as the distance to which the parent lived impacted the accessibility to resources for the child such

as distance to school or friends. If the father indicated that he didn’t need the child, or if the

mother indicated a need for close physical proximity, this affected the living arrangements since

the father would be less involved. Globally, these living arrangements changed for the children,

ultimately impacting the amount of time spent with either caregiver.

Figure 2. Theme: Living Arrangements


Travel Participant 002:
“…it was more just back and fourth going to
moms and dads house.”

“…we did go back and fourth to my aunts and


grandparents houses…”

“And my dad kinda distanced from us,


because it’s hard, I don’t go see him all the
time, back in the day when he would pick us
up, back and fourth that was really it. But then
when I got a car it was different because all
my friends were here in this area, my school
was in this area and everything was in this
area so I didn’t go there as much to see him.”

Frequency Participant 002:


“My dad lived in King City and we went to
school in Maple. Other then that, it was pretty
fair, we saw my dad every two days, so it
wasn’t that bad.”

Participant 003:
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“The quality with my dad wasn’t good either
because I would see him, but it was rare that I
would see him and I didn’t feel the same”

Participant 005:
“My mother had custody of us, so we resided
with her. My brother and I went to our fathers
every Wednesday, sleepovers every other
Wednesday and spent every other weekend
with him.”

Convenience Participant 004:


“My dad moved about half an hour away
from this area so my mom’s was more
convenient.”

“She stayed in the house that we lived in my


whole life. Also like I have a job near here,
my friends are here so it just made sense”

Participant 002:
“My mom, she lived way closer to our school,
she lived right behind our school so we lived
there. We would just walk to school every
day. That was really the main reason.”

Needed Us Participant 001:


“my dad had told me to stay with my mom
because my mom needed us and he didn’t
need us, so I resided with my mother”

Theme: Academics. A code that appeared to connect to the overall theme of academics,

is poor academic performance. This code fits under academics as post-divorce the majority of

participants revealed a decline in their academic performance such as having trouble focusing in

school, not wanting to go to school and dropping grades. This connects to the global theme of

Changes, since the adult-children observed a difference between prior academic success and

decline post-divorce.

Figure 3. Theme: Academics


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Poor academic performance Participant 004:
“I also feel like my academics struggled for a
little while but then I got back on track.”

Participant 001:
“…academic performance, I didn’t wanna go
to school, I held off on going to college for a
while”

Participant 003:
“Academic performance... it was hard for me
to focus in school, my grades were dropping
but I didn’t really notice it. It was teachers
that noticed and spoke with my mom. I didn’t
really care for school work, I was angry so I
tried to be the class clown to hide my
emotions through joking”

Theme: Behaviour. Codes that appear to connect to the overall theme of behavior

consist of numb, anger, escape, acting out and stress. Numb fits under this theme as a few

participants noted that their emotions were shut off and that they did not feel anything anymore,

which in turn may have affected their behavior. Anger fits under the theme of behavior as post-

divorce a participant noted that she was always angry and this led her to get into a lot of fights.

The code escape fits under the theme of behavior as a participant noted that she wanted to go out

more post-divorce, which was in relation to her stating she was not used to being at home yet.

This was a change in her behavior as it was different prior to the divorce. Acting out is a code

that falls under behavior as a participant noted that he was a hyper child, which led him to

believe this was why he was acting out. All participants described these emotional or behavioural

changes as an increase in frequency or intensity, leading to a connection to the global theme.

Figure 4. Theme: Behaviour


Numb Participant 001:
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“…emotions I was more emotional
throughout things that I wouldn’t be…”
“uhm and after the divorce was finalized,
your literally numb. It’s a battle between
yourself, you don’t feel anything anymore.”

Participant 003:
“…I think that I just shut myself off
afterwards so there was really nothing that I
said that would have been able to be taken
into account….”

Anger Participant 003:


“…I was always angry and I caused a lot of
problems. I wouldn’t say that I was a bully
but I got into a lot of fights easily.”
“I was an angry kid”

Escape Participant 004:


“…I did notice a change in my behavior, like
I wanted to go out more, so I didn’t have to be
at home because it was something I still had
to get used to.”

Acting Out Participant 002:


“But behavior wise I was a hyper kid, so
during the divorce I feel that I acted out a lot.”

Stress Participant 005:


“…I began to let my stress get the best of
me.”

Theme: Parent Relationships. Codes that appear to connect to the overall theme of

parent relationships consist of stronger/closer, less tense, time away, emotional distance, co-

parenting and support. The code stronger/closer falls under parent relationships as few

participants noted that their relationship with their mothers grew stronger and closer post-

divorce. The code less tense falls under this theme as a participant noted that her relationship

with her father prior to the divorce was more difficult and post-divorce their relationship

improved and became less tense. The code time away falls under this theme as post-divorce as
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the amount of time spent away from the parent may influence their relationship. Emotional

distance falls under this theme as the relationship between the child and parent grew increasingly

absent, despite the desire of the child. In fact, the majority of participants explained that their

fathers were more distant from them. One participant wished her father was in her life more

while another explained that her relationship with their father no longer existed. The code co-

parenting falls under this theme as most participants noted that the co-parenting has an effect on

the relationship between both parents. Participants noted that when the parents planned and

started to figure things out that the relationships between the two improved. The code support

falls under this theme of parent relationships as most participants noted that they felt supported

throughout the divorce process stating that their parents made sure they were okay and that they

were there for them emotionally. Ultimately, the relationship between the parent, co-parent and

child showed significant changes, noting the relationship to the global theme.

Figure 5. Theme: Parent Relationships


Stronger/ closer Participant 001:
“The relationship with my mom is probably
stronger than it was before…”

Participant 002:
“…with my mom, it brought us closer
together…”

Less tense Participant 004:


“The relationship with my dad also got better,
I think because we are very alike so we used
to but heads a lot, but now it’s more space so
we don’t. There are less things to argue about,
not that we argued before but you know, it’s
less tense. Everybody is less tense now
because of the divorce so that kinda helped.”

Time away Participant 002:


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“Uhmm, to this day it affected my
relationship more with my dad as I don’t see
him as much as I would of beforehand”

Participant 005:
“I feel like the space away from my father,
because he moved about half an hour away
from my house, improved our relationship as
I got older.”

Emotional distance Participant 001:


“relationship with my father is doesn’t exist,
its not existent… no communication and I
think its been about 7 years now.”

Participant 002:
“… my dad was more distanced and my mom
was closer.”

Participant 003:
“I wish I had to have the opportunity to have
my dad in my life more.”

Co- parenting Participant 004:


“During the divorce, their relationship was a
little rocky because they were still figuring
things out, but it wasn’t completely horrible.
Post- divorce their relationship is way better, I
feel like its better for everybody. They are
better as friends and co-parents”

Participant 002:
“During the divorce was a little rocky they
did not get along at all, but as the years went
on, its been now 11 years so everything has
become a lot smoother and they both kind of
panned out and things kinda worked
themselves out.”

Participant 003:
“Even though they weren’t in a good place
after the relationship they could be in the
same room but maybe it was for the sake of
us that they were civil because they didn’t
wanna cause a scene in front of us.”
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Participant 005:
“Throughout the divorce process it was very
rocky, but now it has changed a little. When
they discuss finances and child support that
was never received, their relationship is toxic.
But when they are discussing the safety and
overall well-being of my brother and I they
begin to co-parent.”

Support Participant 002:


“They always told us that it was going to be
okay, like my dad always made sure that we
were okay and that we had what we needed. If
we needed something he would be there or
even if my mom needed something he would
be there. They became a lot more supportive
over time which was good, and I guess made
me and my sister get through it a lot easier”

Participant 004:
“Yes I was supported from both my parents,
they were both very understanding and made
sure that me and my sister were okay”

Participant 005:
“They were always there for us”

Participant 003:
“I would say that I did feel supported, my
aunt would call me a lot and talk to me, she
would come over a lot. My other aunt would
come over a lot, she was like my emotional
support, she would talk to a lot and take me
out to the movies or shopping and we would
talk a lot because she also went through the
same thing, so she helped me understand and
gave me the experience side of it. She was
there for me.”

Theme: Parenting Styles. Codes that appeared to connect to an overall theme included

being strict and being lenient, which both fit under the theme of parenting styles. The code strict

fits under parenting styles as some participants reported that the parenting styles of their parents
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had become more strict post-divorce. Leniency also fit under the theme of parenting styles since

some participants reported their parents becoming more lenient throughout the divorce process.

This connects to the global theme of Changes, since the adult-children observed a difference in

parenting styles of their parents’ post-divorce where parents became either strict or more lenient.

Figure 6. Theme: Parenting Styles


Strict Participant 005:
“My dad kinda became the stricter parent,
growing up I was restricted on going out with
my friends on days I had to see my father”

Participant 003:
“She was strict, but I would still talk back and
give her attitude”

Leniency Participant 005:


“My mom was the parent that was more easy
going on my brother and I, growing up and
she always had our back.”

Participant 002:
“With my mom, I feel that she became more
laidback and became a little more, you know,
when you have kids and this happened, I
guess she felt that she had to kinda be a little
bit nicer in a way.”

“I guess they became more lenient when it


came to things like, helping us with stuff or
letting us stay up a little later when we needed
time and stuff like that.”

Theme: Communication. Codes that appear to connect to an overall theme of

communication include poor communication and no input. The code poor communication fits

under the theme of communication as few participants recall minimal or negative conversations

with parents throughout the divorce. No input fits under the theme of communication as majority
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of participants reported having no say in the matter and felt as if their views were not taken into

account at the time of the divorce. All participants noted changes in their communication

throughout the divorce process, thus creating a connection to the global theme.

Figure 7. Theme: Communication


Poor Communication Participant 001:
“Well realistically I didn’t meet eye to eye
with either of my parents, so we all had our
own views and own days so communication
was minimal.”

Participant 003:
“She would always complain to me about my
dad and always say to me that my dad is such
a horrible person and father. My dad had a
family after the divorce, my mom would trash
talk my dad a lot which made me angry
towards my dad but also angry towards my
mom”

“….my mom always talks bad about my dad


and my dad the same thing”

“I wasn’t able to have a normal conversation


with him and I wasn’t able to tell him my
feelings, it was more small talk, quick talk
conversations.”

No Input Participant 001:


“My views weren’t taken into consideration
during the divorce, none of it was taken into
consideration. They pretty much decided on
their own what was going to be done so
realistically there was no discussion it was
made up minds and that was it, there was no
going around it.”

Participant 003:
“ …I don’t think my views were taken into
account. But for instance, I did say like why
didn’t I go with my dad, why did I stay with
you, and my mom said well because I’m your
mother…the divorce process is all about them
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…They don’t really consider what we
feel…Clearly it doesn’t matter what I think”
Participant 002:
“They just said that it was kinda happening
and that’s how it was going to be.”

Participant 004:
“…my views weren’t taken into account, noo,
it kinda just happened and we didn’t have a
say.”

Participant 005:
“I was happy that my mom told me rather
then just handling the situation on her own,
she knew the right thing to do was inform her
eldest child.”

Theme: Familial and Extra-Familial Relationships. Codes that appeared to connect to

an overall theme included siblings, extended family and friends, which all fit under the theme of

familial and extra-familial relationships. Researchers placed these codes with this theme to be

able to find connections between participants relationships that may be similar. The code

siblings fit under this theme as some participants reported having a close relationship with a

sibling throughout the divorce process. Extended family fits under the theme of familial and

extra-familial relationships as most participants noted that there was a negative change in their

relationship with their extended family post-divorce as one participant reported the interacts as

being awkward. Also, the code friends fit under this theme as some participants noted that they

had noticed slightly negative changes in their relationships with their friend’s post-divorce, while

another participant reported no change. The global theme of Changes includes this theme as

relationships with siblings, extended family and friends were all affected by the divorce.

Figure 8. Theme: Familial and Extra-Familial Relationships


Siblings Participant 004:
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“My relationship with my sister was always
good though, even though we fight sometimes
its normal for siblings.”

Participant 002:
“Me and my sister didn’t really know much
when we were young, so we didn’t really
know what was going on, but as we got older
we are now really close, so I think it worked
out for the best.”

Participant 003:
“There was a time where we didn’t get along,
but after a couple of years we were closer.”
“… She didn’t wanna separate my brothers
and I because we had a close relationship
growing up”

Extended Family Participant 001:


“The other relationship it affected was with
extended family as that relationships pretty
much no longer existed as the communication
wasn’t there.”

Participant 004:
“My relationship with extended family was
probably impacted the most, just because
some people were weird about it and they felt
awkward about it even though I didn’t.”

Participant 002:
“Well a little bit, we did go back and fourth to
my aunts and grandparents houses, so it was
kind of like a big deal for everyone because
they were kinda put in the middle of it, but
other than that, the relationship wasn’t really
affected”

Friends Participant 004:


For my friends I feel like the relationship got
a little difficult because I couldn’t really fully
express what I was feeling when the divorce
was happening, but once I opened up to them
I feel like it got better.

Participant 002:
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“Uhmmm.. my friends, it didn’t really affect
my relationship with them at first because we
were young so I didn’t really know, and not
even they knew really what was going on.”

Participant 001:
“Friends didn’t really understand so it’s hard
to have someone guide you when they don’t
know what it’s like to be going through that.”

Theme: Coping
The theme of coping is a new theme that researchers felt was important to look into as

participants all mentioned different strategies used for coping throughout and post-divorce.

Codes that appear to connect to an overall theme of coping include healthy and unhealthy coping

strategies. The code healthy fits under the theme of coping as all participants reported some

positive coping strategies that they use post-divorce such as going for drives, listening to music,

baking or going to the gym. The code unhealthy fits under the theme of coping as majority of

participants reported some negative coping strategies that they use post-divorce such as smoking

cigarettes or other substances.

Figure 9. Theme: Coping


Healthy Participant 001:
“Okay strategies uhmm, going for drives,
listening to music that makes you happy,
being open with people. It doesn’t always
help but it’s a start, you just gotta keep an
open mind but in regards to dealing with
stressful situations, you gotta take it a day at a
time, it’s the best you can do.”

Participant 002:
“…I go to the gym a lot so I used that as a
stress reliever I guess you can say, but more
so now because when it happened I was too
young. I also played videogames and stuff
like that when I was stressed.”
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Participant 003:
“… many different types of therapies, like
regular ones where you go and sit down and
talk to someone, which I found helpful
because even though you don’t like to talk
about certain things, sometimes these people
know how to talk to you, and its important to
talk about certain things. Its nice to have
people outside the family to talk to about
these things, its important when going
through something to have an outsiders
opinion. Other types of therapy like paint
therapy which I enjoyed where you talk to a
therapist while you paint.”

“Even now when I’m stressed, I like to cook


or bake…. or I do a puzzle on my phone, it
allows me to take a moment to myself. Or I
even colour, I feel like it helps me a lot.”

Participant 004:
“I just take time for myself, like I go to my
room, or go out and drive around, I relax and
watch a movie.”

Participant 005:
“I also enjoy going for drives and listening to
music when I’m stressed.”

Unhealthy Participant 002:


“…I used to smoke cigarettes so that was a
big one for me.”

Participant 003:
“Back then I would also yell and scream, I
didn’t know to deal with stress back then, I
didn’t have strategies, when I was stressed
before people knew to stay out of my way.
Strategies I have now, I smoke a cigarette …I
still have to work on dealing with stressful
situations, I get overwhelmed and anxious.”

Participant 005:
“I began smoking cigarettes as well as
marijuana occasionally.”
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Chapter 6

Discussion

In this section of the discussion, researchers will be making connections from the

findings of the literature review to the results of the current study being examined. Researchers

will discuss pertinent ideas in relation to the lived experiences of adult children who experienced
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parental divorce. These concepts have been organized into headings that consist of the effects of

divorce on the child, relationships and communication. Lastly, the researchers will discuss the

limitations of this study and pose possible recommendations for future research.

Effects of Divorce on the Child

In the literature review, studies show that children who have experienced parental divorce show

a decline in their approach to learning which may influence their motivation academically

(Anthony, Diperna & Amato, 2014). Multiple participants in the current study expressed that

they had poor academic performance after the divorce process. They voiced that their grades

were dropping, they were not motivated to go to school, it was hard for them to focus and some

didn’t care for school work. Previous research also states that aggressive behaviour, depression,

substance abuse and stress may escalate in children due to parental divorce (Short, 2008).

According to the current study’s results, participants reported increased aggression caused by

anger generated from the divorce. Substance use was amplified post-divorce, additionally, the

researchers found that the use of cigarettes was also amplified. Many participants of the current

study also mentioned having increased levels of stress, one stating that she let her stress get the

best of her. For instance, participant 003 stated, “Back then I would also yell and scream, I didn’t

know to deal with stress back then, I didn’t have strategies, when I was stressed before people

knew to stay out of my way. Strategies I have now, I smoke a cigarette …I still have to work on

dealing with stressful situations, I get overwhelmed and anxious.”

Another connection found in the literature review was that children who experienced

parental divorce noticed a negative change in their relationships with a parent post-divorce; pain

was also associated (Milam & Schmidt, 2018). Participants of this study communicated that their

relationship with their father no-longer existed post-divorce or that they were most distanced in
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their relationship. In relation to feelings of pain, a participant desired the opportunity to have a

stronger relationship with the father post-divorce.

Studies have shown that post-divorce, children have the ability to be resilient and

reinforce their own identity and personal relationships, even after the stress that often comes with

parental divorce. All participants displayed resilience and noted some positive changes in

themselves post-divorce. Some changes reported by the participants include more independence,

behavioural changes within the family and the use of positive coping strategies such as cooking,

colouring and keeping an open mind.

Relationships and Communication

All significant relationships surrounding each participant can have a vital role in the

coping process (Du Plooy & Rensburg, 2015). Communication such as expressing feelings and

thoughts form interpersonal connections within the relationships (Du Plooy & Rensburg, 2015).

A participant in the current study stated that she felt very supported by her extended family. She

mentioned that she was able to use that interpersonal connection to have someone to talk to

openly about the divorce. The participant also noted that part of her coping involved going out

and talking with extended family to help understand the situation and hear advice from someone

with experience. Children of parental divorce felt that they were unable to discuss their feelings

and thoughts around divorce to family and friends, which fostered disappointment in the children

(Ängarne-Lindberg, Wadsby, & Berterö, 2009). Post-divorce, the majority of participants in the

current study noted that communication with extended family was minimal or awkward, which

hindered their communication. Researchers stated that the participants also found it uneasy to

speak with their friends about parental divorce. They found it difficult for their friends to

understand the situation seeing as though they have not experienced divorce themselves.
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Through the lack of discussion between parents and their children related to parental

divorce, this triggered children to express feelings of disappointment (Ängarne-Lindberg,

Wadsby, & Berterö, 2009). The researchers of the present study found that the majority of

participants felt that there was no discussion around the divorce and views of the children were

not taken into account. Participants report that when being told of the parental divorce, they did

not have a say and that they felt as though their parents had their minds made up and their

opinion did not matter. When children do not understand the circumstances that lead to parental

divorce, accepting the divorce is more difficult (Dj Maes et al., 2011). In connection to this

finding, a participant of the current study reported that she was happy that her mother took the

time to explain the situation to her, as she felt that was the right thing to do which helped the

participant accept the situation.

Kalmijn (2015) found that the relationship between children and their fathers were

affected in a negative way. As the children grew older the relationship between the father and

child grew more distant as they spent less time together, greater conflict was also a factor in

fostering a negative relationship (Kalmijn, 2015). Participant 002 mentioned that he noticed a

negative change in his relationship with his father as he got older due to the fact that he was now

spending less time with him. However, in contrast to Kalmijn (2015), the majority of the

participants in the current study noted that spending less time with their fathers was related to

positive outcomes in regard to the father-child relationship. This may be due to …? In addition to

what was previously discussed, it has been noted that children overall demonstrate better

behaviour when parents have a positive co-parenting relationship and plan accordingly (Viry &

Gil, 2014). In relation to the current study, one of the participants reported acting out earlier in

the divorce as the parents were still not effectively co-parenting. However, when the parents
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planned a cohesive parenting plan, the participant states that his behaviour improved. Another

participant reported her parents having a successful co-parenting relationship from the beginning

which in turn lead her to report only slight difficulties post divorce.

Strengths and Limitations

Findings of this study may benefit the research community as it can better inform people

working with children how children truly feel and are affected by parental divorce, which may

lead to them creating more effective support programs for them. This research may benefit

society-at-large as the information from this study may lead to people being more informed

about the impact of parental divorce on children.

There are a couple of limitations of the present study that have become apparent

throughout the research process. Researchers may not have gathered the information they have

sought if the interviewee misinterpreted the questions being asked. During the interview

process, the interviewees may have only provided the researchers with information that they

think the researchers wanted to hear. The researchers may have provided additional prompts to

elicit relevant and detailed responses. In regard to recruitment, researchers’ posters did not

display the exclusion criteria which in future should be revised so as to avoid those not meeting

the requirements to participate. To mitigate risks, participants had to have experienced the

divorce more than 5 years prior to the interview, however researchers found that people most

responsive to the posters were currently experiencing parental divorce. Furthermore, some

participants had difficulties recalling the exact events of the parental divorce as it had occurred

many years ago and at a young age. The researchers were unable to mitigate this issue given

constraints of the research ethics board.


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When analyzing data in a qualitative study, it is very time consuming for the researchers

to analyze, code and create general statements of the results. Findings of the study are not

generalizable and cannot be viewed as universal as the data collected is unique to the individuals

being interviewed. In future studies, researchers recommend conducting a triangulation study to

avoid using one method to collect the data.

Recommendations

With regards to the method used for the study, in order to improve future research, the

researchers reccomend including the use of a survey in addition to the interviews in order to

triangulate the findings and make them more generalizable. Additionality, interviewing the

parents of children who have experienced parental divorce may be beneficial as these insights

may provide connections or contrary insight, providing different implications from the child’s

interview. Future research could also conduct a study to examine behavioural changes in children

pre and post divorce. Another recommendation for future research could be to gather additional

information about step-parents and how they may impact a child who has experienced parental

divorce, as this was an interesting but small finding from this study.

In relation to our findings, researchers recommend that parents of children experiencing

parental divorce should openly communicate with their child about the divorce process as

evidence has shown positive outcomes for the children. Due to the stress that may be caused by

the parental divorce, children seem to develop unhealthy coping patterns, it may be beneficial for

practitioners to provide these children with positive coping strategies which in turn may lead to

positive behaviours.

Conclusion
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Researchers presented a number of issues that children face post-divorce, this study

examined the lived experiences of adult children who experienced parental divorce in childhood.

The present study builds on current literature and replicates the findings of previous studies on

the topic of parental divorce. The findings of this literature presented the researchers with both

positive and negative outcomes of parental divorce in regard to behaviour, relationships and

communication. This study suggested that the behaviour of the child depended on the co-

parenting relationship established by the parents. Results indicate that the father child

relationship grew further apart while the mother child relationship seemed to grow closer post-

divorce for majority of participants. A significant finding in regards to communication suggested

that children felt they were not involved in meaning making and desired open communication

throughout the process of the divorce.


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APPENDIX A. Recruitment Poster


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Appendix B: Interview Questions


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Research questions for adult children who have experienced parental divorce:
1. Who informed you about the divorce and how did this person inform you?
a. How do you feel about how they chose to tell you?
2. Tell me about your reaction when you first found out about your parents getting a
divorce?
3. Discuss the extent to which your views were taken into account prior to, and during the
divorce. In what ways? Please explain.
4. If you resided with a parent after the divorce, which parent did you reside with and why?
5. Describe the ways in which the divorce affected your relationships with those close to
you. For example, parents, siblings, friends and extended family.
6. Please explain your experience in regards to your relationship with any step-parent and
how it may have affected the family dynamic? (if applicable)
7. Please explain how the quality of your relationships with your parents has changed since
the divorce.
8. Did you feel supported throughout the process of your parent’s divorce? If yes, how so,
by whom and what types of support did you receive? If no, why not?
9. How do you feel about the quality of your parent’s relationship with each other during
and post-divorce? Please explain.
10. Did you notice any changes in your behavior, emotions or academic performance at the
time of the divorce process, and after the divorce was finalized? Please explain.
11. Please explain some strategies that you use when feeling in distress, or how you deal with
stressful situations.
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Appendix C: Letter of Information

Letter of Information for Interview Study Emailed to Participants


Seneca College
School of ECE
January, 2019
Our names are Samantha Muia and Sarah Sanclimenti. We are fourth year students in the
Honors Bachelor of child development program at Seneca College, King Campus. As part of our
course requirements, we are undertaking a small-scale research study under the supervision of
Professor Jo Ann Iantosca. The study is called A Retrospective Study: Lived experiences of
Adults Exposed to Parental Divorce in Childhood. The purpose of the study is to gather
information about parental divorce, we are seeking to understand the lived experiences of adults
who experienced parental divorce in childhood. As an adult who experienced parental divorce as
a child at least 5 years ago, you are invited to participate in this research study. Please read this
letter and decide whether you would like to participate in this project.
We will be conducting interviews, on an individual basis. The interviews will take place starting
in January 2019. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to answer 11 questions. The
interview will take approximately 50 minutes. This interview can take place at Seneca College
King Campus or at a setting of your choice, whenever it is convenient for you. The interview will
focus on your lived experiences of parental divorce.
You will be asked for permission to audio record the interview to ensure accuracy. If you agree
to be audio recorded, you will have the chance to validate your interview transcript to ensure
accuracy after the recordings have been transcribed. A copy of the transcript will be emailed to
you for review through a secure and encrypted network.
All information collected will be confidential. Your name will be removed from all notes and
transcripts and be replaced with an alpha-numeric code. The master list of names and alpha-
numeric codes will be kept in a separate secure computer file. The consent forms and hard copies
of notes from the interview will be kept in a locked box where it will only be accessible to the
researchers. Secure electronic data files of transcripts will be kept on one of the researcher’s
computer. Hard copies will be shredded and electronic copies will be permanently deleted upon
the completion of the study unless the study is published in which case de-identified electronic
data will be kept indefinitely.
Participation in this study is voluntary. If you choose to participate, you have the option to end
the interview at any time and you have the choice to refuse to answer any of the questions. You
will have the chance to withdraw from the study without explanation or penalty by telling the
researcher if you decide to withdraw during the interview or by contacting one of us by email if
you decide to withdraw later. If you choose to withdraw, all information given by you will be
destroyed within 24 hours.
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Study findings will be based on the entire group of participants and not on individual
participants. Information based on the results of the entire group will be made available to you
electronically after April 2019 following the completion of our course. The findings of the study
will be viewed by our faculty advisor, Jo Ann Iantosca, and may be discussed in a classroom, at
a conference presentation or published. However, the report of the findings will not include your
name or include any identifiable information about you.
There is minimal risk in the study as divorce may be regarded as a traumatic event for some and
they may be at a slight risk of psychological discomfort. If needed, participates are able to visit
Counselling Services at Seneca King Campus in Garriock Hall room 2118. There is also a youth
helpline if services are needed for participants, they may call 778-783-0177. There is no
compensation for participating in the present research study. This research study has the potential
to benefit the participants as it gives them someone to talk to as our research found that many
children of parental divorce feel as if they have no one to talk to and it can give them insight into
their childhood experiences with divorced parents. This study can benefit individuals who are
experiencing divorce as it can help them when making decisions and choices regarding the
children and will benefit the research community as it can better inform people working with
children how children truly feel and are affected by parental divorce, which may lead to them
creating more effective support programs for them. The research will benefit society-at-large as
the information from this study may lead to people being more informed about the impact of
divorce on children.
This research study has been reviewed and received clearance by the Seneca College Research
Ethics Board. If you have any questions about this process or about your rights as a participant in
the study, contact Seneca’s Research Ethics Board at REB@senecacollege.ca. If you have any
other questions about this study or about your participation, feel free to contact our faculty
advisor, Jo Ann Iantosca who can be reached through email: jo-ann.iantosca@senecacollege.ca
or phone (416)-491-5050 ext. 26768.
If you agree to participate in this study, contact me by reply email to set up the interview at a
time that is convenient for you. As well, print and sign two copies of the attached consent form. I
will pick up the signed consent at the time of the interview.
Sincerely,
Student Researcher(s)
Samantha Muia
Email: smuia@myseneca.ca
And
Sarah Sanclimenti
Email: scsanclimenti@myseneca.ca
Seneca College
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Primary Faculty Supervisor:
Jo Ann Iantosca
Email: jo-ann.iantosca@senecacollege.ca
Work Phone (416)-491-5050 ext. 26768
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Appendix D: Consent Form (Participant Copy)
Consent Form (Participant Copy)

I have received a copy of the Invitation to Participate for the research project entitled A
Retrospective Study: Lived experiences of Adults Exposed to Parental Divorce in
Childhood, I have had an opportunity to read the information provided and any questions that I
may have had have been answered.
I agree to participate in this research project, understanding that I am doing so voluntarily,
that confidentiality will be maintained, that I may choose not to answer to any of the questions,
and that I have the right to withdraw from the study using the means outlined above.

Circle one:

I agree to participate in this study: Yes No

I agree to be audio-recorded: Yes No

Print Name:________________________________________

Signature:______________________________________ Date: _____________

E-mail Address (for transcripts and report).______________________________


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Appendix E: Consent Form (Researcher Copy)
Consent Form (Researcher Copy)

I have received a copy of the Invitation to Participate for the research project entitled A
Retrospective Study: Lived experiences of Adults Exposed to Parental Divorce in
Childhood, I have had an opportunity to read the information provided and any questions that I
may have had have been answered.
I agree to participate in this research project, understanding that I am doing so voluntarily,
that confidentiality will be maintained, that I may choose not to answer to any of the questions,
and that I have the right to withdraw from the study using the means outlined above.

Circle one:

I agree to participate in this study: Yes No

I agree to be audio-recorded: Yes No

Print Name:________________________________________

Signature:______________________________________ Date: _____________

E-mail Address (for transcripts and report)._______________________


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Appendix F: REB Letter of Approval

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