CHEM 205 sections 01 & 02

LECTURES #7-8 Sept.28-Oct.1, 2010

ASSIGNED READINGS:
THIS WEEK: Finish Chapter 2

NEXT WEEK: Start Chapter 3

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 CHAPTER 2: ATOMS & ELEMENTS
2.1 Atomic Structure: e-s, p+s, nos
2.2 Atomic Number & Atomic Mass
2.3 Isotopes
2.4 Atomic Weight
2.5 The Periodic Table
2.6 Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas
2.7 Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names and Properties
2.8 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
2.9 Atoms, Molecules, and the Mole
2.10 Describing Compound Formulas
2.11 Hydrated Compounds

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 2.8 Molecular compounds:
Formulas, Names and Properties
 Atoms bound together by covalent bonds
 Molecular compounds generally contain only nonmetals
• Molecules containing transition metals are very interesting…
…but we won’t see them in Chem205

Some
“hydrocarbons”

CO2 Carbon dioxide

BCl3
boron
trichloride

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Molecular compounds: Properties (Phys. & Chem.)

 Depend on degree of attraction between individual

molecules…
• Compared to electrostatic interactions between ions,
intermolecular interactions are quite weak
• Learn more about this near end of course…& Chem206

 Unlike ionic compounds: highly variable properties

 gases, liquids, solids...

More common for larger/heavier molecules

 because of heavier atoms and/or larger # of atoms

 Even though atoms in molecules usually have full valence

shell, molecules can still be very reactive!
• E.g., halogens: F2, Cl2… would rather share e-s unequally
or better yet, not at all (ions)
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Binary Covalent Compounds = between 2 nonmetals

NAMING: in order seen in formula

Prefix Means...
 1st element: named first, same as cations mono 1
 2nd element: named same as anion (… but isn’t)
di 2
Differences from ionic compound names tri 3
 Can’t deduce #s via neutrality (…no ions!) tetra 4
 Must specify #s of atoms using prefixes penta 5
 Exception: don’t use mono- for 1st element hexa 6
NOR when 1 is the only option hepta 7
octa 8
P2O5 diphosphorus pentoxide
nona 9
NO2
deca 10
CO
HBr hydrogen bromide (= a gas)
H can only form 1 bond  could only be 1 Br  omit ‘mono’

Note: When hydrogen halide gases are dissolved in water  ACIDS

(5) named as “hydrohalic acids” due to striking properties
GENERAL STRATEGY FOR
NAMING COMPOUNDS
“first things first” FORMULA
NM + NM M + NM (or NH4…)

MOLECULAR IONIC
1st is H 1st is not H

ACID SYSTEMATIC SYSTEMATIC No

NAMING NAMING prefixes

No O Contains O
polyatomic
Name
Hydro- Oxoanion Name 1st + prefix cation metal ion
+ root element if >1
1st
element +
root -ate  +ic Only specify
+ -ite  +ous charge if
variable
-ic acid + (transition
acid metals)

only when even when Name 2nd + prefix

compound compound element even if only 1, Name polyatomic
is dissolved is “neat” as an but not if can anion
(aqueous) (not dissolved) “anion” ONLY be 1 2nd nonmetal ion
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ON YOUR OWN: practice names/formulae of compounds
IONIC or
NAME THESE: MOLECULAR?

CaCO3 limestone

N2O laughing gas

Fe(OH)3 a component of rust

Ca3(PO4)2 mineral component of bone

ClO2 a disinfectant

PROVIDE FORMULAE FOR:

sodium cyanide
xenon hexafluoride
copper(II) nitrate
carbon disulfide
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 NEXT: practical details

How to determine chemical formulae…

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Formulae & molar masses of compounds
 Molar mass (MM or M ) = mass (g) of one mole of substance
• ionic compounds: MM also called formula weight, Fw
• molecular cmpds: MM also called molecular weight, Mw
 To calculate MM: use chemical formula = mole ratio of elements in cmpd
• add up atomic masses for each element, scaling up for #moles of each
element in 1 mole of compound (based on formula)

CLICKER Q: Find molar mass (formula weight) of Ca(NO3)2

A. 70.086 g/mol
B. 102.085 g/mol
C. 150.083 g/mol Another example:
D. 164.090 g/mol confirm on your
own: Caffeine
E. 204.170 g/mol
C8H10N4O2
MM = 194.201 g/mol

(9) NEXT: How to experimentally determine formulas…

How do we find elemental composition by exp’t?
Exploit a known reaction
• start with known mass of reactant See details
• measure mass of products formed in Ch.4
• deduce % mass of each element in reactant

Commonly used for organic compounds (contain mostly C&H):

• Burn organic sample in O2:converts C to CO2
H to H2O
• Determine mass  of absorbers

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Zumdahl’s Fig. 3.5: A schematic diagram of a combustion analyzer
Formulae of compounds: describing composition

Mass % = masselement-A in sample x 100%

masstotal of sample

experiment calculate

Mole % = moleselement-A in sample x 100% Formula

molestotal-atoms in sample

If formula known: Iron in iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3

 MM = (2 x 55.845g/mol Fe)+ (3 x 15.999g/mol O) = 159.69 g/mol

 mass % Fe: 111.69 g Fe per mole Fe2O3 x 100% = 69.94%

159.69 g total per mole Fe2O3

 mole % Fe: 2 moles Fe per mole Fe2O3 x 100% = 40%

5 moles (Fe+O) per mole Fe2O3
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EXAMPLE: What is the formula for Aspirin?
Given: Elemental Analysis data: 60.0% C, 4.4% H, 35.6% O
Molar mass measurement (for expt, see Chem206): ~ 180 g/mol

Mass % Mass in MM Moles Ratio Whole #

100 g (g/mol) ratio
60.0% C
60.0 g 12.01 5.00 2.24 8.96

4.4% H 4.4 g 1.00 4.4 1.97 7.88

35.6% O 35.6 g 16.00 2.23 1.00 4.00

Sample calculations, for carbon:

Ratio: Normalize Whole # ratio:
Mass of C Moles of C: to least abundant multiply all ratios
in 100g sample: element by same integer
60.0g .
60.0% x 100.0g #mol C = 5.00 coefficient, to
12.01 g/mol
= 0.600 x 100.0g #mol O 2.23 convert all to
= 5.00 mol = 2.24 whole #s
=(12)
60.0 g.
EXAMPLE: What is the formula for Aspirin?
Given: Elemental Analysis data: 60.0% C, 4.4% H, 35.6% O
Molar mass measurement: approx. 180 g/mol
Mass % Mass in MM Moles Ratio Whole #
100 g (g/mol) ratio
60.0% C 60.0 g 12.01 5.00 2.24 8.96

4.4% H 4.4 g 1.00 4.4 1.97 7.88

35.6% O 35.6 g 16.00 2.23 1.00 4.00

H O Rounds to: C9H8O4

H C C
C C OH
“Empirical” MM = 180.17 g/mol
C C
H C O Matches experimental MM
H C
 Molecular formula = C9H8O4
O CH 3
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Empirical Formula Determination: Strategy
Given: elemental composition data
Goal: find mole ratio of elements present

1. Determine mass of each element in your sample.

• if given mass % data, but no sample mass: use 100 g
• if given mass of each product formed: see Ch.4…

2. Determine #moles of each element in your sample.

3. Normalize the mole data:

divide each mole value by the least abundant element’s value
 gives MOLE RATIO of elements, relative to one of them.

4. Scale to whole numbers:

multiply each normalized mole value by the smallest integer
(SAME FOR ALL!) that yields a whole number for each element.

 RESULT: smallest whole number mole ratio of elements

= empirical formula.
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Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)n
 Empirical formula = simplest mole ratio from exp’tal mass % data
• fine for ionic cmpds, BUT molecular formulae NOT ALWAYS same
 Need: experiment to directly measure MM (see Chem 206)
 Calculate ratio, n: MM (measured by experiment)
MM (empirical formula weight)
 Multiply empirical formula by “n” to find molecular formula

CLICKER Q: Determine the molecular formula of…

A. CH2O A particular kind of sugar was found via elemental analysis
B. C6H2O to have an empirical formula of CH2O (typical carbohydrate).
C. C6H12O6 A separate experiment determined its molar mass to be
180.158 g/mol. What is the sugar’s molecular formula?
D. C10H4O2

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2.11 Hydrated compounds: dry but contain water
 WATER (?!): trapped in crystals if ionic solids pptd from aqueous sol’n
“hygroscopic” substances absorb H2O molecules from air
 HOW MUCH: # of H2O’s/mole substance varies between substances:
represented by MmEn x H2O  a hydrated
compound
water contributes significantly to sample’s mass (& MM)!
 REMOVAL: waters of hydration driven off by heating
can find x (normally an integer) by monitoring loss of mass
RED/PINK CoCl2 x H2O(s)
Hydrated cobalt(II) chloride

BLUE CoCl2(s)
“Anhydrous”
cobalt(II) chloride
How many waters of
hydration were
there?
(must do expts…)
(16) Fig. 3.17
CLICKER Q: Determining waters of hydration
A 3.450 g sample of hydrated cobalt chloride, CoCl2· x H2O, is dried to
constant mass in an oven. When the anhydrous salt is removed from the
oven, its mass is 1.883 g.
CoCl2·x H2O(s)  CoCl2(s) + x H2O(g)
What is the value of x?

A. 8
B. 6
C. 4
D. 2
E. 0

(17) Note: on exams, full calculations must be shown.

Another approach: What is x in CoCl2xH2O ?
Given: Elemental Analysis data: 24.77% Co, 29.80% Cl
Rest must be H2O!

Mass % Mass in MM Moles Ratio Whole #

100 g (g/mol) ratio
24.77% Co 24.77 58.93 0.4203 1.000 1

29.80% Cl 29.80 35.45 0.8406 2.000 2

45.43% H2O 45.43 18.02 2.521 6.000 6

Formula: CoCl26H2O
Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate

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Ch.3: Chemical Reactions

3.1 Introduction to Chemical Equations

Chapter Goals:
3.2 Balancing Chemical Equations
• Balance equations
3.3 Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium • Chemical equilibrium
• Ionic substances in water
3.4 Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solution
• Common acids and bases
3.5 Ions and Molecules in Aqueous Solution • Reactions in aqueous
solutions
3.6 Precipitation Reactions
• Write chemical equations
3.7 Acids and Bases • Oxidizing and Reducing
agents
3.8 Gas-forming reactions
3.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
3.10 Classifying Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions

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3.1 Reactions follow conservation of mass

John Dalton: “Chemical change involves a reorganization of

the atoms in one or more substances.”

 Antoine Lavoisier: “Matter can neither be

(18th century) created nor destroyed.”

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER

applies during chemical reactions:
Total # atoms of each element
is the SAME in reactants and products
 Two sides of chemical equations are
“balanced” atom-by-atom
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 3.2 Balancing chemical equations
Symbolic representation of a chemical reaction:
1 CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)  1 CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

“stoichiometric coefficients” Physical states of

indicate mole ratio in which substances also
substances react & form usually indicated

Summarizes many ways to think about what’s happening:

Zumdahl’s

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CLICKER Q: Consider a rusting nail…
Imagine you place an iron nail into an open beaker containing
acidic water, which makes the nail gradually rust. Note: rust is
composed of iron (III) oxide and iron (III) hydroxide.
You then remove the nail from the water, and all of the rust
remains attached to the nail’s surface.
Is the nail lighter, heavier, or the same as before it rusted?

A. lighter
B. same mass
C. heavier

 Explain briefly in words.

 Write an equation to explain the formation of iron (III) oxide.

(The rxn that forms iron (III) hydroxide is harder to predict.)
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Chemical equations can be balanced “by inspection”
 START: find easiest element (in one species on each side…)
 Balance its “partner” next
 Hop LOGICALLY back & forth, from reactants to products,
from one element to the next
Method of making sodium sulfate on industrial scale:
(it is used in paper manufacturing)
1/
__NaCl(aq) + __SO2(g) + __H2O(aq) + __O
2 1 1 2 2(g)

1
 __Na 2
2SO4(aq) + __HCl(aq)

Oxygen: products = 4 O’s total (atoms…or moles…)

Too hard!
reactants = 3Appears
 needin1so many
more species…O
only…from 2
Choose another easy one…
 SO: need “half” an O2
 remember, really means ½ a MOLE!

2 NaCl(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(aq) + 1/

2 O2(g)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2 HCl(aq)
Or, avoid fractions by multiplying all coefficients by denominator:
NaCl(aq)
4(23) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(aq) + O2(g)  2Na2SO4(aq) + 4 HCl(aq)
Always verify that final equation is actually balanced
 Fool-proof check:
tabulate # atoms / element in reactants vs. products

2 NaCl(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(aq) + 1/

2 O2(g)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2 HCl(aq)
Or, to avoid fractions:
4NaCl(aq) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(aq) + O2(g)  2Na2SO4(aq) + 4 HCl(aq)

Element # atoms in reactants # atoms in products

 Na 4x1 = 4 2x2 = 4
 Cl 4x1 = 4 4x1 = 4
 S 2x1 = 2 2x1 = 2
 O (2x2)+(2x1)+(1x2) = 8 2x4 = 8
 H 2x2 = 4 4x1 = 4

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CLICKER Q: Reactions always conserve matter

A protective film of an extremely hard compound is

deposited onto cutting tools using this reaction at 1000°C:
__TiCl4(g) + __BCl3(g) + __H2 (g)  __TiB2(s) + __HCl(g)
What coefficients are needed to balance this equation?

A. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1
B. 1, 2, 1, 1, 2
C. 1, 2, 2, 1, 4
D. 1, 2, 5, 1, 10
ON YOUR OWN: Write balanced equations for these rxns
Sodium hypochlorite (a bleaching agent) is produced by treating an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide with gaseous chlorine. The products
of the reaction are sodium hypochlorite, sodium chloride and water.

Sulfuric acid, H2SO4(l), can be formed via the reaction of sulfur dioxide
gas, oxygn gas and water (liquid).

Combustion of butane:
__C4H10(g) + __O2(g)  __CO2(g) + __H2O(l )

Industrial formation of elemental phosphorus:

__Ca3(PO4)2(s) + __SiO2(s) + __C(s)  __CaSiO3(s) + __P4(s ) +__ CO(g)

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 3.3 Chemical Equilibrium
• Chemical reactions are reversible
reversible..
• Ammonia can be produced from the elements in the Haber
process
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
• But NH3 can also be decomposed to the elements
2 NH3(g) N2(g
(g)) + 3 H2(g)
• In a process to make NH3, the reaction can come eventually
to equilibrium.
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
• Double arrows indicate equilibrium