History of anatomy 1

History of anatomy
The development of anatomy as a science extends from the earliest
examinations of sacrificial victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body
performed by modern scientists. It has been characterized, over time, by a
continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in
the body. The field of Human Anatomy has a prestigious history, and is
considered to be the most prominent of the biological sciences of the 19th and
early 20th centuries. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from
examination of animals through dissection of cadavers to technologically
complex techniques developed in the 20th century [1] .

Anatomy is one of the cornerstones of a doctor’s medical education. Despite

being a persistent portion of teaching from at least the renaissance, the format
Maya bust
and the amount of information being taught has evolved and changed along with
the demands of the profession. What is being taught today may differ in content
significantly from the past but the methods used to teach this have not really changed that much. For example all the
famous public dissections of the Middle Ages and early renaissance were in fact prosections. Prosection is the
direction in which many current medical schools are heading in order to aid the teaching of anatomy and some argue
that dissection is better. However looking at results of post graduate exams, medical schools (specifically
Birmingham) that use prosection as opposed to dissection do very well in these examinations [2] . This would suggest
that prosection can fit very well into the structure of modern medical training.

Ancient anatomy
Charaka is referred to as the Father of Anatomy.

Egypt
The study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BCE, the date of the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. This
treatise shows that the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder were recognized,
and that the blood vessels were known to emanate from the heart. Other vessels are described, some carrying air,
some mucus, and two to the right ear are said to carry the "breath of life", while two to the left ear the "breath of
death". The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a treatise on the heart. It notes that the heart is the center of the
blood supply, with vessels attached for every member of the body. The Egyptians seem to have known little about
the function of the kidneys and made the heart the meeting point of a number of vessels which carried all the fluids
of the body – blood, tears, urine and sperm.[3]

Greece
The earliest medical scientist of whose works any great part survives today is Hippocrates, a Greek physician active
in the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE (460 - 377 BCE). His work demonstrates a basic understanding of
musculoskeletal structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain organs, such as the kidneys.
Much of his work, however, and much of that of his students and followers later, relies on speculation rather than
empirical observation of the body. One of the greatest achievements of Hippocrates was that he was the first to
discover the tricuspid valve of the heart and its function which he documented in the treatise On the Heart in the
Hippocratic Corpus. Later anatomists knew the function of the tricuspid valve after reading the Hippocratic Corpus.
In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle and several contemporaries produced a more empirically founded system, based
animal dissection. Around this time, Praxagoras is credited as the first to identify the difference between arteries and
History of anatomy 2

veins, and the relations between organs are described more accurately than in previous works.
The first use of human cadavers for anatomical research occurred later in the 4th century BCE when Herophilos and
Erasistratus gained permission to perform live dissections, or vivisection, on criminals in Alexandria under the
auspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Herophilos in particular developed a body of anatomical knowledge much more
informed by the actual structure of the human body than previous works had been.

Galen
The final major anatomist of ancient times was Galen, active in the 2nd century. He compiled much of the
knowledge obtained by previous writers, and furthered the inquiry into the function of organs by performing
vivisection on animals. Due to a lack of readily available human specimens, discoveries through animal dissection
were broadly applied to human anatomy as well. His collection of drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became
the anatomy textbook for 1500 years. The original text is long gone, and his work was only known to the
Renaissance doctors through the careful custody of Arabic medicine.

Medieval anatomy
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the study of anatomy became stagnant in Christian Europe but flourished in the
medieval Islamic world, where Muslim physicians and Muslim scientists contributed heavily to medieval learning
and culture. The Persian physician Avicenna (980-1037) absorbed the Galenic teachings on anatomy and expanded
on them in The Canon of Medicine (1020s), which was very influential throughout the Islamic world and Christian
Europe. The Canon remained the most authoritative book on anatomy in the Islamic world until Ibn al-Nafis in the
13th century, though the book continued to dominate European medical education for even longer until the 16th
century.
The Arabian physician Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091–1161) was the first physician known to have carried out human
dissections and postmortem autopsy. He proved that the skin disease scabies was caused by a parasite, a discovery
which upset the theory of humorism supported by Hippocrates and Galen. The removal of the parasite from the
patient's body did not involve purging, bleeding, or any other traditional treatments associated with the four
humours.[4] In the 12th century, Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay was also one of the first to undertake human
dissections, and he made an explicit appeal for other physicians to do so as well. During a famine in Egypt in 1200,
Abd-el-latif observed and examined a large number of skeletons, and he discovered that Galen was incorrect
regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw and sacrum.[5]

Ibn al-Nafis
The Arabian physician Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) was one of the earliest proponents of human dissection and
postmortem autopsy, and in 1242, he was the first to describe the pulmonary circulation[6] and coronary circulation[7]
of the blood, which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered the father of the theory of
circulation.[8] Ibn al-Nafis also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[9] and developed new systems of
anatomy and physiology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic doctrines, while discrediting many of their erroneous
theories on the four humours, pulsation,[10] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus,
stomach, and the anatomy of almost every other part of the human body.[11]
History of anatomy 3

Early modern anatomy

The works of Galen and Avicenna, especially The Canon of Medicine
which incorporated the teachings of both, were translated into Latin,
and the Canon remained the most authoritative text on anatomy in
European medical education until the 16th century. The first major
development in anatomy in Christian Europe, since the fall of Rome,
occurred at Bologna in the 14th to 16th centuries, where a series of
authors dissected cadavers and contributed to the accurate description
of organs and the identification of their functions. Prominent among
these anatomists were Mondino de Liuzzi and Alessandro Achillini.

The first challenges to the Galenic doctrine in Europe occurred in the

16th century. Thanks to the printing press, all over Europe a collective
effort proceeded to circulate the works of Galen and Avicenna, and
later publish criticisms on their works. Vesalius was the first to publish
a treatise, De humani corporis fabrica, that challenged Galen "drawing
for drawing" travelling all the way from Leuven[12] to Padua for
permission to dissect victims from the gallows without fear of
persecution. His drawings are triumphant descriptions of the, In this 1559 anatomical plate by Juan Valverde de
sometimes major, discrepancies between dogs and humans, showing Amusco, a figure holds a knife in one hand and
superb drawing ability. Many later anatomists challenged Galen in his own skin in the other.

their texts, though Galen reigned supreme for another century.

A succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of anatomical knowledge, giving their names to a number
of anatomical structures along the way. The 16th and 17th centuries also witnessed significant advances in the
understanding of the circulatory system, as the purpose of valves in veins was identified, the left-to-right ventricle
flow of blood through the circulatory system was described, and the hepatic veins were identified as a separate
portion of the circulatory system. The lymphatic system was also identified as a separate system at this time.

17th and 18th centuries

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, by Rembrandt, depicts an
autopsy.
though, led to rumors about anatomy murder.
The study of anatomy flourished in the 17th and 18th
centuries. The advent of the printing press facilitated
the exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomy
concerned observation and drawings, the popularity of
the anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing
talents, and one need not be an expert in Latin to take
part. [13] Many famous artists studied anatomy,
attended dissections, and published drawings for
money, from Michelangelo to Rembrandt. For the first
time, prominent universities could teach something
about anatomy through drawings, rather than relying on
knowledge of Latin. Contrary to popular belief,the
church neither objected to nor obstructed anatomical
research despite its antagonism towards other scientific
practices.[14] . The increase in demand for cadavers,
History of anatomy 4

Only certified anatomists were allowed to perform dissections, and sometimes then only yearly. These dissections
were sponsored by the city councilors and often charged an admission fee, rather like a circus act for scholars. Many
European cities, such as Amsterdam, London, Copenhagen, Padua, and Paris, all had Royal anatomists (or some
such office) tied to local government. Indeed, Nicolaes Tulp was Mayor of Amsterdam for three terms. Though it
was a risky business to perform dissections, and unpredictable depending on the availability of fresh bodies,
attending dissections was perfectly legal. Many anatomy students traveled around Europe from dissection to
dissection during the course of their study - they had to go where a fresh body was available (e.g. after a hanging)
because before refrigeration, a body would decay rapidly and become unsuitable for examination.
Many Europeans interested in the study of anatomy traveled to Italy, then the center of anatomy. Only in Italy could
certain important research methods be used, such as dissections on women. M. R. Columbus and Gabriele Falloppio
were pupils of Vesalius, the 16th century anatomist. Columbus, as his immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards
professor at Rome, distinguished himself by rectifying and improving the anatomy of the bones, by giving correct
accounts of the shape and cavities of the heart, of the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the
course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart, by a good description of the brain and its vessels, and
by correct understanding of the internal ear, and the first good account of the ventricles of the larynx. Osteology at
nearly the same time found an assiduous cultivator in Giovanni Filippo Ingrassias.

19th century anatomy

During the 19th century, anatomists largely finalised and systematised
the descriptive human anatomy of the previous century. The discipline
also progressed to establish growing sources of knowledge in histology
and developmental biology, not only of humans but also of animals.
Extensive research was conducted in more areas of anatomy. Great
Britain was particularly important in this research. Demand for
cadavers grew so great there that body-snatching and even anatomy
murder came into use as a means of obtaining them.[15] In response,
the English Parliament passed the Anatomy Act 1832, which finally
provided for an adequate and legitimate supply of corpses by allowing
dissection of destitutes. The relaxed restrictions on dissection provided
A plate of the skull from the 1918 edition of
a suitable environment for Gray's Anatomy, a text that was a collective Gray's Anatomy
effort and became widely popular. Now seen as unwieldy, Gray's
Anatomy was born out of a need to create a single volume on anatomy for the traveling doctor.

The shift from the largely public displays of dissection in anatomy theatres to dissections carried out in classrooms
meant that there was a drastic change in who could observe a dissection. Females for example, who at this time were
not allowed to attend medical school, could broaden their knowledge by attending the anatomy theatres. So the shift
from prosection to dissection meant a reduction in the number of people that could benefit from a single cadaver. At
this point as well tighter regulation of the medical profession and donations of bodies resulted in various implications
for carrying out dissections. Private medical schools which offered summer schools and various other courses
involving cadaveric dissection allowed one route into gaining membership to the Royal College of Surgeons.
However from 1822 the Royal College of surgeons would no longer accept these qualifications, this as result would
see these largely unregulated schools begin to close [16] . Not only as a result of this, but the Anatomy Act 1832
made it much harder (more bureaucracy) to obtain bodies for dissection. The act resulted in only the large teaching
hospitals feasibly being able to continue teaching anatomy courses due to agreements with patients that if they
donated their body they would receive free treatment. So towards the end of 19th century anatomy courses had been
largely professionalised at established medical schools and public dissection was no longer common place.
History of anatomy 5

Another source of anatomy teaching began with the foundation of many medical schools (particularly within the
provincial medical schools) and the medical museums found within them. A large portion of training occurred within
these up until and for some time after the Second World War. The medical museum was very important and a lot of
effort was put into creating something impressive. This was particularly so in provincial medical schools which were
just being established that needed credibility not only from other medical schools (namely Oxford and the London
teaching hospitals) but also from the public. The museums were not only for students but also members of the public
paid to see the exhibits within the museum. This brought not only much needed income but prestige as well [17] . The
more exhibits within the museum the more established the medical school appeared to be (at least to the public).
Significant amounts of teaching occurred in the museum as well with students claiming they learnt far more in the
museum than they ever did in the lecture theatre. The decline of the museums within medical schools was largely
due to the demand in floor space for teaching and new disciplines and less importantly the great improvements in
photography and colour texts. For example the museum at Birmingham Medical School is now a computer cluster
and teaching rooms, the only remains of the museum are the preserved specimens decorating the walls around the
computer cluster.

Modern anatomy
Anatomical research in the past hundred years has taken advantage of technological developments and growing
understanding of sciences such as evolutionary and molecular biology to create a thorough understanding of the
body's organs and structures. Disciplines such as endocrinology have explained the purpose of glands that anatomists
previously could not explain; medical devices such as MRI machines and CAT scanners have enabled researchers to
study the organs of living people or of dead ones. Progress today in anatomy is centered in the development,
evolution, and function of anatomical features, as the macroscopic aspects of human anatomy have been largely
catalogued. The subfield of non-human anatomy is particularly active as modern anatomists seek to understand basic
organizing principles of anatomy through the use of advanced techniques ranging from finite element analysis to
molecular biology.
With increasing demands on the healthcare system and what could be deemed chronic under-training of doctors
(numbers of doctors per capita compared to other industrialised countries) during the latter half of the 20th century,
medical schools are now facing massive pressure to train as many doctors as possible. This has meant in recent years
cohort sizes have doubled and more in size, in order to try and meet the demand. This has resulted in increased
pressure of the facilities at all medical schools in the country. Anatomy is one department in particular that has had
to evolve to accommodate the number of students. At Birmingham dissection was once essential to the teaching of
anatomy but since the end of the 1980s the medical school has adopted prosection over dissection. At the time new
directives from the General Medical Council (GMC) on the direction medical education was the major factor
according the current head of anatomy. There are also many other reasons why prosection maybe favoured
(discussed below). It has probably now become near impossible to restart dissection at Birmingham even if one
wanted to. This is due to the fact that current prosection uses a very similar number of cadavers as dissection
previously did. If dissection was to be brought back the number of cadavers would be very large due the current
cohort size. To increase provision of prosection the medical school is currently investing in the region of
£800,000-900,000 on a new prosectorium. This will allow up to about 40 students to observe prosected material in
any one session. The vast amount of money required just to increase the amount of prosection demonstrates that it is
no longer possible to carry out dissection at Birmingham (and is the case for many other universities). Prosection
makes more efficient use of a cadaver when compared to dissection. A single cadaver when dissecting would be used
by up to 5 students whereas prosection allows if necessary and entire cohort to observe the prosected cadaver.
Prosection also allows students to observe more than one cadaver whereas in dissection you would tend to just use a
single one. Logistically prosection allows more flexibility than dissection as there is no commitment to provide a
cadaver per a certain number of students, this in fact create opportunities for cadavers to be used, for example at
Birmingham, for Special Study Modules (SSMs) and postgraduate teaching.
History of anatomy 6

Also there are many more aids to teaching anatomy then merely the prosectorium; improvements over the last
century in colour images and photographs means that an anatomy text is no longer an aid to dissection but rather a
central material to learn from. Plastic models are also regularly used in anatomy teaching sessions and they offer a
good substitute to the real thing. One argument against plastic models is that they may provide a false sense of
conformity in the human body; there is no doubt quite a difference between a plastic model and a prosected cadaver.
Use of living models for anatomy demonstration is once again becoming popular within teaching of anatomy.
Anatomy is dynamic, for example the anatomy of the musculoskeletal system is by definition the anatomy of
movement. So to provide an example of this to the audience (students) and be able to demonstrate the possible
movements is beneficial. Surface landmarks that can be palpated on another individual also provide practice for
future clinical situations. It is possible to do this on oneself and a good example of this being implemented is
Integrated Biology at the University of Berkeley; students are encouraged to “introspect” [18] on themselves and link
what they are being taught to their own body. This may seem like a relatively obvious idea but to formally link it into
teaching of anatomy should aid memory recall [16] .
Donations of bodies have also declined in recent years with a marked decline of public confidence in the medical
profession. With scandals such as Alder hay and Bristol, people are less confident that their wishes on what will
happen to their body will be carried out, so instead have not donated to medical science when in the past they may
have [19] . The resultant legislation from these scandals (namely the Human Tissue Act 2004) has tightened up the
availability of resources to anatomy departments. Another factor facing body donations is the problems arising from
the outbreaks of Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis (BSE) in the late 80s and early 90s and the restrictions of handling
of brain tissue that resulted from this. The exact pathology of the human form, variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
(vCJD) has meant that patients donating their body who suffered from Alzheimer’s or dementia and of course vCJD
means their brains cannot be handled. As the method of transmission of these diseases and the link between them
(i.e. is Alzheimer’s vCJD and vice versa) is not fully understood these precautions have to be taken [20] . Very
symptomatic patients are also not normally accepted for cadavers [16] . However this means that students are more
limited on what they can dissect within the head, this is particularly a problem in medical schools where dissection is
still carried out. It is less of a problem where prosection is carried out as the specimen will have already been
dissected.

Conclusion
Anatomy teaching has changed considerably over the last 1000 years though it is still very much at the heart of the
philosophy of western medicine. Western medicine seeks to find a cause to all disease and attempt to cure it; very
much cause and effect. Without a good understanding of the arrangement of the human body then this becomes
somewhat challenging. Western medicine is in fact taking a more holistic approach today, with the psychosocial
biomedical model of disease. However most practicing doctors if it was proven that there was a biological cause to
all the various idiopathic diseases then they would readily adapt their thoughts and treatments accordingly. Anatomy
is often regarded as being little left to discover, in that we know what and where most of the body is and does, but
there is still many mysteries left to work out. Public awareness of anatomy cannot be detrimental if it sparks interest
in the discipline. The recent controversies with Gunther von Hagens and public displays of dissection may divide
opinions on what is ethical (even the legality of a public dissection) [21] but this surely at least gets people thinking
about how doctors learn anatomy and why in some it inspires them to pursue a career. The future of dissection may
be uncertain and indeed if pressure on cadavers continues even the few medical schools that continue to do
dissection may have to halt. This hopefully however will not reduce the number of people able to benefit from a
single cadaver if current prosection methods become the prevalent method of demonstrating gross anatomy.
History of anatomy 7

Notes
[1] Hak'''''Italic text'''''im Syed Zillur Rahman. Tarikh llm Tashrih [An extensive Book in Urdu on History of anatomy] (1967), Tibbi Academy,
Delhi, Second revised edition 2009 (ISBN 978-81-906070-), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences, Aligarh
[2] Skelton, J. 2008. CAWC (Curriculum and Welfare Committee) Meet the Dean Q&A session- year 2 students. Birmingham Medical School,
25 February 2008. Available at: http:/ / medsoc. bham. ac. uk/ cawc/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=71:2ndyrQ&
Asession& catid=42:feedbackQAdean& Itemid=61 [accessed 22 April 2008].
[3] Porter (1997), pp49-50
[4] Islamic medicine (http:/ / encyclopedia. farlex. com/ Islamic+ medicine), Hutchinson Encyclopedia.
[5] Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 3, p. 903-962
[951-952]. Routledge, London and New York.
[6] S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", The Lancet 1, p. 1148.
[7] Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", Journal of the
International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 1, p. 22–28.
[8] Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].
[9] Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic
Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher (http:/ / www. islamset. com/ isc/ nafis/ drroubi. html),
Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
[10] Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the
Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", p. 3 & 6, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. (http:/ / etd. nd. edu/ ETD-db/
theses/ available/ etd-11292006-152615)
[11] Dr. Sulaiman Oataya (1982), "Ibn ul Nafis has dissected the human body", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on
Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn ul-Nafis has Dissected the Human Body (http:/ / www. islamset. com/ isc/
nafis/ index. html), Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
[12] Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (http:/ / www. kuleuven. ac. be/ english/ )
[13] http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ dreamanatomy/ da_info. html
[14] Howse, Christopher (10 June 2009). "The myth of the anatomy lesson" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ comment/ columnists/
christopherhowse/ 5496340/ False-myth-of-the-anatomy-lesson. html). The Daily Telegraph (London). . Retrieved 4 May 2010.
[15] Rosner, Lisa. 2010. The Anatomy Murders. Being the True and Spectacular History of Edinburgh's Notorious Burke and Hare and of the
Man of Science Who Abetted Them in the Commission of Their Most Heinous Crimes. University of Pennsylvania Press
[16] McLachlan, J. & Patten, D. 2006. Anatomy teaching: ghosts of the past, present and future. Medical Education, 40(3), p.243-53.
[17] Reinarz, J. 2005. The age of museum medicine: The rise and fall of the medical museum at Birmingham's School of Medicine. Social
History of Medicine, 18(3), p. 419-37.
[18] Diamond M. 2005. Integrative Biology 131 - Lecture 01: Organization of Body. Berkeley, University of California.
[19] British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News. 2001. Organ scandal background. [Online]. Available at: http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/
health/ 1136723. stm [accessed 22 April 2008].
[20] Demiryurek, D. Bayramoglu, A. & Ustacelebi S. 2002. Infective agents in fixed human cadavers: a brief review and suggested guidelines.
Anatomical Record, 269(1), p.194–7.
[21] British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News. 2002 Controversial autopsy goes ahead. [Online]. Available at: http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/
hi/ health/ 2493291. stm [accessed 22 April 2008].

Bibliography
• Mazzio, C. (1997). The Body in Parts: Discourses and Anatomies in Early Modern Europe. Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-91694-1.
• Porter, R. (1997). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present.
Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-215173-1.
• Sawday, J. (1996). The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human Body in Renaissance Culture. Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-15719-6.
History of anatomy 8

External links
• Historical Anatomies on the Web. National Library of Medicine. (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/
historicalanatomies/browse.html) Selected images from notable anatomical atlases.
• Anatomia 1522-1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library (http://link.library.
utoronto.ca/anatomia/)
• Human Anatomy & Physiology Society (http://www.hapsweb.org) A society to promote communication
among teachers of human anatomy and physiology in colleges, universities, and related institutions.
Article Sources and Contributors 9

Article Sources and Contributors

History of anatomy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=394922918  Contributors: Adambondy, Allen3, Altzinn, Andreas Erick, Andycjp, Aryeh, Avoided, Bamber Gascoigne,
Beland, Belgrade18, Benyon3, Bryan Derksen, Champsae, Colincbn, Cutler, Damian Yerrick, Dar-Ape, Darkwind, Deb, Decoratrix, Derek Ross, Dontworry, Drgarden, Dzenanz, Eleassar,
Ellmist, Enchanter, Eras-mus, Ewlyahoocom, FQ1513, Fastfission, Gabbe, Galmicmi, Geniac, Gwinva, Habj, Hashemi1971, Hmains, Ikiroid, Infinity Wasted, IronGargoyle, Jagged 85, Jane023,
Jeltz, Jeronimo, KJS77, Kaketd, Linas, MER-C, Malcolm Farmer, Medicineman28, Mikeeg555, Mitartep, Mr Bound, Nono64, NuclearWarfare, OlEnglish, Olivier, Ottershrew, P88nugget,
Pax:Vobiscum, Philippe, Pion, RadioFan, Ragesoss, RainbowOfLight, RedMC, Reedy, Rjwilmsi, Robth, SamuelTheGhost, Sayeth, Sionus, Smartse, Tameeria, Utcursch, Zzuuzz, 83 anonymous
edits

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