Array losses, general considerations

Generally speaking, array losses can be defined as all events which penalise the
available array output energy by respect to the PV-module nominal power as stated
by the manufacturer for STC conditions. This is the philosphy stated by the
JRC/Ispra European Centre recommendations, through the Normalised performance
index. Several of these loss sources are not directly measurable.

Starting with incident irradiation in the collector plane (after taking irradiation
shading effects into account), one can imagine that an ideal PV-array should yield
one kW/kWp under an irradiance (Ginc) of 1 kW. That is, assuming a linear
response according to Ginc, the ideal array will produce one kWh energy under one
kWh irradiance for each installed kWp (as defined at STC).

This ideal yield is diminished by the following losses:

- Incidence angle modifier (IAM), is an optical effect (reflexion loss)

corresponding to the weakening of the irradiation really reaching the the PV cells
surface, with respect to irradiation under normal incidence.

The incidence effect (the designated term is IAM, for "Incidence Angle Modifier")
corresponds to the weakening of the irradiation really reaching the the PV cells's
surface, with respect to irradiation under normal incidence. In principle, this loss
obeys Fresnel's Laws concerning transmission and reflections on the protective
layer (the glass), and on the cell's surface. In practice, it is often approached using a
parametrisation called "ASHRAE" (as it has become a standard in this American
norm), depending on one only parameter bo:

FIAM = 1 - bo · (1/cos i - 1), with i = incidence angle on the plane.

For single-glazed thermal solar modules, the usually accepted value for bo is of the
order of 0.1. But in a PV module, the lower interface, in contact with the cell,
presents a high refraction index and our specific measurements on real crystalline
modules actually indicate a value of bo = 0.05.

The user is free to choose his parameter bo, or even to define any special profile
shape as a function of the incidence angle. The custom profile can be easily drawn
on the graph with the mouse.

- Irradiance Loss: the nominal efficiency is specified for the STC (1000
W/m²), but is decreasing with irradiance according to the PV standard model.

In PVsyst, the evaluation of the "Losses" of a PV array (as for the definition of the
normalised performance ratio), takes as starting point the energy which would be
produced if the system worked always at STC conditions (1000 W/m², 25°C, AM1.5).
The loss due to operating temperature (instead of 25°C) is well-known and
referenced by everybody.

It is strange that nobody tells anything about the loss due to the irradiance level,
which is of the same kind. Please have a look on the graphs of the behaviour of a
crystalline PV module (in the PV module dialog, choose "Graphs" / "Efficiency vs
Irradiance"), you will see that the efficiency decreases for lower irradiances: this
leads to the "Irradiance loss" (by respect to 1000 W/m²). Therefore this Irradiance
loss is a consequence of the "one-diode" model for PV modules.

One of the advantages of some amorphous modules, is that this "loss" is lower.
Unisolar has even published efficiencies which constant or increased efficiency
towards 150 W/m² (see the results from the modelling according to our own
measurements of SHR-17 in the database). This is which explains (along with the
temperature coefficient) why amorphous systems show a better productivity
[kWh/kWp] than crystalline ones in middle Europe climates.

- Thermal behaviour of the PV array. The standard test conditions are

specified for a cell temperature of 25°C, but the modules are usually working at
much higher temperatures. The thermal loss is calculated following the one-diode
model. For crystalline silicon cells, the loss is about -0.4 %/°C at MPP. For fixed
voltage operating conditions, the temperature mainly affects the I/V curve voltage,
and effective losses are strongly dependent on the array overvoltage by respect to
the operating voltage.

The parameters available to the user (thermal loss factor) involve the cell
temperature determination by respect to given external conditions.

The parameters of the Thermal behaviour of the field are defined in the "Array
Losses" dialog, available from the system parameter definition (see also Array
Losses definition).

The thermal behaviour of the field - which strongly influences the electrical
performances - is determined by a thermal balance between ambient temperature
and cell's heating up due to incident irradiation:

k · (Tcell – Tamb) = Alpha · Ginc · (1 - Effic)

where Alpha is the absorption coefficient of solar irradiation, and Effic is the PV
efficiency (related to the module area), i.e. the removed energy from the module.

The usual value of the Absorption coefficient Alpha is 0.9. It is modifiable in the PV
module dialog.

When possible, the PV efficiency is calculated according to the operating conditions

of the module. Otherwise it is taken as 10%.
The thermal behaviour is characterised by a thermal loss factor designed here by k
(also often called U-value), which can be splitted into a constant component kc and
a factor proportional to the wind velocity kv :

k = kc + kv · v (k in [W/m²·k], v = wind velocity in [m/s]).

These factors depend on the mounting mode of the modules (sheds, roofing,
facade, etc...).

For free circulation, this coefficient refers to both faces, i.e. twice the area of the
module. If the back of the modules is more or less thermally isolated, this should be
lowered, theoretically up to half the value (i.e the back side doesn't participate
anymore to thermal transfer).

Up to version 3.4, the default values proposed by the program were

kc = 20 W/m²·k, kv = 6 W/m²·k / m/s

values which had been measured on several installations, for modules mounted in
sheds without back coverage, with free air circulation all around.

These values matched very well the measurements (average deviation of the order
of 0.5 to 1°C), but were defined using Wind data recorded just over the array, in
built environment. Such velocities are quite lower than the usual wind data
available in the meteo files, recorded at a 10m level or more over the obstacles.
Therefore with these parameters PVsyst calculated a very high dissipative
coefficient and cool array temperature, leading to strongly underestimated heat
losses.

According to their own measurements, some users proposed, when using standard
meteo values such those in the US TMY2 data (usually about 4-5 m/sec on an
average), the following k-values:

kc = 25 W/m²·k, kv = 1.2 W/m²·k / m/s

By the way, when the wind velocity is not present in the data (as it is the case for all
synthetic meteo files constructed by PVsyst), PVsyst automatically transfers the
wind-dependent contribution into the kc factor, assuming an average wind velocity
of 1.5 m/s (or 5 m/s in the latter case):

kc = 29 W/m²·k, kv = 0 W/m²·k / m/s

Concerned people agreed that this is a good choice.

Therefore in the new version 4.0, this is fixed as the default value (to be lowered
until 22-20 or even up to 15 W/m²K when integrated, according to the insulation of
the back side, for example in Façades).

NB: The wind data are rarely reliable in the usual synthetic meteo hourly files. Of
course you can always restore the wind dependence if you are sure of your wind
data.

NOCT Values

Some practicians - and most of PV module's catalogues - usually specify the NOCT
coefficient ("Nominal Operating Collector Temperature"), which is the temperature
attained by the PV modules without back coverage under the standard operating
conditions defined as:

Gincid = 800 W/m², Tamb=20°C, Wind velocity = 1 m/s, Open Circuit.

The NOCT factor is related to our loss factor k by the thermal balance (from the
expression of the top):

Alpha · 800 W/m² · (1 - 0) = (kc + kv · 1m/s) · (NOCT - 20°C).

In the definition dialog, the user may define either the k factors or the NOCT. The
program immediately gives the equivalence (using Alpha=0.9 and Effic = 10%, of
course without wind dependence).

- Real module performances of the module by respect to the manufacturer

specifications. PVSYST uses effective specification parameters to calculate the
primary PV-array characteristics. The user may define a relative loss factor, which is
related to the average effective module power at STC, and acts as a constant
penalty during all simulation conditions.

It is well-known that most of PV modules series don't match the manufacturer

nominal specifications. Up to now, this was one of the greater uncertainties in the
PV system performance evaluation.Now, with "guaranteed" power assertions and
increasing availability of independent expertises, the situation seems going toward
some clarification. Module series are sold with a given tolerance, and actual powers
usually lie under the nominal specified power, but stay in the tolerance.

PVSYST allows for accounting for this discrepancy by defining a loss factor, which is
an energy loss at MPP, constant during the simulation process. For fixed voltage
operation (battery, DC grid), the loss factor is supposed to be the same.
- Mismatch losses of the PV modules, which can be evaluated by a special
tool, but is only taken into account as a constant loss during simulation.

- Dirt on the PV-modules, which is not taken into account in PVSYST, but could
behave as mismatch losses, i.e. the string current will be mainly affected by the
worst cell.

- Partial shading electrical effects, limiting each string current to the more
shaded cell, are of course depending on the sun position. They are not explicitely
calculated in PVsyst, but can only be roughly evaluated using the "Near shadings
according to modules".

- MPP loss, i.e. the difference between the effective operation conditions and
the maximum available power point. For MPP use (grid inverters) this loss is
neglected in PVSYST. For fixed operating voltage, it can be quantified from the
output simulation results (see EArr MPP, EArrUFix, MPPLoss).

Losses due to "mismatch" are related to the fact that the real modules in the array
do not rigorously present the same I/V characteristics. A graphical tool helps for
visualising the realistic behaviour of such an array, with a random dispersion of the
characteristics of short-circuit current for each module.

This tool allows for the quantification of power-loss at the maximum power point, as
well as of current-loss (usually higher!) when working at fixed voltage.The
simulation asks for a Mismatch loss factor (different for MPP or fixed-voltage
operation), which is taken as constant during the simulation.

- Ohmic wiring losses, as thermal effects, essentially result in a voltage drop

of the I/V-array characteristics. The real effect is different whether the array
operates at MPP or fixed voltage. At MPP operation, PVSYST applies the wiring loss
before computing the MPP. At fixed voltage, the effective losses are strongly
dependent on the array overvoltage by respect to the operating voltage.

The wiring ohmic resistance induces losses ( R · I² ) between the power available
from the modules and that at the terminals of the array. These losses can be
characterised by just one parameter R defined for the global array

The program proposes a default global wiring loss fraction of 3% by respect to the
STC running conditions (i.e; Vmpp/Impp, i.e. a resistance-like quantity). But note
that the energy loss behaves as the square of the current (or the power), so that at
half-power the ohmic loss is divided by a factor of four.

The effective loss during a given period will be given as a simulation result. It is
usually of the order of one half to 60% of the above specified relative loss when
operation at MPP.
The program offers a special tool intended to optimise the wire diameters at each
stage of the array.

This dialog also asks for the voltage drop across the series protection diode. The
corresponding energy loss will also appear in the simulation results.

special tool

The aim of this tool is to optimise the wire diameters in the array, given a
predefined loss limit.

First give a look on the array usual wiring schema, by pressing the "Schema"
button. This identifies the different parts of the circuits by colors:

- The "string" connections between all modules of a string, up to the wiring

connection box (usually situated near the array).

- The connexion between this boxes and the system (inverter, battery, …),

- Optionally, when choosing "Groups of parallel string", the connection

between the group boxes and the global array box.

Secondly, you have to specify the average wire length for each circuit category
(total length, i.e. minus and plus poles for each loop).

The program shows the nominal current and the resistance of one branch, as well
as their contribution to the whole array resistance (as seen from the array
connections). It proposes a list of standardised wire sections, beginning from the
smallest wire compatible with the actual loop current.

The "wire" button allows to see the standard wire properties (diameters, maximum
current, resistivity), as well as their price, which you can define in order to optimise
the wiring cost. The maximum wire currents are given by the European Norm, for
isolated wires mounted in apparent or ventilated mounting ducts (CEI 364-5-523,
1983)

Finally, you can specify a maximum loss:

- either in terms of % (at MPP) when operating at MPP,

- or in voltage drop when operating at fixed voltage.

The program will then optimise the wire sections matching these requirements,
either minimising the copper mass, or the wiring cost providing you have defined
the wire prices in the "wire" dialog.
- Regulation loss is the energy potentially available from the PV array, but
which cannot be used by the system.

In MPP applications, this could be the array potential PV production outside the
inverter input voltage limits, or during power overloads. This is usually accounted in
"Inverter losses", that is in system losses.

In stand-alone systems, it corresponds to the excess energy which cannot be

used when the battery is full.

In DC-grid installation, this is the potential current in excess by respect to the

instantaneous load current.

In Normalised performance index, all these array losses are accounted for in the
"Collection Losses" Lc, that is the difference between Yr (the ideal array yield at
STC) and Ya (the effective yield as measured at the output of the array).

Nevertheless, unlike Ispra recommendations, in PVSYST the unused energy is

specifically designed as Lu = Unused loss (see Normalised performance index for
details).

In order to facilitate comparisons between several PV installations, JRC (European

Joint Research Center) introduced the following Performance Index.

These indicators are related to the incident energy in the collector plane, and are
normalised by the Pnom = Array nominal installed power at STC, as given by the
PV-module manufacturer [kWp].

Therefore they are independent of the array size, the geographic situation and the
field orientation.

In these definitions the yield energies are expressed as [kWh / KWp / day]. In other
words, these quantities are numerically equal to the Equivalent operating time
under a constant irradiance of 1 kW/m², that is, they can also be expressed as
[Hours/day] when running at 1 kW/m², or [kWh/m²/day] (see the remark below).

We define the following quantities:

- Yr = Reference system Yield is the ideal array Yield according to Pnom as

defined by manufacturer, without any loss. It can be understood as each incident
kWh should ideally produce the Array Nominal Power Pnom during one hour. Yr is
numerically equal to the incident energy in the array plane, expressed in
[kWh/m²/day].
- Ya = Array Yield is the array daily output energy, referred to the nominal
power [kWh / KWp / day].

- Yf = System Yield is the system daily useful energy, referred to the nominal
power [kWh / KWp / day].

- Lc = Collection Loss = Yr - Ya, is the array losses, including thermal, wiring,

module quality, mismatch and IAM losses, shading, dirt, MPP, regulation losses, as
well as all other inefficiencies.

- Ls = System Loss = Ya - Yf, include inverter loss in grid-connected systems,

or battery inefficiencies in stand-alone.

- PR = Performance Ratio = YF / YR, is the global system efficiency by respect

to the nominal installed power.

For stand-alone systems (or every system with limited load), we also introduce:

- Lu = Unused energy, the potentially available energy at the array output,

which can't be used because the system is "saturated" (full battery, or limited load
in DC-grid system).

This should be determined during the simulation, and we have: Ya = Yr - Lu - Lc.

In this case Lc is the collection loss, only when the system is able to use the
produced energy.

Important remark about units

There is often a unit's confusion with the quantity Yr, which may be understood

- either as the incident energy (with units [Hours at 1kWh/m² / day] or [kWh/m² /
day])

- or as the ideal array Yield according to Pnom (expressed as [kWh / KWp / day]).

This numerical identity results of the STC definition, i.e. one kWh/m² of irradiance
should produce one kWh/kWp of electricity.

The confusion comes from the fact that the kWh are not the same: in the former
case it is incident irradiance, when in the latter case this is electricity !!!