J.

Scott Carter
Daniel E. Flath
and
i~lasahicoSaito

Mathematical Notes 43
1 Introduction

2 Representations of U(sZ(2))
Basicdefinitions ...................... 7
Finite dimensional irreducible representations ...... 7
Diagrammatics of U(sl(2)) invariant maps . . . . . . . . 12
The Temperley-Lieb algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Tensor products of irreducible representations . . . . . . 21
The 6j-symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
formula for the 61-symbols . . . . . . . . . .
h rccu~sio~l 63
Iteillh~hs . . . . .

3 Quantum sZ(2) 67
Some finite dimensional representations ......... 67
Representations of the braid groups . . . . . . . . . . . 70
A finite dimensional quotient of C [ B ( n ).] . . . . . . . . 74

The Jones-Wentzl projectors ............... 80

The quantum Clebsch-Gordan theory . . . . . . . . . . 93
Quantum network evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
The quantum 6j-symbols - generic case . . . . . . . . . 106
Diagrammatics of weight vectors (quantum case) . . . . 110
Twisting rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Further identities among the quantum Gj-symbols . . . 125
 4 The Quantum Trace and Color Representations 127
The quantum trace . . .............. ..... 127
A bilinear form on tangle diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 This book discusses the representation theory of classical and
Color representations . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 133 quantum U ( d ( 2 ) ) with an eye towards topological applications
The quantum Gj-symbol- root of unity case . . . . . . 139 of the latter. We use the Temperley-Lieb algebra and the Van-

I
II tum spin-networks to organize the computations. We define the
5 The Turaev-Viro Invariant
6j-symbols in the classical, quantum, and quantum-root-of-unity
The definition of the Turaev-Viro invariant . . . . . . .. 151 cases, and use these computations to define the Turaev-Viro in-
I Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
151 variants of closed 3-dimensional manifolds. Our approach is ele-
References 160 mentary and fairly self-contained. We develop the spin-networks
i
from an algebraic point of view.
1 Introduction

These notes grew out of a series of seminars held at the University

of South Alabama during 1993 that were enhanced by regular e-
mail among the three of us. We became interested in quantum
diagrammatic representation theory following visits from Ruth
Lawrence and Lou Kauffman to Mobile.

We develop the Clebsch-Gordan theory and the recoupling the-

ory for representations of classical and quantum U(sl(2)).via the
spin networks of Penrose 1271 and Kauffman [16]. In these the-
ories, the finite dinlensio1la.1irreducible representa.tions are real-
i ~ e dill spaces oi i~oluogcr~eoil:,
l,oi> i~oi~ii,il\
111 1\\(, \ .I: I . I I ) I ~ ~ ~TII
the quantum case the variables commute up to a factor of q; z.e.
yx = qxy. The tensor product of two representations is decom-
posed as a direct sum of irreducibles, and the coefficients of the
various weight vectors are computed explicitly. In the quantum
case, when the parameter is a root of unity, we only decompose
the representations modulo those that have trace 0.

We use the spin networks to develop the theory in the classi-

cal case for two reasons. First, they simplify and unify many of
the tricky combinatorial facts. The simplification of the proofs is
nowhere more apparent than in Theorem 2.7.14 where a plethora
of identities is proven via diagram manipulations. Second, the
spin networks are currently useful and quite popular in the quan-
tum case (see for example [23], [18], [28]). One of our goals here
is to explain the representation theory of quantum sl(2) in the
spin network framework. We know of no better explanation than
 - --..--I-I-.. ..I.u xu,II, I
1
=I
I
to run through the classical case (which should be more familiar),
I
I1 and then t o imitate the classical theory in the quantum case.
I Here we give an overview. The set of (2 by 2) matrices of
I
determinant 1 over the complex numbers forms a group called
1
SL(2). The finite dimensional irreducible representations of SL(2)
are well understood. In particular, it is known how to decompose
the tensor product of two such representations into a direct sum
II
of irreducibles. In this decomposition one can compute explicitly
the image of weight vectors and such computations form the heart
of the so-called Clebsch-Gordan theory. The finite dimensional
representations of S L ( 2 ) are the same as those of U(sl(2)) which
II
is an algebra generated by symbols E, F and H subject to certain
relations.
Furthermore, the tensor product of three representations can
be decomposed in two natural ways. The comparison of these
two decomytosit ions is sornctimcs c,rllctl r r r n ~ ~ , , l ? r i t/)ro,~ll.
q clllfl
..
-p tile rccou1)llllg t ,ir c. I , I ~ o \ L I ~
uell~c~erit:, G ~ ' - ~ ~ ~
LJ~C
symbols satisfy two fundamental identities (orthogonality and the
Elliott-Biedenharn identity) that can be interpreted in terms of
the decomposition of the union of two tetrahedra. In the ~ l l i ~ t t -
I* Biedenharn identity the tetrahedra are glued along a single face
$1
and recomposed as the union of three tetrahedra glued along an
l
edge- For orthogonality the tetrahedra are glued along two faces,
It
and the recomposition is not simplicial.
The symmetry of the 6j-symbols and their relationship to
I M ~ a h e d r awas for the most part a mystery, until & - a e v and
11
I
I Viro 1321 constructed 3-manifold invariants based on the analo-
I/ gous theory for quantum sZ(2). The identities satisfied by the
Gj-symbols are also satisfied by their quantum analogues. The
Elliott-Biedenharn identity corresponds to an Alexander [I] move
UIYI VJ-31 IVI,,"ba IN L ~ U U U ~ I I V I V
on triangulations of a 3-manifold while the orthogonality condition
can be interpreted as a Matveev [25] move on the dual 2-skeleton
of a triangulation.
The Turaev-Viro invariants were based on work of Kirillov
and Reshetikhin on the representation of quantum groups [19].
This work together with Reshetikhin-Turaev [29] formed a math-
ematicdy rigorous framework for the invariants of Witten [34].
Meanwhile Kauffman and Lins [18] gave a simple combinatoric
approach to the invariants based on the Kauffman bracket and
the spin networks of Penrose [27]. Piunikhin [28] showed that the
Kauffman-Lins approach and the Turaev-Viro approach coincide.
Some of Kauffman's contributions to the subject can also be
found in the papers [14], [15], and [17]. A more traditional alge-
braic approach to quantum groups can be found in [30]; in partic-
ular, they discuss from the outset the Hopf-algebra structures.
T icl;ol.isll'q [23] d(\finition of tlic R t ~ s l ~ c t i k l i i ~ l - ~iilval
~ ~ . ainlltb
ov
rlllese
l ~ ] ~ ~ l ~ , 1s of a colllbi~~ator~al
nature. The I<auiinian-L~ns[IS] d e l i n ~ t ~ 01o ~ l
the Turaev-Viro invariants is defined similarly. Neither of these
combinatorial approaches relied on representation theory. How-
ever, the remarkable feature of quantum topology is that there are
close connections between algebra and topology that were hereto-
fore unimagined. The purpose of this paper is to explore these
relations by examining the algebraic meaning of the diagrams and
by using diagrams to prove algebraic results.
Here is our outline. Section 2 reviews the classical theory of
of U(sZ(2)). There is nothing new here, but we
do how the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients and the 6j-symbols
are computed in terms of the bracket expansion (at A = 1). In
Section 3 we mimic these constructions to obtain the quantum
Clebsch-Gordan and 6j-symbols. In Section 4 we will define the
 " r V U n L J L I L U f i U fl1lU WUXIY 1 U M tJJ->YMB(JLS

quantum trace and discuss the recoupling theory in the root of 2 Representations of U ( s l ( 2 )
/'i
I
unity case. Section 5 reviews the definitions of the Turaev-Viro
2.1 Definition. Let C denote the complex numbers. The
I! invariants and proves that the definition is independent of the
I/ triangulation by means of the Pachner Theorem [26]. group SL(2) is defined to be
ii
Acknowledgments. We all are grateful to L. Kauffman and
R. Lawrence for the interesting conversations that we have had. SL(~)= {(; ;) :a,b,c,dEC, a d - b c = l

I
\ \

Their visits to Mobile were supported by the University of south

:(/I where the law of composition is matrix multiplication. The as-
~ ~ ~ b a mArts
a ' s and Sciences Support and Development Fund.
sociated Lie algebra sZ(2) consists of the set of matrices of trace
Additional financial support was obtained from Alabama E P S C ~ R

I
for funding of travel for the first named author and support of 0:

a Conference in Knot Theory, Low Dimensional Topology, and ,,(,)={(; i) :a,b,c,di(:, a+d=n -
Quantum Groups in Mobile in 1994. C. Pillen, B. Kuripta, K.
' 11
Murasugi, and R. Peele provided us with valuable information.
Jim Stasheff read a preliminary version of the text and provided
This is spanned by E = ( ;),.=( a =

us with many helpful comments. Cameron Gordon's past finanical

support of Masahico Saito was greatly appretiated. Finall!. ive all
( y2 ) - . The Lie b m d e i is c~mputedvia [A, Bl = AB -
13-1.,oti,at[1:.1]=~~i. \r!.~]=! > - ( l i u1-1----l7
grdtcfull) dcl\nowledgc t i l e s u p p o ~ taild patle~~cc otll wlbes -
I
L ~ ~ A L

CL
-8 111 have shown to us over the years.

exponential function, exp : sl(2) -+ SL(2), which is defined by the

j power series:
/ $1 " Q3
~ X P Q= j=o

for Q E sZ(2). The function exp maps a trace 0 matrix to a matrix

I with determinant 1.

2.2- Finite dimensional irreducible representations. The

group SL(2) acts on the vector space of linear combinations of.
variables x and y by
 AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

representation, VO = C . The index j is sometimes called the spin

( ;)y=cxdy of the representation V3.

The associated Lie algebra d(2) acts on V 3 8s ~ ~ U O W S :
where the action is extended linearly. This is called the funda-
mental representation of SL(2).
E~~~~= dl exp (tE)xTys = srTt1
ys-',
dt t=o
I i More generally, define an action of SL(2) on the space of poly- F~~
yS = rxT-I ySC1,
i
and 1
and
r-s
HSTyS= -xTyS.
= (ax 2
A weight vector is an eigenvector under the action of H in any
1 1111
representation; its eigenvalue is called its weight. For example
One way to verify that this is a group action is to consider the
' i
I t embedding xTyS E V ( T + S ) Iis~ a weight vector of weight y.Observe that
the set of weights in ~j is {j,j- 1,j-2,. . .,- j ) , and by definition
the corresponding weight vectors form a basis for VJ.

. ., 2.2.1 well ~ l z o w nXheorenl. ( S e e [g] o r [ 3 3 ] , hi-c ~ l m -

Y and where the sum is over all
The representations of SL(2) On V 3 are irreducible.

geneous ~ o l ~ n o m i aof
l s degree ( r + s ) in x and y into the tensor
product of ( r + s ) copies of the fundamental represelltation space.
The tensor product V 8 W of representations V and ]/V illherits
an action via g(v @ W ) = gv 8g w where v E V and w E W . ~h~~ if
I' denotes the fundamental representation space, then v@(T+s)is
also arepresentation space. Furthermore, the image of the space of
~olynomialsconsists of the subspace of tensors that
fixed under the! action of the permutation group on
the tensor factors of VB('+"), and this space is stable under the
action of SL(2).
It is customary to let ~j denote the set of homogelleous poly-
nomials of degree 2 j = r + s where j E {0,1/2,1,3/2,. . .). Note
that v1I2 is the fundamental representation, and V 0is the trivial
proof.1f W is an SL(2)-subrepresentation of V3, then W is also
invariant under the action of the algebra sl(2) that is given above.
Therefore, it is enough to show that the representation of sl(2) On
vj is irreducible.
The matrix E acts by sending a weight vector to one of higher
weight F sends such to one of lower weight. Since the image
of anv non-zero vector under powers of E and F spans V37 this
representation is irreducible.
Remark. In the sequel, it will be more convenient to work with
the universal enveloping algebra U(sl(2)). This is an algebra gen-
erated by symbols E , F , and H that are subject only to the rela-
tions E F - F E = 2H, HE - E H = E, and H F - F H = -F.
The relations are motivated by the properties of the Lie bracket
 10
iir REPRESENTATIONS
OF U ( s l ( 2 ) )

~rof U ( s l ( 2 ) )is deter-

2. The vector v has weight j.
mined by assigning to E , F, and H operators on a vector space
that are subiect t o the relations above. The enveloping algebra Then j E {0,2/2,1,3/2,. ..), and there is a unique linear map
., - L -- -- - - - -- ----e v is a vector in the 4 : V J+ W such that $(x2" = v and such that .11, commutes with
representation V . the action of U(sl(2)).
In the discussion of Section 3 , the representations V J of d ( 2 ) (b) Every finite dimensional irreducible representation of
and the enveloping algebra U ( s l ( 2 ) )will have quantum analogues. U ( s l ( 2 ) )is isomorphic to V Jfor some j E {0,1/2,1,3/2,. . .).
There is a quantum analogue of the group S L ( 2 ) , but we will not
Proof. Let vo = v , and for r > 0 let v, = F T v .
use it to describe the representations.
We assume by induction that v, has weight ( j - r ) . Since

should be indexed by
H v = jv and [ H ,F ] = - F , we have H V , + ~= H F v , = -Fur +
+
FHv, = ( j - (r l ) ) ~ , + ~ ; vT+l has weight ( j - ( r 1 ) ) .
thus +
8 Furthermore, we inductively assume that there are constants
e3,m = 5J+m Y 3-m. y, such that Ev, = y,v,-1. By using the relation [ E , F ] = 2 H ,
+
we have that E V , + ~= E F v , = 2HvT F E U , = ( 2 ( j - r ) Y T ) ~ T . +
The first subscript of e is the highest weight of the represen- Hence ?,+I = 2 ( j - r ) + y T ; since yo = 0 , we have y, = r ( 2 j - r + 1).
tatloll <111dind~ta f t 5 t h t tl~rnel~slon
of thc rcprt~.;crltdfioll 5pr7(t\
Yo\\, , 0 fol , o n ~ cI I,c~c,l~l\c.I f * I ? f n r t e t l ~ m r . n s i o ~and
~,~\
(dl111jl I ) = LJ $ 1) wlllle the sccond ~~ldlcates
tile icelght of the vo, v l , . . . are eigenvectors for distlnct elgenvalues of H. Suppose
vector. Note that j and m are both half-integers and that j +m that v, = 0 and v,-1 # 0. Then E v , = 0 = r ( 2 j - r + l)v,-1. So
and j - m are integers. In this notation, j = ( r - 1 ) / 2 E {0,1/2,1,3/2,. . .), the subspace of W generated
by vo is spanned by the linearly independent vectors vo, . . .,v,-1,
Ee3,m = ( j - m)eJ,m+l,
and this subspace is isomorphic t o V J .This proves (a).
Fej,m = ( j + m)eJ,m-17 (b) Let W denote a finite dimensional irreducible represertta-
tion of U(s1(2)),and let w be a non-zero eigenvector of H . Let the
and
integer r be such that E'w # 0 while E'+'w = 0. Then v = E'w
Hel,m = meJ,,.
satisfies the hypotheses of (a). Hence W = V J where H v = jv.
2.2.3 Well Known Lemma. (a) Let W denote a finite 2.2.4 Theorem. Every finite dimensional representation space
dimensional representation space for the algebra U ( s l ( 2 ) ) . Let E for U(sZ(2))decomposes as a direct sum of irreducible representa-
W denote a non-zero vector that satisfies:
tions.
1. E v = 0.
I Proof. See [33]or [8]for example.
 2.3 Diagrammatics of U ( s l ( 2 ) )invariant maps. The Pen-
rose spin networks facilitate the computation of U ( s l ( 2 ) )invariant
maps via diagrammatic techniques. At the heart of the networks
are three elementary maps U, n, and / that are defined in Sec-
3. (1 fg U ) : v1I2-+v1I2
(I fg n ) 0 (U 8 1) = ( = ( n 81) 0
tion 2.3.1. Their relations are described in Lemma 2.3.2. The
networks or spin-nets will consist of trivalent graphs embedded
under the identification of C ,g, v1I2= y1l2fg C = v 1 I 2 .
111 i
in the plane with non-negative half-integer labels on the edges.
P

These labels will satisfy an admissibility condition at each vertex

that will be made explicit as we continue the discussion.

2.3.1 Definition. Consider the U ( s I ( 2 ) )invariant maps U : 4. ( n 8 1) 0 ( I fg 1) = ( I @ n ) 0 (1@ 1) : (v1/2)@3 v1/2

I ,lit
170 + ~ 1 1 ,g,
2 ~ 1 1 2 , , : v 1 1 2 fg ~ 1 1 +
2 vO, : v 1 / 2 fg ~ 1 1 4
2 where as before we identify C 8 '[fl/2 = ~ 1 18
2 c = 1/1/2.
i l f 1/2fg171/2, and I : v1I2-+ v1I2that are defined on basis elements
I / /
(and extended linearly) via
I

X(afgb)=b@a for a , b € { x , y }
6. flou:C-+C
where i = G.Finally
is multiplication by -2.
] ( a )= a for a E { x , y ) .
Proof. Items (I), (2), ( 3 ) and (6) are elementary computations.
2.3.2 Lemma (Penrose [27]). Item (4) is a general property that holds for any bilinear. form n;
similarly, item (5) follows for any "co-bilinear" form U .
1. The maps U, n, X, and ( commute with the action of U ( s l ( 2 ) ) .
2.3.3 Remarks. Penrose and I<auffman introduced these
2. The fundamental binor identity holds:
maps in a diagrammatic context. The domain of a map repre-
=I fg 1 + (U o n) : v1J2
8 v 1 I 2 -+ v1I2 8~ 1 1 :2 sented by such a diagram appears at the bottom of the diagram,
 16 'THE CLASSICAL
A N D Q U A N T U~M
~-SYMBOL,S I

and
I The key observation about the diagram algebra is that ~ l a l l a f
(1
isotopies of arcs (that are properly and disjointly embedded ill

.-
-z
i
-
hk H ( ...
-
A
I
-nL+ -..I.
I 21-L-1
a rectangle) are generated by the topological moves that corre-
spend t o (a) the relationship depicted in Lemma 2.3.2 (3) and (b)
example, in the illustla-
.. ,- i l l gant critical l>ointq.
: . , r c ~ l c l l d n ~disf
tloll above the Criticdl p01111~~ e l ~ l e ~ e l ~1t11l lCl dgl l ] ) ~ l ~ i l (I0'
11~ ~ '( / "

and those representing h3 can be pushed up. Algebraically, this

The diagra7n algebra consists of formal linear combinations of cer-
tain diagrams. The diagrams are generated by the diagralns rep-
resentillg I alld hk for k = 1,. . ., 2 j - 1 that are indicated above.
two such diagrams can be juxtaposed vertically t o represent
the product of two of the elements. Having been so juxtaposed,
the product is rescaled vertically to fit into a standard size rect-
angle. Two di%pms that are isotopic via an isotopy that keeps
the top and the bottom of the diagrams pointwise fixed represent
the same element in the diagram algebra. For example, the prod-
uct h2hlh3 is depicted below. Always the element on the left of
an ex~ressiollis a t the top of a diagram; thus the bottom most
interchange represents the identity h1h3 = h3hl.
The correspondence between the Temperley-Lieb algebra and
the algebra of diagrams shows that the dimension of T L n is the
nth Catalan number, A(:), where n = 2 j . This result follows
by establishing a one-to-one correspondence between the possible
diagrams and the collection of legitimate arrangements of n pairs
of parentheses (See also [16]).
Next we let the ground ring R denote ihe complex numbers,
and choose matrix representations for the symbols U and n.
2.4.1 Lemma. Let j be a fixed element in {0,1/2,1,3/2,. .
 18 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6 j - s y ~ ~ o ~ ~
REPRESENTATIONS OF U(sz(2)) 19
I
functions
roof. The proof depends on standard facts about the represen-
,
(~1/2)@2.1 (~1/2)@2.1
ation theory of GL(2) and C,. We refer the reader to the excellent

The image O(I) is the identity, and for k = 1,.. . , 2 j - 1, the gen- text, [31] for details. Let n = 2j. Since dim (TLn) = Catalan(n)
erator hk is mapped to the composition Uon where these are acting we must prove that dim (B(TLn)) = ( T ) / ( n + 1)- The binor iden-
on the (k, k + 1) factors of the tensor product as in Section 2.3.1. tity shows that B(TL,) = b(C[Cn]), where @ is the linear ex-
tension of the representation defined in the remark immediately
il I
Proof. It is necessary to check that O respects the defining rela- above. We will establish that dim (@(C[xnI)) = (',") /(n + 1). The
I
tions (1-5) of the Temperley-Lieb algebra. The calculatioll follows representation 6 is decomposed as in [33]. Namely, as En repre-
from the diagrammatics of Lemma 2.3.2 part (3). J -I

As we continue to discuss U(s1(2)), we will work with the (v'l2)@" = $ T ( m ) d ( T )

I'
llill
Temperley-Lieb algebra under this representation witllout explic-
I itly mentioning the map 8. Our justification for this notational
abuse is given in Theorem 2.4.3. (1) the index T ranges over all 2-row Young frames with n

2.4.2 Lemma.
(i.e. T = (r,s), n = r + s, and 0 L r I s);
Let 6 = -2. f i r a n y j E {0,1/2,1,3/2,. .I, ,
lllclt
(2)t h e s u l 1 3 $ a ~ d \ITrr is t h e irrc~I,,cil,lc rel)resentatioll of
i 5 11 ~ J ( ~ ~ I ~ o I I J O ~( 1 ~ ) / I ,,,,
I ~ ~ ~ 1~, , , , l / c , / , o , j q J , J y2! ,,,, 2 ,
corresponds to the toung lldllle 1 ;
letters zlzto TL23 that 2s yzven by p(ak) = I + hk where ak zs the
transposition that interchanges and k + 1. (3) the exponent d(T) is a positive integer that, incidentally, is
equal to the di~nensionof the representation of GL(2) correspond-
Proof. Clearly, the images (under p) of distant transpositions ing t o the Young frame T.
, commute. Furthermore, jyow c [ x n ] is a semi-simple algebra because the group En is

l1
/I1
p(ukokklok) = I + h i + h x t ~+ hihi51 + hkil hk = p(okklokok*l 1.
finite. The Wedderburn theory of semi-simple algebras [g], applied
to C[Cn], asserts that as algebras

Finally, ( I t hk) 0 (Ithk) = 1 $ 2hk + 6hk = 1.0

-
- @(C[Cn])% $ ~ M a t ( nX~n ~ )
Remark. The binor identity shows that the 1~omomorphismp is
-a factor of the representation : CZ3-+ A U ~ ( ( V ~ / ~where
) @ ~the
~)
where nT = dim WT and Mat(- x -) denotes the algebra square
permutation group acts on ( V ~ / ~ ) by
@ permuting
~J tensor factors.
matrices. It follows that
2.4.3 Theorem. In case 6 = -2, the representation, B of TLz3
on ( V ~ / ~ ) @is ~faithful
J, for evert, i E -!0.1/2.1.3/? 1 I dim ( j( C [ C , ] ) )= n;.
 For T = (r, n - r ) with 0 5 r _< Ln/2] (where 1.1 denotes the A filling of the frame (s, n - s ) with the integers 1,. . .,n to-
greatest integer function), we have ther with a filling of its mirror image with the integers n $
.. .,2n yields a filling of the rectangular frame. Therefore, the
m on the right is no larger than G(n, n).
This is the number of ways of filling in the n boxes in the Young On the other hand, let a filling of the rectangular frame be
frame T with the integers 1 , 2 , . . .,n in such a way that numbers iven. Then consider the subset of the rectangular array that
ontains the numbers 1,.. .,n. This subset is convex and forms
increase across both rows and increase down all columns. The
Young frame has n - r boxes on the top row and r boxes on the a smaller frame of type (s,n - s). Thus we have a filling of it
bottom row. and a filling of its mirror image. Therefore, G(n, n) is no larger
The proof will follow from the following interesting combina- than the sum on the right. This proves the combinatorial identity.
torial identity for Catalan numbers: Consequently, the representation is faithful.

2.5 Tensor products of irreducible representations. Re-

call that if V and W are spaces on which the group SL(2) acts,

I
Let G(r, n - r ) = n(,,,-,) denote the number of legitimate then there is an action given on the tensor product by g ( v @ t u ) =
filling.; of the Young frame nxilh I, I~n~c > if 1
nri 1 1101
~ l o r ? ] J.(IU. ;I nd 911 ~ I L ) . .\1i element .Y in the assoriatctl 1,ic alge111.a. d ( 2 ) . a c t s
n- 1. boxes on the top. For a two ron. rectangular array, on tensor protluc~svia the Leibniz rule, . Y ( uLI ru) = St?) i u$ I ,

. v @ X(w) since the action is determined by differentiation. Notice

that if v and w are weight vectors, then so is v @ w, and its weight
is the sum of the weights of v and w. Recall that V3 is isomor-
so in fact G(r, r ) is the rth Catalan number. We wish to show phic to a sub-representation of the 2j-fold tensor product of the
that
, fundamental representation via the map

1
Each term in the sum on the right is the square of the number
(P3 : X I . ' ' ' ' x2j ++ - p C xu(1) @ . ' @ Xu(2j)

of ways of W g g in a smaller Young frame. For s [n/2j, we

consider the Young frame (n, n) to be decomposed as the union
of a frame (s, n - s ) and its mirror image. For example,

2.5.1 The projectors. The projection of (V1/')@'j onto the

image (Pj(Vj) can be written in terms of the Temperley-Lieb ele-
 ments as the map

Observe that +2j 0 + 2 j = 4 2 , So that this map is indeed a projec- 2.5.3 Lemma.

proof. The proof follows by induction.

2.5.4 Definition. Suppose that a , b E { 0 , 1 / 2 , 1 , 3 / 2 , . Let

j E {a + b,a + b - 1 , . . . , l a - bl + 1,la - bl). Such a triple of
half-integers ( a , b, j ) is said to be admissible. Notice that admis-
sibility is a symmetric condition in a , b, and j . Define an U ( s l ( 2 ) )
In 3-5, the quantum analogues of these projectors are de- invariant map

:(~'/2)@23 - (~1/2)@2a ( ~ 1 / 2 ) @ ~ ~

I
2.5.2 Definition. Let u= u : c ~ 1 1 2a ~ 1 1 2 . H~~~~~
defined C -+ ( v " ~ ) @ ~ ( " -define
~), 5 to be the composition

where , 1 is the identity map on the m-fold tensor power of v 1 l 2 -

ab
The map ( p a @ p a ) o Y 3
0q5~-where de is the isomorphism of
ve with the symmetric tensors while pe(xl@. . - @ ~ 2 e=) 5 1 - . . ' 'x2e
for 1 = j , a , or b - is called the Clebsch-Gordan map: V 3 -+

The map fi is defined d u d y .

Let C ( 1 , . . .,n}. Define
2.5.5 Theorem. There is a direct sum decomposition
 24 T H EC L A S S I C AALN D Q U A N T U M6 j - S Y M B O L S

where the sum is taken over all j such that ( a , b, j ) is admissible. Example. Consider v ~/~@ v ~ / t~
According .
o Theorem 2.5.5,
Furthermore, i f ( a ,b, j ) is an admissible triple, then any U ( s l ( 2 ) ) this tensor product decomposes as the direct sum of V 0 and V 1 .
invariant map V j V a @ V b is a scalar multiple of pa @ pb 112,112

v
+ o
The map coincides with U while
0 q5j. Finally, 0

and finally

y 112,112
I (~xY)=~I~(x@Y+YBx).

2.5.6 The Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. Let ej,t denote the

Proof. The map y :" is U ( s l ( 2 ) )invariant because it is the

weight vector xj+tyj-t in
ab
~j of weight t . We have maps pa @ pb o

( V o $; : vj -+ V a 4 vbprovided that ( a ,b, j ) are admissible.

composition of l T ( s / ( 2 ) )invariant maps G. TIle
/
and follnu~~l

for (Pa @ 1
.. ( ,' (4. ( x ' J ) ) ) follows by cornputatiol~using
in the sum

Lemma 2.5.3; thus y ab

3
# 0 for ( a , 6, j ) admissible. The tensor
8 pb (y 3 (A (e3,t)l) = u+v=~
c:;t:ea,U 8 eblv.
product V a €3 vbhas dimension (20 + 1)(2b+ 1 ) while the image 2.5 -7 Lemma, The Clebsch-Gordan coeficients satisfy the fol-
of V 3has dimension ( 2 j 1). Since +
lowing recursion relation
x(2j + 1 ) = (2a + 1)(2b+ 1 )
3
( j+t = ( a + U + l)~:;b:,v,t+l t (b + v + l)'::b:l,t+~.
+ l)ct:%

( j t t ) ! ( j- t ) ! ( a + b - j ) !

( ( 3 ) is the only s p a c e of v 8 v is
P
isomorphic to v'.
Consequently every U ( s l ( 2 ) ) invariant
+ + +
( a u ~ ) ! ( b v + w)!
z!w!(a - u - z ) ! ( b- v - w ) ! '
V3 --+ V a 8 V bmust be a multiple of this map. Z,w:~+w=3-t
1 11
26 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS REPRESENTATIONS OF U(~1(2)) 27

Proof. The recursion relation is found by applying F to both

sides of the equation that defines the Clebsch-Gordan coefficient.
The closed form is determined by solving the recursion using the

2.5.8 D i a g r a m m a t i c s for weight vectors. By definition of

4, the weight vector $ t ( e j , t ) is the image under -kzj of I
m n

where m = j + t, n = j - t. a+u a - u a ~ 6 1 - bv- 3

Y=----T
We represent x (resp. y) by a white (resp. black) vertex with
a string coming out from the top: 6 (resp. ). Then the neight
1

j+t j-t
I These conventions have been known to physicists (see 1161).
E It is convenient to introduce similar diagrams for dual vectors.
I Consider the dual vector space (v1l2)*. We represent the dual From the closed formula given in Lemma 2.5.7 for the Clebsch-
basis vectors x* and y* of tkis dual space diagrammatically by Gordan coefficients, one cannot easily see the symmetry properties
11. 7 aid 7 , respectively. For parallel strings representing tensor
"P<

of the coefficients under replacing ej,m with ej,-,. However, this

products of the fundamental representation, putting one of these symmetry and the probabilistic nature of the coefficients is more
dots on the top of the strings algebraically means that we take apparent in the network evaluation.
the values of the pairing among vectors and dual vectors. In par-
ticular, X means the pairing between x and x* which is equal to 2.6 T h e 6j-symbols. Here we consider the space of U(sl(2))
one. We have, then, that the dual to invariant maps vk-+ Va @I V b@I VC.We will construct such maps
 THECLASSICAL SYMBOL^
A N D QUANTUM
REPRESENTATIONS O F U(SZ(~))

in two different ways. First, consider the composition

(a, b, n), and (n, e , k) form admissible triples, form bases for the
\ \ N vector space of U(sZ(2)) invariant linear maps vk-+ va@vb @VC.

( I2a €3 ','
--
f
fiere pabc = pa @ pb @ pc is the tensor product of the multiplication
maps and d3 : ~j -+ (v1I2)B2j sends a a homogeneous polynomial
in x and y to a symmetric tensor.
k
Ii1 lIi Proof. The triple tensor product Va @ vb @ VC decom-
'I (v1I2)@2k ( v 112 ~ 2 @a ( 112)8 2 6 @ (~.l/~)@2c poses as ($,Vn) €3 VC = $,(Vn €3 VC) where the direct sum
is taken over all n such that (a, b, n) is admissible, by Theo-
/ 11 /I

y.'
I I for various values of j. Second, consider the composition
rem 2.5.5. For each such n, (Vn @ Vc) contains at most one copy
of vk.Thus h ~ m ~ ( , ~ ( ~ V
) )a (@vv~b@VC)
, decomposes as a direct
II~I
11 If

i t /I ab sum of the 1-dimensional spaces h ~ m ~ ( , ~ ( ~ vn

) ) (€3vVC).
~ , Sim-

=( y 812C)o y nc

k
ilarly, it decomposes as a direct sum of the 1-dimensional spaces

V ~€3, V3).
h ~ m u ( ~ i ( z ) ) (Va
I.
I &
I 2.6.2 Definition. Define the Gj-symbol to be the coefficient
for various values of n.
The values of j and n are restricted so that (b, c, j ) , (a, j , k), { ] in the following equation.

' '
(a, b, n), and (n, c, k) all form admissible Lrlples. Alternatively,
if one of these triples is not admissible, then we may declare the
corresponding map V to be the zero man. (Recall
,------
is admissible, then so are the triples obtained by permuting a , b,
t h a t if f n I-
"&.A "
h ;\ I Pa @ Pb @ PC'

2.6.1 Lemma. The sets

a V b A ) a\ b\/c)

as the indices j and n range in such a way that (6, c, j ) , (a, j,k),
By convention, { a b n
} = 0 if any of the triples (0,c,j),

( a ,j , k), (a, 0, n ) , j n , c, k ) is not admissible.

 / 30

1
I/
In the 'paces h o m ~ ( ~ l ( 2 ) )(Vk7Va @ Vb @ Vc), we have the two
bases that are defined by these trees, and the ~ i - ~ is ~the ~ b ~ l
change Of basis matrix. For example, consider the case when =
= =
= l/2- One can compute direct]y from the definitions
that the possible values for j and n are 0 and 1, and that:

{ :;::;; ] -lP, =
Recall that a spin-net is an embedding in the plane of a graph
with edges labeled by non-negative half-integers in which each

{ :;:;;: }
vertex has valence3. The three edges coincident at a vertex must
form an admissible triple. The half-integer labels represent the
= 1,
spin carried by an edge. When we need to emphasize the number

and
{ ti; :;:P } = 3/47
of strings represented by an edge (and hence the number of tensor
factors of the fundamental representation carried by an edge), we
will label the edges with natural numbers that are twice the half-

{ ;;; ;:; } = 1/2. integers. The suffers from this minor inconsistency, but

J i ' S('rfioil 2 fi u r yivc

~ A IYIII 5i1 o :,(t I,(,(! ( c,,, , we have found that the meaning of the labels is clear within the
coll~c'xt111 ~til:t h !i I- \' I1l1~'ll -

addition, we assume that the embedding is in general Po-

we need t~ define an u ( s z ( ~ ) )invariant map
sition with respect t o a fixed height function: Thus each vertex
(V112)@2a@ (v1'2)@2b -+ (v112)B2J,for admissible triples ( a ,b, j ) appears at a distinct level, the critical points on each edge are
as follows: non-degenerate, and these critical points are at distinct levels from
j

n,lI ab
= +2J ( /a+j-b 8 a+b--j
n 8 /j+b-a ) 0 (42,
+2b) .
the vertices. Furthermore, some edges may be marked with 'ym-
metrizers: +. More precisely, we include valence 2 vertices in
I

3
The compositi~nirj 0 which the two incoming edges have the same hbel.
ab
0 (+a 8 mb) : va 8 vb ,vj is also
U(sz(2)) invariant.
~h~ principal results of the current section are the orthogo-
2.6.3
computations. ~h~ elegance of the nality and the EEott-Biedenharn identities that are satisfied
spin-net notation that we have developed so far is the ~ j - ~ ~ We
~ will
b ~give
l ~proofs
. of these relationships (and
it facili-
tates Otherwise tedious calculations. There is others) that are simply manipulations of diagrams. To this end
slight disadvan-
tage in that the calculations are performed in the tensor power, we state a diagrammatic lemma.
32 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

2.6.4 Lemma. The following relationships hold among the

U(sZ(2)) invariant maps )\ , y , 6, Inl and fi. (Here we iden-
tify C 8 V and V for any U ( s l ( 2 ) )space V . )

1. (In 8 ; ) 0 ( 6 8 l , ) = ~ n = ( f i ~l n ) o ( l n 8 6 ) .

Proof. Part 1 follows from Lemma 2.3.2 part 3, and induction

since the cancellation of a U with a n can occur regardless of the
tensor factors on which those maps are acting. Part 2 follows by
induction and part 5 of Lemma 2.3.2. Part 3 follows similarly
using part 4 of Lernma 2.3.2. Part 4 and part 5 are proved using
 2.6.5 Remark. Consider the collection of proper embeddings
of two and three valent graphs in a rectangle whose edges are
parallel to the coordinate axes in the plane. The free end points
of the edges of the graph are embedded in the top and bottom
edges of the rectangle. If two such embedded graphs are isotopic
via an isotopy that keeps the boundary fixed, then there is an
isotopy between them that can be decomposed as a sequence of
~h~~ we have the following calculation.
moves that are the diagrammatic descriptions of items 1 through
5 in Lemma 2.6.4. The valence two vertices are represented in
the Lemma by the projectors, and the valence three vertices are
represented by the Clebsh-Gordan maps.
To find such a nice isotopy, one replaces a given isotopy by
one that is in general position with respect to the height fuliction
defined on the rectangle. The existence of the generic isotopy is
guaranteed by a transversality argument, and a similar transver-
, , i ~ , d ~ C I I I ~ I ( \ I( I ~~ ( ~ ( ~ : I~
I,> ~ ~ -
tl , O: ~ o~ l j \~ I ~I I ~I ~ ~~ ~ I~ I ! . I I ~ ~ 1 ,,

of pieces each of which is of the diagrammatic form specified.

2.6.6 Theorem (Orthogonality). Suppose that (a, b, n),

(c, k,n), (a, b, m), and (c, k, m) are admissible triples. Then then
6j-symbols satisfy the following relation:

Proof. Define

Therefore,
 THECLASSICAL SYMBOLS
A N D QUANTUM REPRESENTATIONS
OF U(sz(2)) 39

. This complex is depicted in Figure 1. Each face

2.6.8 Associating t h e 6j-symbol t o t h e d u a l skeleton of
that occurs when the branch labeled by b'is moved from the
of the Zdimensional complex arises as the cartesian product of an
edge of the tree and a unit interval; the interval factor is thought of
as a time parameter in the deformation between the two trees. The
vertex of the complex occurs as the edge labeled b passes through
the lower junction of three edges. The 2-dimensional complex has
I vertex, 4 edges, and 6 faces; thus it is the dual complex to a
tetrahedron as indicated in the figure.
Let us associate t o this complex a 6j-symbol. Then consider
the orthogonality conditions and the Elliott-Biedenharn identities.
Either side of each equation can be similarly thought of as a 2-
t l l l l l e ~ l ~ l o ~cell
ldl co~iil)lcx.1'01 ~ ~I ' IC~ L
C ~ ~ I I I 111 , IIC'
2 ulle \icil: O [ t11e
orthogonality relation is depicted both as a movie description and
as a 2-dimensional complex; the Zcomplex is the "time elapsed"
version of the accompanying movie. The sucessive stills of the
movie differ by a 6j-symbol and these symbols are associated t o
the vertices of the 2-dimensional complex on the right of the fig-
ure. The trees in the stills are the trees that represent the maps in
the orthogonality relation. Figure 3 depicts the other side of the
orthogonality relation, and the 2-dimensional complex here differs
from the previous one by one of the Matveev moves [25, 16, 321.
Simaarly, Figure 4 depicts in a movie fashion the three trees that

cessive stills in the movie differ by a 6j-symbol. In Figure 5 the

stills in the movie are the trees on the other side of the Elliott-
right side of the tree to the left side of the tree Biedenharn identity. The 2-complex in either figure represents the
 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

Figure 2: A movie of Gj-symbols and ort.hogonality (left hancl side)

Figure 1: A movie of a 6j-symbol and the Matveev complex

Figure 3: A movie of 6j-symbols and orthogonality (right hand

side)

Figure 4: A movie of 6j-symbols and the Elliott-Biedenharn iden-
tity (left hand side)
Figure 5: A movie of 6j-symbols and the Elliott-Biedenharn iden-
tity (right hand side)
dual to the union of tetrahedra - two tetrahedra glued along a
face for Figure 4 and three tetrahedra glued along an edge for
Figure 5. These two complexes are related by a deformation that
is also one of the Matveev moves [25, 16, 321.
Thus the identities expressed among the 6j-symbols are dia-
grammatically expressed as deformations between 2-dimensional
cell complexes. So the use of 6j-symbols in the construction of
the Turaev-Viro invariant appears quite natural in the context of
the representations and their diagrammatic realizations.
However, there are two obstacles to overcome before the defini-
tion of the Turaev-Viro invariant can be made. First, the invariant
is a sum over representations, and since we have irreducible rep-
resentations for all non-negative half-integers j, such a sum would
be infinite, so we cannot use the classical theory of U(sl(2)) to
obtain an invariant. Second, the Gj-symbols that we have defined
( I J J 1101 r1111I ( ~ ~ ~ ~ I I ,~) (l l ~l l l lC~ ~ tI ~ ~ IIII(II 1 IIII, t ill,\ ( , 1 1 1 ~ 1 0 ~I ) ( >
associated to tetrahedra in any meaningful way. We will overcome
the first obstacle in Section 4, by passing to the representations of
U,(s1(2)) for q a root of unity. Professor Biedenharn informs us
that this is the physicist's notion of renormalization since we are
converting an infinite sum to a finite sum. We will overcome the
second obstacle by normalizing the 6j-symbols and by showing
that the normalized versions possess the desired symmetr'y while
still satisfying orthogonality and Elliott-Biedenharn relations.
2.7 Computations. We now express the 6+symbols in terms
of evaluations of certain spin-nets. In particular, we determine
some of the symmetry properties of the 6j-symbols in the current
normalization, and we find a normalization that has full tetrahe-
dral symmetry.
 44 THECLASSICAL
AND Q U A N T U M 63-SYMBOLS KEYKESLN'l.A'l.lVNS O F U (S1(L)) 45

2.7.1 Topological invariance. Let a spin-net be given. This Proof. This follows from the remarks 2.6.5.
network is a graph with its edges labeled by non-negative half-
2.7.3 Lemma. The value of fi: ( v ~ / ~ ) @@"( v ~ / ~ ) @C~ is
-i
integers that has only 2-valent and 3-valent vertices. Two edges
given by
incident at a 2-valent vertex must have the same label, and if
edges with labels a, b, and j are incident at a vertex, then the
triple (a, b, j) is admissible. Choose an embedding of the spin-net
into a rectangle such that the endpoints of free edges (if any) are if ~ j = f jforsome j = 1, ...n,
in(- l)#{"'"k'~) if {xj, fi} = {x, y} for all j = 1, . . . , n
on the top and bottom of the rectangle. Suppose that the labels
of the edges that appear on the top are a l , . . .,a,, and those that
appear on the bottom are bl, . . .,b, where these labels are read
1 where x j , q E {x, y} for all j = 1,. . . ,n.

Proof. This follows by induction, let us exemplify the formula.

from left to right once the rectangle has been embedded in the . 2
In case n = 2, the non-zero values of n are as follows:
plane.
The embedding of the spin-net allows us to define a map

jectors are associated to the 2-valent vertices and maps

and )\ are associated to the 3-valent vertices. At the bottom of

the rectangle the v b s are mapped via q5 into the tensor powers of
the fundamental representation, and at the top the tensor powers -
2.7.4 Lemma. For u + v = j , consider the map,pj o
(Pa @ q5b : Va @ vb-i Vj. We have
are projected back onto the Vas. Some care has to be taken with
regard to the indices along the edges as we indicated in the defi-
nition given in Section 2.6.3. Finally, the embedding of the graph
' is to be in general position with respect to the height function on

2.7.2 Lemma. The map does not depend on the isotopy Proof. Recall that e,,, = xa+" y , that a similar formula for
class (rel. boundary) of the embedding of the given graph in the eb,, holds, and that the image under 4 of a weight vector, ej,t, is
a symmetrized version of it.
 THE CLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-syMBOLS REPRESEN lAllUlV3 U p u \J1\"J/

proof. Since the given composition maps an irreducible repre-

sentation V J into vk,it is O when k # j. And when k = j it is a
constant multiple of the identity. In Theorem 2.5.5 we computed

4a(xa+uya-u)4 4 b ( ~ ~€3 +yb-')))

~

=x 2 ~ ia+b-~ia+b-~( - I ) ~ - u
u+u=1

( -])'-i'
(c,
--
+ 1, - ? ) ' ( ( L t 7 1 ) ' ( h t !))I
.-
(2a)!(Lb)I
Proof. Part ( 1 ) is a direct calculation that can be achieved by
evaluating either side on the highest weight vector, 4J( 2 2 ~ ) . part
( 2 ) follows from ( 1 ) and Lemma 2.7.2 by rotating the vertex of the
right side of the diagram for ( 2 ) 180'. Parts (3) and (4) follow by ( ( a f b - j)!)2(a+b+j+l)!(a+j-b)!(b+j-a)!
on the tensor products of appropriate weight vectors. +
( 2 ~ l ) ! ( at b - j ) !
( a + b - j ) ! ( a + j - b).(
1 b +j - a)!(b +j + a + I)!
(2a)!(2b)!(2jt I ) !
2.7.6 Theorem.
~h~ next to the last equality is a combinatoric identity. The
proof that follows was indicated to us by Rhodes Peele. Consider

where is a Kronecker 6 function, A, = ( - 1 ) 2 ~ ( 2 +

j 11, a + b +j + 1 ) such that the value f ( a +j - b + 1 ) is
@ ( a ,b, k ) =
every element of f ( { a +j - b + 2 , . - ., 2 j + 1 ) ) - We count the
elements of the set B in two ways-
50 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

There are ('+,'tl)

possible choices for the image f ({1, . . ., 2 j + strings (= number of tensor factors of v'f2involved). The loop
+
I)), and each such choice can be arranged in (a j - b)!(b j -a)! + closure of 'Czj gives the value Azj = (-1)~j(2j + 1) which is the
distinct ways while f ({2j + 2,. . .,a + b + j + 1)) can be arranged denominator of the right hand side. The value AZj gives the spe-
in (a + b - j)! distinct ways. Thus cial case when a = 0 of Theorem 2.7.6. The closed network in the
numerator on the right has the value @(a,b, j ) - this is why the
function is named theta.

Alternatively, B = UeBe where Be = { f E B : f ( a + j - b f 1) = 2.7.7 Corollary. Let (a, b,j) denote an admissible triple of half-

f + I), so # B = xe a+b-j' ) possibilities for

#Be. There are (e-(a+j-b)
integers. Then we have equality between the following spin-nets.

the set f -'({l,. . .,!)) since the inverse image must exclude the
+
integers in the closed interval [a j - b + 1 , 2 j+ 11 and include the
integers in the closed interval [I, a+ j - b]. Each such set can be
arranged in l ! distinct ways. Furthermore, f -'({l+ 2,. . . ,a + b +
j + 1)) is determined by f -l({l,. . .,!)) and this can be arranged
in ( u + b + j - e)! distinct ways. So that

Now let C = a + u, and let j = u + v, we have

2.7.8 Lemma. The 6 j symbols possess the following symmetry

(a t j - b)!(b + j - a)!(a + b - j)!.

The required identity follows by rearranging the factors in the Proof. Embed the spin-net in a rectangle with the edges
S

above equation. This completes the proof. labeled m and p attached to the top edge while the edges labeled
The spin-net version of Theorem 2.7.6 is indicated in Corol- s and t are attached to the bottom. By Lemma 2.7.2, the eval-
lary 2.7.7. Here we have labeled the spin-nets with the number of uation of the spin-net remains the same when the cross bar of
52 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

the mH
s t
is rotated clockwise 180' while the end points of the 2.7.10 Lemma. Let TET(a, b, c, d,e, f ) denote the value of the
boundary remain fixed. spin-net depicted below:
Having performed such a rotation, recouple; the 6j-symbol
I

that appears is , where a sum is being taken over

u. Then rotate the (now vertkal) cross bar 180' counterclockwise.

We obtain,

1 Then,

Thus the coefficients are equal since pm @ p po

,Ifu 04,@I&
a ba.sis for the set of U(sZ(2))invariant maps V S@ V t i V m@I VP.
forms

Proof. The proof follows by recoupling and then applying Corol-

1.<IIJ
. . 2.7 , and L C I I ~ L
I .- 2.7.9 ;). I IS). .\
I ; ~ ( ~ f . [!(i]. il<i:ti.l~ of tlic
Sagrammatic proof is shown below.

Proof. Any of these constants is the coefficient Z in the ecluation f

That there is such a constant Zfollows since the space of U(sZ(2))

invariant maps vkmP -+ V m@ VP is 1-dimensional and is spanned
by pm @ pp o Y k
o 4k. We leave it to the reader to draw the
-
-
e d c
corresponding diagrams. a
 54 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM ~ ~ - S Y M B O
9 T

"-- -
1;
i
2.7.11 Remark. In [18] Kauffman and Lins give a closed for-
gives that isoto]
I mula for the value TET(a,b,c,d,e, f ) in both the case at hand
[! and in the quantum case. Furthermore, there are methods to corn- affect the spin-net evaluation. Lemma 2.7.5 indicates how the spin
Pute the values of the 6j-symbols based on the Efiott-Biedenharn net evaluation changes when a crossing is introduced. Changing
I
11 identity [2] or the recursive properties of the projectors [24]. rn orientations can be achieved by twisting the trivalent vertices, and
Section 2.8, we define four fundamental 6j-symbols, and use their strings through as indicated in the diagrams below.
by
11 values and the ELliott-Biedenharn identity to compute the values Here we have indicated crossing information So that the reader
of the 6j-symbols in general. can see how to pull the diporam nn t h e r i ~ h tout to reverse the
ei
I'
,
orientation of the projectec
i* 2.7.12 Lemma. The symbol, .. .

I ---
= T E T ( ~6,, c, d, e, /I/ J I W , 6, I)W, e, m a , c, ~ ) o (c,Be ,) ~
8
is invariant under all permutations of its columns and under
the exchange of any pair of elements in the top row with the

[ 1 :]
corresponding pair in the bottom row. Equivalently, the symbol

$1 kinvariant under the permutations of the set

I (b+f-a)+(a-c-d)+(d+e-f )+(c-~-~)

(I
({a, b, f >,{a, c, d>, {b, c, e l , {d, e, f}}.

(l1i Proof. This set -is the set of vertices of a tetrahedron with

edges hbeled by half-integers a, b, c, d, e, f , such that any element
/I
in the set forms an admissible triple. We choose an embedding of
the 1-skeleton of this tetrahedron into a rectangle (see for example
the diagram below). This embedded labeled graph is a spin-net
I
I and as such determines a U(sl(2)) invariant map c +
[: r ]
B~ Lemma 2.7.10, the normalized 6j coefficient
is the value of the embedded tetrahedral network divided by
the factor J(@(a, b, f)O(d, e, f)@(a,c, d)@(b,c,e)l which possesses
c (such tetrahedral symmetry by definition. This completes the Poof.
56 T H EC L A S S I C AALN D Q U A N T U M
6j-SYMBOLS

2.7.13 Theorem. The orthogonality relation and the Elliott-

Biedenharn relation hold for the normalized 6j-coefficients i n the
following form.
Orthogonality,
.{'Jd k
p }
n

Elliott-Biedenharn:

Proof. These rrs~rltsfollorv from Tbrorerns 2.6.6 r~,,,rl 2.6.7

substitut,io~~, Os
allti ck~,~iceliilg OIL eitlier side oi. tile equations.

2.7.14 Theorem.
= x n( - 1 ) 2 n ( 2 n + 1 d) [ bj f nc ] [
a n p
d k j ]
 ~ L A S S I C A LA N D QUANTUM
6j-syMBOLS REPRESENTATIONS O F U(d(2))

Therefore, comparing the coefficients for fixed m and p,

P r o o f o f p a r t (6).

Next we observe that part (2) follows from (I),part (4) follows

recoupling using the 6j-coefficient

2.8 A recursion f o r m u l a for t h e 6j-symbols. In

Biedenharn-Louck [2], a recursive method to compute the 6 j -
symbols is presented. We summarize this method here.
First, we define the following four 6j-symbols t o be the fun-
On the other hand,
damental 6j-symbols. Their values can be computed by means of
 THE CLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-syMBOLS REPRESENTATIONS O F U(sl(2)) 65

the recursion relation for + given in Section 3.5 a t A = 1. see[241

for details. An alternative computation in the classical case (the
case a t hand) is given in [ l a ] .

sibility conditions force j = f f 112 and k = g f 1/27 yields

2s 112 112 x + 1/2

g+1/2 e-112 f+1/2

2 - 112 112 z + 1/2

g + 112 e - 112 f - 112

2+ 1 / 2 112 x - 1 / 2
g - 112 e - 112 f + 112
2- 112 112 x - 112
g - 112 e - 112 f - 112

(e+c- j)(y+h-~+l)
This pushes everything back t o the case
(e- c + f ) ( e + c + f + l ) ( f + d - g)(g + h - + 1 )
( 2 e ) ( 2 f)(% + 1)(2f + 1)
(e+c- f)(f -d-g)

( e - c + f ) ( e + c + f + l ) ( f- d + g ) ( f + d + g + l )
+
( 2 e ) ( 2 f) ( 2 f +
1)
The coefficients A, B , C , and D are values (with suitable
choices for j and k ) of the product

which can be using the four fundamental 6j-symbols-

2.9 Remarks. In the above discussion, we have reproduced

proofs of the important identities among the Clebsch-Gordan co-
 / 66 SYMBOL^
AND QUANTUM
THECLASSICAL
iR
I '

I)
efficients and the 6j-symbols by means of the spin network anal-
3 Quantum
!!/: ysis of Penrose [27] and Kauffman (16, 181. The diagrammatic or
3.1 Some finite dimensional representations. In Set-
F $1 graphical method seems t o be well known [3, 21 but only with the
tion 2 we showed how the tensor products of finite dimensional
work of [19]and its sequels has this been brought to the fore-front
of sZ(2) can be decomposed.
of the theory. The identities 6.16-6.19 given in [19] for the repre-
In this section we mimic this classical theory in the so-called
/ I/ sentations of the quantum group are given above (for the classical
quantum case where the representation spaces are spaces of hO-
ii case) as Theorems 2.6.7, 2.6.6, and parts of Theorem 2.7.14 (but

/
mogelleous polynomials in two variables that only c ~ m m u t eUP
not respectively).
to a parameter. ~t is these representations that give invariants of
il The fact that these proofs are expressible in terms of simple
'$dimensional manifolds, and physical applications are found in
h
diagrammatic manipulations points to various levels of generaliza-
statistical mechanics where they provide solutions to the Yang-
tion. In the next section we explore one such level: knot theoretic
Baxter equation.
quantization, in which the braid group replaces the permutation
Recall we have ~ o u l ~I IuI C U U L I I J ~ ~r;= y l = - r r u w v A u r r v -- --\-I --
group, and a parameter is inserted into the binor identity. This
V J = {llomogeneous polynomials of degree 2.7 in x and Y). Namely,
notion of quantization coincides with the notion of a quantuln
l f (1 + I ) = 27
Z ~ O I I <~\ \I ( I ( > \ c I < ~ j ) ( l ( \ I>\ . J I I I I I ) O 10
I ~ I , ,-,, <,It</ (, , [, , , + I !>-I
L;[L"~J")=/)I tJ
for example [ll]for further references.)
Some puzzles remain about these techniques. Combinato- ~ )axa-1 y b+l
F ( x ~ Y=
rial identities arise - for example, recursion relations among the
( a - b)
n ( x a y b ) = -xayb.
Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. Are there simple discrete probabilis- 2
tic reasons for these formulas, and if SO, how are the more elemen- n.. ...:+L +Lo nnt-ltinn adanted
h o t t ~ ~ to the theorv of weights,
tary combinatorial formulas expressible diagrammatically?
In the next section we turn to the finite dimensional repre- el,m --
.- z3+m
Y3-m
sentations of the quantum group Uq(s1(2)).We will see the direct
analogy-with the classical case as the theory develops, and in Set- Eel,m = ( j - m)ej,m+l
-
tion 4, we examine in detail the special case when the quantum
parameter is a root of unity.
Fe3,,,, = ( j + m)e3,m-1
Hel,m = me,,,

from which it follows that

IE, F]ej,m = 2me3,m

67
 Ill T H ECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
~ ~ - S Y M B O ~ ~

/I

We want to "quantize," which, in our context, means introduce second, the action of E , F and K is given by
a parameter. Roughly speaking, we want to replace integers n 20
EeJ,m = [ j - m]e~,m+l
by
[nlq = 9n-1 + qn-3 + . . . + q-(n-l) = qn - q-n +
Fe3,m = [ j mIe3,m-1
q - q-l '

If q # 0 is fixed, we will write [n]for [n],. By definition [0] = 0 and Kel,m = ~ ~ ~ e 3 , m

[I] = 1. The theory of the quantum group U,(s1(2)) is particularly from which it follows that
interesting in case the quantum parameter q is a root of unity
because [n]= 0 when q2n = 1. This case will be covered in detail [E, F]e3,m= [2mIe~,m-
in Section 4. # 1 for
~h~ representation V i is irreducible provided /I4' 5 5

3.1.1 Definition. Let q #

0,1, -1 E C . A representation of 2j.
i
Uq(s1(2))is a vector space W with operators E, F , I< ( l i " = " o H ) Prnnf Comnute d irectly the actions of E F , FE, K E , E l i , K F ,
. ---..

1
A

such that
I{2 - I{-2 11 - ,,q2H - q-2H and FIi. The identities for the l i e brackets follow by manipdat-
[E, Fl = -
4 - 4-I Q - 4-I ing the rational functions of q that result. To prove irreducibility,
C . . ^ " _ , __.
Ti I? = q E
r ,
lilese[orc, tile illla,ge ally null-Lc.!.o \cCli)l ~ l i ; i ~ ( 'Ii ) O \ ~ ( ' l ~ 1:
liF = y - l ~ ~ <
and F spans vi.
where [E,FI = E F - FE. The quantum group Uq(s1(2))is the al- o n e of our present goals (Theorem 3.4.1) is to give concrete
gebra over C that is generated by E, F, I<,and K-1; the elements realizations of the abstractly given representations V i . The real-
i:
are subject to the relations specified above. For the tirne being, izations will be !generated from the fundamental representations
we will not deal with this algebra directly, but instead we v 1 l 2 by tensor products. We can take tensor products of quantized
work with it via its representations. ~ h u we
s will only consider
representations because the algebra Uq(s1(2))has a comultiplica-
the entire algebra (and co-algebra) ea: post facto.
tion. Rather than specifying the comultiplication, we wig specify
the action of u q ( s l ( 2 ) )on tensor products of representations; from
3.1.2 Theorem. . The representations vj -of s1(2) be quan- can these formulas the comultiplication can be derived.
tized i n the following sense: Let q # -0,1, -1 E C . Let j
{0,1/2,1,3/2,. . .), and let A E C , where A2 = q. ~h~~~ is 3.1.3 Theorem. Let U and V be representations of U q ( ~ l ( ~ ) ) -
+
a ( 2 j l)-dimensional representation ~i
of ~ , ( ~ 1 ( 2given
)) ab- ( A always,
~ # o,l,-l). Then there is a representation of
stractly as follows: First, a basis for V; is ) ) U 8 V given by the following formulas-
~ , ( ~ 1 ( 2on
 SYMBOL^ '1
A N D QUANTUM
THECLASSICAL 71

lassically, the obvious representation of the symmetric group

Proof. Three relations must be verified. 0
2 j (permuting factors) on ( ~ ' / ~ ) @
commutes
~j with the action of
sz(2) on the same space. The subrepresentation on which EZj acts
3.1.4 Remarks. The representations for the quantum case wiU
.d trivially, namely the space of symmetric tensors, is isomorphic to
be made explicitly analogous to the those of the classical case. In 1,u
the representation VJ of sl(2). Since representations of the braid
particular, we will find the quantum analogues of the spaces of
homogeneous polynomials as irreducible representations and the
quotient representations in the quantized situation, rather than
identification of these with subrepresentations in the tensor prod-
subrepresentations.
uct of copies of the fundamental representation for generic values
dji~i
of the Parameter 9. These subrepresentations are the images of 3.2.1 The Artin braid group B(n) is given by gen-
projectors that are deformations of the projectors in the classical erators and relations as follows:
1'
case.
1; Via such identifications, we will be able to perforlll the dia-
(sl,s z,... s : sxs, = s , s t if l k - j l > l ;

1"' ~ , r a n i n i a l i c(. ( ~ ~ i ~ p 1 1 1 ~ 11 i1 o1 ~r 1i 1I~I I C r l ~ l c ~ l ~ s ~10l l f j, l O , f ,

sical case. Specifically, we will show in the quantum case how

1jiC,

lir Sksk+lSk = ~ ~ + ~ s k s kif+ kl = l " A - - - , n - 2,

111 to decompose tensor products of representations (Clebsch-Gordan
Remark ~h~ braid group is depicted graphically as indicated
Theory), and develop the 6j-symbols and verify their important
~ t i ~bynvertical juxtaposition braid
below. ~ ~ l t i ~ l iis ~achieved
I!'
I'

the so-called trace 0 representations that arise.

3.2 Representations of the braid groups. To construct

the concrete realizations of the quantum representation spaces,
we will find a natural quotient representation of (v;/')@~J that
is U,(sl(2))-isomorphic to V i . To describe the quotient, we in-
troduce an action of the braid group B(2j) on ( ~ ; ' ~ ) @ ~that
3
commutes with the action of U,(s1(2)). Furthermore, for generic
values of q or for q an rth root of unity (where r > 2j), we will The braid diagram for s l s z s l s ~ l
 72 A N D QUANTUM
THECLASSICAL SYMBOL^ b
Q U A N T U M sl(2)

3.2.2 Definitions. Let A # 0 E C be fixed, and let ;

Proof. This follows by computation.

3.2.4 Definition. We define a Uq(s1(2))invariant map (called

Here we redefine the matrix representation of the maps U and n
a positive crossing)
to apply to the quantum case.
Define nn = n : vii2@ viI2+ C = V i via

as follows:

?/ @ x I--+ -iAW1,
and
-1

Define U A = U : V j = C -
Y@Y++O.
v;" @ vlI2by the formula
Observe that ( A ) = A-1 [ ] 4- A [ 1 1 ] .
@
Let the negative crossing be defined as follows:

3.2.3 Lemma. Let A2 = q.

i \ L A /J .

The UA and n~ are Uq(s1(2))invariant.

in section 2, the symbol I denotes the identity map, but here
2. ~ A O U A =O A : C - + c
the domain is v:I2.
is multiplication by - ~ -
2 A-2 = -[21.

3.2.5 Theorem. There is a representation r~ of B ( n ) o n

3. U A o nA = u : vl/2 V;/2
n -+ vy2,g,viI2 ( v : / ~ )defined
@ ~ by
is given by
-. U .

rA(sk) = -/
I ...IY
n (x@x)= nl-J (Y@Y)=~,
k-1 n-k-1

and
4 *+ f o r k = 1,2 ,..., n - 1.

Proof. It is clear that the images of distant braid generators

U
n ( Y @ x ) =X @ y-q-ly@x. commute. That the relations sksk+lsk = sk+lsksk+l hold in the
representation for k = 1 , . . .,n - 2 is a direct computation wl
 11
t 74 A N D QUANTUM
THECLASSICAL 6 j - s ~ ~ ~ Q~U A N~T U M d ( 2 ) 75

li
iI

is usually performed diagrammatically and depends on the far

t '
8
that
proof. The situation is analogous to Lemma 2.4.2 and
rem 3.2.5. So details are omitted.
iJ
il ( n @ I O ( I @ OX(* )) = ( I @ n) 0 ( X ( r f ) €4 ( )
3.3.2 Remark. The relation
where X(&) denotes the positive or negative crossing depicted
above. (See [16] for the diagrammatic version, or compare with h i = (-A2 - ~ - ~ ) h k
Lemma 2.3.2.)
in T L , ( - [ ~ ]cuts
) the braid algebra down to a finite dimensiona1
I 3.2.6 Theorem. Let A E C , q = A2 # O,1, -1, The acttons -
of Uq(si(2)) and of B ( n ) (via T A ) on (v:/~)@" algebra.
1"
(J
I
1
actions.
are commuting

3-3.3 Remark. The formula for p ~ ( s k is

) referred to as
bili
,I; i
Proof. This f~llowsbecause T A is defined in terms of the ~ ~ ( ~ l ( 2 ) ) bracket identity. This identity encapsulates Kauffman's simplifica-
.r
maps and 1 4 1. tion of the Jones polynomial 1161. Recall that the bracket identity
ji ';.:
Il 1 3.3 A finite dimensional quotient of C [ B ( n ) ] . The rep- is given diagrammatically as:
l'p%'llf~t~ions Y..l 1~'Pl.p tliscovcrrt] via f h c . illtcl.r!lc~c]i;il.i.

finite dimensiona.1 algebras that are quotiellts of tile (inlil,ite di-

c.,,,.:;,ii,
'y
/
=jL( X )+ 1 I).
mensiona.1) group algebra of B ( n ) .
Given a knot diagram, K , of a knot, K , the bracket identity
Next we consider the Temperley-Lieb algebra T L , ( ~ ) where
is used to compute a polynomial (K)in A*' by removing each

I
I@
:& 2 and where 6 = - ( A 2 f A-') for some A #0 E C . Recall
,j;) crossing via the bracket identity and associating the loop value
ig that T L n is generated by elements I and hk for k = 1,.. .,n - 1
- ~ - 2 - ~2 to each of the simple closed curves that results in
that are subject to the relations given in Section 2.4.
any of the daughter diagrams. The bracket is an invariant of the
3.3.1 Theorem. For n 2 2 and A # 0 E C there is a surjective regular isotopy class of the diagram, but not of the knot type A'-
algebra homomorphism TO obtain an invariant of K, define
--
PA : C [ B ( n ) ]-, TL,(-[2]) L ( K ) ( A )= ( - A ) - ~ ~ ( ~ ) ( K )
that is defined on generators as f o ~ l o ~ ~ : ..
76 THECLA'SSICAL
AND Q U A N T U M 6j-SYMBOLS QUANTUM d(2)

It is clear that the representation r~ of the braid group defined 3.4 A model for the representations Vi. Let
in Theorem 3.2.5 factors through PA. The algebra TLn(-[2]) is
represented on 2vI@
();"' via the map

be the tensor algebra of v;I2, and let

LA c en(^;/^)
as in the classical case but with = . We have the follow- be the two-sided ideal generated by qx €3 y - y @ x (where q = A2,
A
ing result:
as always), and let
3.3.4 Theorem. The representation ~ 2 A =j LA n (VA112)@ 2 j .
Then there is an isomorphism

is faithful. ~ e n ( v : / ~ ) / ~ a C[x, Y]/(YX

- qxy)

The case when A = 1 is covered in Theorem 2.4.3. The case

i = -1 i t l l l c > ,<IlllC*<l, -4 = 1 l ~ ~ ~ < < lI )LOlL~I L<1~ f J , L ( - [ 2 ] )< l l l < l I t \
1 between the quotient algebra and the algebra of polynomials in
tile I L ~ I I C ~ I ~ I I III ;~ I ,\ ., ,~I 1.11)1(~\ 1 r ~ i l ( l t/ \\ I I O I C 11 1 = (1 I I / (TI\(>
representation OA depend on A only through q = A2. The proof parameter q commutes with x and y as it IS a member of the
of the generic case and of the case that A is a 4rth root of unity ground field.) We will identify these two algebras in the sequel.
and r > n is explained in Section 4.2. The remaining case is Moreover, we have
proven in [7].
T ~ ~ ( v ; / ~ ) /=L ~@ (v1l2)@2j/L;
j=O,l, ...
3.3.5 Notation. Let IA(n) denote the two-sided ideal in
TLn(-121) that is generated by the set {hl,. . .,hn-l}. where
(~1l")ej / L"Aj
3.3.6 Lemma. The ideal IA(n) is a proper ideal, of C-vector %
can be identified with the space of homogeneous polynomials of
space codimension 1 in TL,'(-[2]).
degree 2 j in x and y, where yx = qxy.
Proof. The space TLn(-121) = TL, is spanned by 1 and the A direct computation shows that
monomials in the hk, so the codimension of IA(n) can only be 0 or
1. We need only prove that 1 6IA(n). This is easily seen from the
~2 = I A ( ~ ~ ) (112V )A 82,.

112 @23
" . l ( x 8x 8 . - -8x) =
representation of TLn(-[2]) on ( ~ 1 ' ~ ) ~For Because IA(2j ) is an ideal in T L2, (- [2]) whose action on (VA )
x @ x @ . . . @ x but
, X @ X x . . . @ x .)
@ - - . @ x@ I A ( ~ ) ( x @@ commutes with the action of Uq(s1(2)), it is clear that L? is a
 78 T H EC L A S S I C AALN D Q U A N T U M
6j-SYMBOLS

subrepresentation of ( ~ l / ~ )for
@the
~ jactions of all three of T L Z j , 3.4.2 Lemma.
B ( 2 j ) , and Uq(s1(2)). qXayb) = [ a ] ~ a - b - l x a - l Y b+1
1.
3.4.1 Theorem. The actions of Uq(s1(2)),B ( 2 j ) , and T L z j on
A 1@ 2 J /can
(v1I2 ~ ybe described as follows:
3. l i ( x a y b )= AaVbxayb
1. For T L 2 j :
Proof. Notice that v:/' consists of the set of linear combinations
IW = W , hiw = O for all w E (vA~~)@~~/LZ of x and y. Thus E x = F y = 0 , whi1e.F~= y, E y = x , K x = A x ,
and K y = A-lx. These computations form the initial steps of
2. For B ( 2 j ) : inductions that will follow.
We compute, Ii(xBa @ yBb) = ( K x ) B a @ ( ~ y ) =@Aax@"
~ @
S ~ W= A-lw for all w E ( V , / ~ ) @ ~ ~ / L : :
A-by@b = Aa-bxBa 8 yQb where, for example, xga is the tensor
3. For Uq(s1(2)):There is an isomorphism product of a factors of x. Thus the third identity holds.
By Item ( I ) ,we mean that F ( x g a @ yBb) [ a ] ~ ~ - ~ - ~ x@@ ~ - '
- ,. : 1 .;: - j 1 .. II / ' )'???.i,. / 2 i
,
1
4
: Y ~ ~ ~ ( +m o~ d L,t).
First consider the case whe~e = 0. Illcll lllduct 011 (1. I.0'

F ( x B a ) = F(x@~-'B x >

Henceforth, we will identzfy V i with ( V : " ) @ ~ J / Lvia

~ the iso- =~ ~ F
- 1 ~ @ 8 - X
l + F(x@"-') 8 K x
[ a ] ~ a - l ~ @ a - '@ y (mod L A )

Proof. Item ( 1 ) follows because ~ , ( ( V : ~ ~ )c@L?.~ J Item

) (2) because A1-a + [a - l]Aa+l = [a]Aa-l.
follows from (1) and the bracket identity. Item (3) follows from For general b 2 1,
the next Lemma which indicates that in the case at hand E, F ,
and I i act as quantum differential operators; so these actions are F(x@" @ yBb) = F ( x @@~ yBb-' @ Y )
analogous to those given in Section 2.2. -
- 8 Y @ ~ - ' )@ F y + F ( x B a €3 ymb-l) @ ICY
- [a]~a-bx@a-l @ yb @ A-ly (mod LA.)

The of ( 2 ) follows along the same lines. This completes

the proof of the Lemma 0.
 80 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM SYMBOLS 1
d
3.4.3 Remark. Let XA be the one dimensional character o ~ B ( ~ ) Observe that +,Ais not defined when [n]! = 0; thus we assume
A4T# 1 for 1 5 r < n.
Y
such that xA(si) = A-'. (If A = 1 or -1 then XA factors through further that
I 4

the ~ e r m u t a t i o ngroup En, giving the trivial character (A = 1)or

the sign (A = -1). Thus XA is a sort of "generalized sign".) Part
3.5.2 Theorem [13]. cf. [18, 23, 161. The element 4-1t TL,
111' satisfies the conditions:
1: (2) of Theorem 3.4.1 asserts that the representation of B(2j) on
41
'ijir the space of homogeneous polynomials of degree 2 j in x and y is 1. h, o(+" O/)O
h,o(+! B I) = ( - l ) w h n o ( + k €3 1).
through the character XA. 3 2. +; 04; = 4;.
..
%-
In the next section, we will define for certain values of A, a :
Uq(sl(2)) invariant projector $5 : (V;/~)@U -+ (v~/~)@
whose
~J
4 3. +ao = 4; = o for all u E I A ( ~ ) .
I
image is a subrepresentation that is isomorphic t o Vi. The pro- Moreover, any non-zem element in TL, safisfying these condi-
jection is analogous t o the projection in the classical case, and tions must be equal to 4;.
"!
it we will be able t o construct the quantum Clebsch-~ordan
proof. The recursion relation above defines the projector, 4:.
coefficients and the quantum 6j-symbols.
We will mimic the algebraic proof presented in [16], but here we
3 - 5 The Jones-Wentzl projectors. 111 analoRv wit], t
hc clas- use diagrams. The diagral1lma,tic version of tlle recilr5ion relation
sica.1 ca.se, we will define idempotents, called the Jortes- 13Ve1ztzl , , I * . [11,-11,1,i -,, , ,L.4 (.,., I i

1 projectors,
is depicted as follows:

I! in the algebra of Uq(s1(2)) invariant transformations on ( v ; / ~ ) @ ~ .

3.5.1 Definition. Let A # 0,1, -1 denote a complex number, -39

and let A2 = q. There is a canonical embedding of TL,-l
TL, obtained by juxtaposing a straight string on the right of
every generator in TL,-l.
into

We will consider all of the elements in .

*5

'j
rn

1 -
TL, t o also be in TL,+k for the rest of this section. Define the
7M
We will assunie, by induction, that +;-l+al+ a l , and
=
Jones- Wentzl Projector, 4: E TL, via the recursion relation:
'-8
that +i-lhi = hk+!-, = 0, for 1 < k < n - 2 the case of +f
being trivial. Then we show that
+a =+A, €3 I + ln - 1 1 / [ ~ ] ( + 5€3~I ) h n - ~ (+fl I)

where
4: = I = id : vii2,y;l2. by applying h, t o the recursion for 4; to obtain hn 0 (+A O 1) =
 83

ost horizontal line in the second icon from the left was absorbed

e single vertical strings in the second and fourth icon into the
ring to the left. In this way, the labels on the strings change
om n - 2 to n - 1. (The labels on the vertical strings on the last
on are omitted for type-setting reasons) Furthermore, we have
composition of idempotents. So the above sum reduces to the

- (-PI + En - 11/Inl).

+ [n-l]/[n] n-2
 'I'HE A N D Q U A N T U6M
CLASSICAL j-SY

w e obtain hn 0 (4: @ 1 ) 0 h n ( e 8 1 ) = -[n + l]/[n]hn(+f8 11 and the projectors involving n - 1 strings are absorbed since these
by the identity
are idempotents by induction. So far we have shown that +; are
dempotents. Furthermore, 4; # 0 because the coefficient of 1,
among quantum numbers that is easy to verify. Next we use this n the sum is 1, as can be seen by induction.
t o show that +f+; = +An . By induction and by this recursion relation, h k e = 0 = e h k
if k = 1 , . . ., n - 2. Next we compute hn-l+i =

The last sum is obtained again by the fact that (hn-1e-,)2 =

- [ n ] / [ n- 1]hn-l+i-l and the sum of these two terms is clearly
..
0. By the top/bottom symmetry of the diagrams, it follows that
' I ' , A ~ , - ~= 0. Thus we have an inductive construction for the

Next we show that these elements are unique. Any given ele-
ment in the Temperley-Lieb algebra can be represented as al, +U
where a is in the ground ring, ,1 denotes the identity, and U E
I A ( n ) so that U is a linear combination of products of the h j .
Suppose that g: = g, is a non-zero element of T L , such that
gnIA(n)= (0). Then g, = a ( ,+M = a21, + 2 o l +M2.
~ In particu-
In the fourth term, the icon that represents (hn-l o 8 lar, a2- a = 0 since In 6 IA(n).If a = 0, then 0 = gnu = g i = g,.
is replaced by the icon representing - [ n ] / [ n- l ] h , ( + , ~ _8~12), Hence a = 1. Thus any non-zero idempotent f n that kills IA(n)
 86 THECLASSICAL
AND Q U A N T U M 6j-SYMBOLS
sZ(2)
QUANTUM 87
I
I!

can be written in the form fn = In+U1. Finally, gn = gn(ln+,gl) = 4 First we recall the canonical inductive construction of the set
+
(I, U) fn = f,. This proves uniqueness 0 . =
. of permutations. Let (k, . . .,n) denote the cyclic permutation of
the elements k through n in C,; this cycle (k, . . .,n) can be written
3.5.3 Notation. For every permutation a E C,, define a
braid 13E B(n) as follows. Write a in any way as the product of as a product of adjacent transpositions: (k, . . .,n) = (k, k + 1)(k +
a minimal number of adjacent transpositions (i.e., transpositions
1, k+2)-. . -(n-1, n). To a bijection t : (1,. . .,n) . . .,n), we
-+ (1,
associate a pair (k, tk ), where t(n) = k, t = (k, k + 1,. . . ,n)tk, and
t
P4 of the form ak = (k, k + I)), and let T ( a ) denote this minimal
tk(n) = n so tk can ble regarded as a permutation of (1,. . .,n - 1).
t I
number. Then lift the product to B(n) by replacing each of the . -
In this way, the minimal numbf!r of adjacent transpositions that
I*
14
transpositions ak in the product by the corresponding braid gen-
erator s k . The minimality of the product for a insures that the lift
it takes to write t is 4equal' to
' m
" e minimal number that it takes to

tr write tk plus n - k.
I b will depend only on the permutation a and not on the particular
Consider an ascellding path that starts from the lower left and
14 I*' product representation chosen.
travels upward through the triangle depicted below.
Diagrammatically, the transposition ok is represented by n

'I arcs running down the page in which the kth and (k
cross. The corresponding braid generator
13v
sk

t h e same arcs, where the kt11 arc crosses over t h e k

+ 1)st arcs
can be represented
+ 1st.
( 0 , l ) (1,2)
( 0 , l ) (1,2) ...
. ..
(n-2,n-
(n-2,n-
1) ( n - 1,n)
1)

Next r e p ~ e s e n tthe b ~ a l dg ~ o u pI I I ~ Othe dlgcbld 01 LI~IIS~OI- ( 0 , l ) (1,2)

mations on (v:/~)@~
via the bracket identity. Let [XI denote the (071)
quantum integer that corresponds to the integer x. Finally, let A permutation can be represented by such a path as product
[n]! = [n][n - 11 - - [I]. of the switches to t
the product of the E
3.5.4 Proposition [18]. The Jones-Wentzl projector is also
given by the formula:

P r o o f of Proposition. We must show that the formula above (0, I), (1,2), . . .,(n - 1,n). In fact, such descriptions of permuta- .

defines an element that kills each of the hk, 1 < k < n - 1, and tions by paths always use the minimal number of adjacent trans-
that the coefficient of ,1 is 1 when the sum is expanded in terms positions necessary to write the permutation.
of the standard basis for the Temperley-Lieb algebra. The proof We compute the coefficient of 1, in the sum ~ u E z , , ( ~ - 3 ) T ( u ) 3 .
we present follows [18]. Rarh n ~ r m n t a . t i n nin t h e sum contributes a term of the form
 88 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-syMBOtS UANTUM ~1(2) 89

?.

A - ~ ~ to
( ~the) coefficient of ,1 by the bracket identity. we need 3.5.5 Remark. The formula given above for the projector in-
the computation icates precisely how 4
: is analogous to the classical symmetrize
!.',
ing projection 4,.Moreover, the classica~projection satisfies the
= A*~T(o).
same recursion relation with quantum integers replaced by inte-
i<
a€Cn
gers. such a replacement is an evaluation of the quantum Pro-
To prove this, we use long multiplication to multiply out jector at A = 1, and for that value of A, positive braiding is
I A ~ ( ~[ n- ~~=
!) indistinguishable from negative braiding.
When the Jones-Wentzl projector +,Ais defined ( e - g . whell A
is transcendental), it is a nonzero central idempotent such that
- (A4(,-') + A4tn-') + . . . + A ~ ( ~ +- .~. .)+ 1) . . .( ~ +41)
42.IA(n) = (0). So the Temperley-Lieb algebra has a direct sum
The terms in each of the factors are arranged along the horizon- decomposit~onas scalar multiples of the Jones-Went21 projector
tals in the triangular array that is depicted above. A term in this and the ideal I A ( ~ ) :
expansion corresponds to an ascending path. Moreover, the co-
efficient of
TL,(-[2]) = c+!(33 Ia(n).
when like terms are combined, is the number of
paths that have k: points to their right, and tllis is the number of lve have the direct sum decomposition
r)(:~,t~l~ ~ t a t1 1 1 a t 111itti111i111,~
intis IISO 1; ;i(~,ji,c(tllt I , . ~ , ~ , 5 , ~ ~ ~ s j ~ j ~ l ,.~.i,,~,>
,5~ 1 1 2 ),.:.,, d, 1,;
(\,i - +;A(\,;/~),<JIL
-
coefficient of I, in our expressioll for 4
: is 1.
Now for any given k, the minimal product representations of for representations of B(n) and Up(sl(2)) where
the Permutations can be chosen in such a way that the set of
L; = I A ( ~ ) ( V112A)8"
all permutations is partitioned into a set of words W that do
end wit11 a k = (k, f I), and the set Wok. (For example, is the kernel of the projector 4:. This leads us to the following:
/ the triangular scheme above does this for k = 1.) Clearly, these

-
i11 3.5.6 Definition. A Uq(s1(2))-equivariant map
two sets have the same number of elements, and the number of
i $j = df ;": V: 112 8 2 j
(vA )
transpositions that it takes to write an element wak is one more

I than the number of transpositions that.is takes to write

w E W.
for is defined in terms of 'the projector as follows:

The computation that 0 = ( ~ , , z n ( ~ - 3 ) T t u ) d )hk f o ~ o W S be-

4,(e.
3 3,m
j = A(j+m)(j-m)+A.(x~~+m
8 y~j-'n).
23

cause 6khk = --A3hk, and SO the contribution of word w E w is This formula only makes sense when [2j]! # 0, and thus the
canceled by the contribution of wak. A similar argument value of the quantum parameter is important. When it is de-
that 0 = hi, ( Z , E ~ ~ ( A - ~ ) T (.~This
) ~ ) completes the proof. fined, the map $j is a lift of the map w j (which was defined in
 90 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUMSYMBOLS ) QUANTUM d(2)

Theorem 3.4.1); in other words, pjq5j = wj where pj : (v1I2)@2j_,

( V ~ / ~ ) @ ~is~ the
/ L projection.
T
I 3.5.9 h m m a .

The proposition that follows indicates that the image of $ j is

the quantum analogue of the symmetric polynomials in x and 51.

3.5.7 Proposition. For a + b = n,

-

where where

for R =
t , ( S ) is the minimal nunzber of adjacent tran,spositions that it
~ ( I L ' T . ~112 ~ ~ ~ o ."
i ~!m
c - !/?r .~i!/,sr/ fn -L 1 . . . ..!! -!.-1): (, j. 1 , ; . ! P r o o f of Proposition 3.5.7. .4ssrilning Lemma. 3.5.9 nrc.indrlct.
1 on b. In case 6 = O the result Sollows by usi~lginductioll on ,n a.liti
.
#,- the recursion relation for the projector 4.:
X I/2 823
For general values of b we use the maps 4j : V i -4 (VA )
$
defined above, where j = n/2. On the one hand,

k q5j (Fej,m> = F43 (e3,m)

i$ = A ( J + " ) ( ~ - ~ )n~ ( + A ( ~8@ J+~
y@3-m >1
5
where + i
is evaluated by means of the inductive hypothesis. On
the other hand,
dr

+
$J(Fe,,m) = h ( Z j m ] e , , m - ~ )
q y@~-m+l1.
= [ j + m]~(j+m-l)(~-m+l)+~(x@j+m-l
n

The proof will follow by comparison of the two sides of the

equation once we establish the following:
 Proof. We have for example,

q P p l yLemma 3.6.1 to complete the proof.

1 1
1 3.6.3 Definition.
n-1 n-1 Let U=UA= U* : C 4 n @n vii2. Hav-
ing defined U = U A : C 4 (v:/~)@~("-'), define U = U A to be the
1 ' composition n-1
112 5
~ v,1I2a ...@VA
f i . 3
3.6.2 Lemma.

C q-2tn(R) = 9 -k(n-k)
R C {1, ...,n}
n n
The map n=nA is defined dually, and is also in analogy with
the classical case.

3.6.4 Lemma.

&dl)= ( ~ A ) " - ~ I S I.~ .~@ Z.s 32 . . .@ f

where tn(R) is the minimal number of transpositions that it takes
where
to move the subset R to the subset {n + 1 - k, . . .,n).
Proof. The proof will follow by induction. We indicate the proof
of the first formula; the second follows similarly. and

Also we have,

((x18..-@xn)@(~n@...@Z1)) . .

={O if~~=~~forsomeIc=l,...,n
(iA)n-2S if {xk, Zk) = {x, y) for k = 1,.. . , n
where xk, Z k E {x, y} for all k = 1,2,. . . , n and s = #{k : xk =
Y).
 96 THECLASSICAL SYMBOLS
A N D QUANTUM
QUANTUM sl(2)
97

Proof. As in the classical case, the proof follows by induction I

3.6.6 Theorem. (1) Let A E C. Let (a, b,j) denote an admis-
(See Lemmas 2.7.3 and 2.5.3). In case n = 2 the non-zero values k
sible triple such that if A is a primitive 4rth root of unity, then
are as follows:
1 max {2a, 2b, 2j) < r. Then the Uq(s1(2)) invariant map
y :":

(v:'~)"~' -+ ( v ; ' ~ ) @ ~ ~~
@ 18
v)'(:~~
' is defined and

I j
fi(y@y@x@x)=(i~)-~.
- c
u+v=j
i(b-~)-(a-~)A(b-u)(btutl)-(a-u)(a+~+l)

I (2) Let A E C . Choose a,b E {0,1/2,1,3/2 ,...I so that if A is

3'6'5 Definition. Let j E {0,1/2,1,3/2,. . .). Define a map a primitive l r t h mot of unity, then 2a t 2b < r. There is a direct
+ vj
pj :( ~ j ' ~ ) @ ~ j via
sum decomposition
/cj(X,' @ ~2 @ . . . @ 2 : ~ =~ X)I . X2 . . .. ' ~ 2 j
?,!I @ lfj = @ /LC, CJ /lf,
I
where the lnultiplication on the right occurs in the ring of polyno-
mials in non-commuting varia.hlps ,,~ . ;"
------- -r7 3 ?,- F . ~ ; JJ7 Pj
Q -"-"LL"L
~ , rr~ / ,J/Q\\
+ "q\OO\'='))
~ ~ where the sum is taken over all j such that (7' b , j ) is
map and its kernel is L?. Furthermore, if (a, b, j ) is admissible, then any Uq(s1(2)) invariant
Next we mimic the classical case to define, for (a, b, j ) an ad- map V; -+ V; @ V; is a scalar multiple of Pa @ Pb
missible triple of half-integers, a Uq(s1(2)) invariant map

Proof. Recall that ej,t denotes the weight vector in Vi of weight

t, and that ~ ~ ( e i=, A
~ ()J - " ) ( ~ + ~xjtm
)
ab
b-'. The restrictions on

via the formula and j insure that The formula for pa @

'I' i is defined.

v
. '
ab (4,
i
(ejj))) follows by computa,tion using Lemma-3.6.4,
/
Ima 3.6.2, and Proposition 3.5.7.

-
J
1s
where Im is the identity map on m tensor factors of Vi/2 (Cf. defined and non-zero for all 3 such that (a, b, j ) is admissible and
Section 2.5.4).
that the representations Vi are irreducible since j 5 a -k b < r / 2 *
 i The argument that V j @ VA splits as a direct sum of the images 3.6.10 Lemma. The quantum Clebsch-Gordan coefficients sat-
Ir of the V j follows the same lines as in the proof of Theorem 2.5.5. isfy the following recursion relation
i;
I i

3.6.7 Definition. There is a Uq(s1(2)) invariant map

hlb:
(v;'~)"~~@ -+ ( ~ ; ' ~ ) " ~ j defined
, for admissible triples Hence,
(a, b, j ) as follows:

I
The composition pJ o ,/,
3

(4, 8 &,) : V; 8 V; + V j is also

ab
o
(- l)z~(z-w)(i+t+l) [ a + u + z]![b v w]! + +
l
Uq(s1(2)) invariant, and it corresponds t o the projection of V$@\< [z]![w]![a - u - z]![b - v - w]!
II z,w: z+w=~-t
i onto the direct summand that is isomorphic to Vj. The sum is understood to be over all integers z, w such that z+w =
I
3.6.8 Lemma. For u t v = j, (a, b, j ) admissible, and max 120, j - t and all the factorials are of non-negative integers. Further-

2b, 2 j ) < r if A is a primitive 4rth root of unity, 7ue have more, u, v, and t are weights of V$, v;, and V;, respectively, and
u+v=t.
/ 1 \

by applying F t o the equation that defines the Clebsch-Gor dan

-i
coefficient. The closed form is determined by solving the recursion
Proof. The computation is analogous t o the proof of Lemma 2.7.4, using the value
but relies on Lemma 3.6.2 and Proposition 3.5.7 to take care of a , b . j - i(h-u)-(a-u)A(b-~)(b+v+l)-(a-u)(a+u+l) [a + - jl!
C u , v , ~- [a - u]![b - v]! '
the powers of A.

3.6.9 The quantum Clebsch-Gordan coefficients.

We have maps pa 8 pa 0. Y ab
0 4i : V; -+ V j @ V; when the
3.7 Quantum network evaluation.
sical.case
.
Recall that in the clas-
the key computations were the ev,aluations of the closed
i
triple (a, b, j') is admissible. Define the quantum Clebsch-Gordan "theta-nets" and the closed "tetrahedral" networks. In [18], these
coeficient CZ;;$ to be the coefficient in the sum network evaluations are given in case A = ei"l(2~)and their di-
agrammatic computations can be applied to the case of generic
values of A as well. We use the machinery developed above t o
give alternative computations.
 100 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6 j - s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

3.7.1 Theorem. Let A E C . Choose a, b, j, k E {0,1/2,1,3/2,. .

such that

1. (a, b, k) and (a, b, j) are admissible triples;

2. If A is a primitive 4rth root of unity, then assume that

i
t
a, b, j, k < r/2.
( a+b-j
a-u 1 $a(ea,u) 8 $b(eb,v)) )

L J

where 6; is a Kronecker S function, AJ = (-1)2~[2j + 11, and + b - j]!)"

I . \ I . .
q(b-'JJ(btvtlJ
..\_
la 4- ul![b + vl!
= e3,3(-l)aSb-3
([a
[2a]![2b] ! r-
U+V=Jq ( a - ~ ) ( a + ~ + l ) u]![b - zlj!
@(a,b, k) =
- (-l)"+b-"
[a + b - j]![a +j - b]![b +
j - a]![b + j t a t I]!
1 , ,T, [(I + 1) - 1:lt[rt - b t X I t [ - ( 1 t b -1X ] ~ [ O+ b + 1, 4- 1 ' 1
- e3,3 [2a]![2b]!\21 I]! +
\-1) 'l'llo last ecluahty 1s a
k,, [2a]![2b]![2l;]! ( ~ U ~ I I ~ UC I O~ I~ ~ I ~ I 1C
~ I~ ~d e~ ~Ul t\I i f111~11

analogous to the identity used in the proof of Theorem 2.7.6. Thus

3.7.2 Remark. In case k = j = 0 and a = b, the formula
t o complete the proof we need use the following:
reauces to A, = (-l)""[Za + 11 and this 1s the value of a closed
3.7.3 Lemma.
8% value O(a, b, k ) is the value of a closed network as in the ~ a r"a ~- r a ~ h3 -iq-
L q(a-u)(a+u+l) [a - u]![b - v]!
L

C u+v=j
%
:
Proof. By the assumption on A, the representations V; and V: [a + j - b]![b$ j - a]!
are irreducible. Ther
and when k = j it is a multiple of the identity. Proof. The proof is a yantization of the argument that we gave
during the proof of Theorem 2.7.6. We rely on the quantum combi-
In Theorem 3.6.6
natorial identities stated in Lemma 3.6.2. Furthermore, we recall
weight vector, and in from the proof of Proposition 3.5.4 that
these results and manipulate the expression for the exponent of A
while recalling that A2 = q and obtain the following:
c qk2T(u) = A*"("-1) [I.!
aECn
 103
102 THECLASSICAL
A N D Q U A N T U 6j-SYMB
M

where T ( a ) is the minimal number of transpositions of the for an every element of f ((1,. ..,a + j - b)) and less than every
+
(k, k 1) that it takes to write a. +
merit of f({a + j - b + 2,. .., 2 j 1)). We evaluate LEB
q
2T(u)

Consider a sequence 0 = a0 < al < . . . < a, = n, and I two ways to obtain the desired identity-
is a subset
f : {I,. . . ,n) -+ (1, . . .,n) denote a bijection for which the , on the one hand, when S C { I , . . - a + + j +
7

strictions f + ,. . - ,aP+l) are increasing for 0 5 p 5 -

Thus when T = 2, the permutation f acts like a shuffleto a deck
B~ ={a E B : a ( { 2 j + 2 , . . . , a + b + j + l ) ) = S } .
cards- An arbitrary permutation up of the set {a, + 1,. . . ,ap+ll,
is extended to a permutation of 11,. . .,n) by the identity. ~h~~ For such an S, let fs be the unique permutation of - +b +
compute the number of adjacent transpositions that it takes to + 1) such that fs E Bs and the restrictions f \{I,. . . ,23 1) +
write f 0 (goal . - to obtain are both increasing.
andfI{2j+2,...,a+b+j+l}
T-1 The set B can be written as the disjoint union of the sets Bs
T(f (0001 . . . a ,-I)) = T(f) +xT(ap). as s ranges over subsets of size a + 6 - j- Furthermore,
p=o

(The preceding formula follows rather easily from the depiction of B~ = {fso (alanaa) : 01 E x{l,...,a+j-b),
permutations as strings crossinq in the planc.)
111 a si111ilar f a s l ~ i oif'~JF1Ii
~
~ p + 1 , . . . , ~ p + lis} increasing for
O<p<r-1,then
From this formulation we have,

If f : {I,...,n) + {I,.. .,n) is a bijection such that the

restrictions of f to (1,. . . ,m) and to {m + 1.. .,n) are both in-
creasing, then where the exponent is given by

N = (a+j-b)( .+j-&l>r(b+j-a)(b+j-aa1M
+ +
a b-3) (a b-j-1
-

because t,( f ({m + 1,. . .,n))) is the minimal number of trans- Next we sum over all the subsets S to obtain
positions that is needed to put f({m + 1 , . . .,n)) back into its
standard position.
Consider the set, B , of bijections f : {1,2,. . ., a + b +j + 1) -+

{1,2, ..., a + b + j + l ) s u c h t h a t t h e v a l u e f ( a + j - b + l ) i s g r e a t e r
1
i
104 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM SYMBOL^

On the other hand, we compute cEB
~ ~ ~ by( examining
" 1 the
images of the various a. Specifically, for a + j - b < C < 2a, let
E
the number required to move S into the final position, i.e. t(S).
' Recapitulating,
F
i
T(ge,s) = (C - a - j + b)(a + b + j + 1- C) - t(S).
We recall from Lemma 3.6.2 that

Then B is the disjoint union of the Bes.

F o r a + j - b I C I 2 a , a n d f o r S ~ - { 2 j t 2 , . .. , a + b + j + l )
of size IS1 = C - (a t j - b), let

Let ge,s be the unique bijection on {1,2, . . .,a + b + j + 1) such Putting everything together, we get
that ge,s E Be,s and the restrictions of giito each of (1,. . . , e l
and {C + 2 . . . . . n + b + j + 1) are both increasing. Then Br is the
( l ~ , i o ~ i l~i l il $ 1 *IS1 IIP /I, ,. < \ I ~ ( Y

As before, we examine the number of adjacent transpositions re-

quired to write various permutations, and obtain
= AP C q2e(.i+l) [[]![a + b + j - C]!
e

oEBe,s
q 2 ~ ( u )= ( q 2 ~ ( g e , s ) ) (= .(
q2~iul)) q2~(u2))
where the exponent E is given as

= ~ ~ q ~ ~ ( g e , s ) [+
C b] !+[ ja - C]!
and the related exponent P is the following
-.
where theesponent M = C ( C - l ) + ( a + b + j - C ) ( a + b + j - C - I ) .
observe that T ( g e , ~ )is the number of transpositions of the
P = (a+b+j)(a+b+ j-1)-4( a + j - b)(b + j_+1).
form (k, k + 1) that are needed to move {a + j - b + 1 , . . .,C} Set e = a+u and set j = u+v, and compare the two expressions
into the set S. This is the number of transpositions required to for CuGB
q2T(a).We get
move {a + j - b + 1 , . ..,C) into the final position in the interval
q2("+")(j+l)I" + ~ l ! [ b "'"
{I,. . . , a +b +j + I}, which is IS[(a b j + + +
1 - e), minus
u+v=j [a - u]![b
J-
106 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM SYMBOL^

Lemma 3.7.3 follows by manipulating the exponents. This corn-. for various values of j. Second, consider the composition
pletes the proof of Theorem 3.7.1.

3.7.4 Remark. In case A is a primitive 4rth root of unity,

@(a,b, j ) # + +
0 precisely when a b j 5 ( r - 2). We will give the
representation theoretic meaning in Section 4.

3.8 The q u a n t u m 6j-symbols - generic case. In this

section we define the quantum 6j-symbols in case A is not a root
for various values of n.
of unity, and verify that the Elliott-Biedenharn identity and the
The values of j and n are restricted so that (b,c, j), (a, j, k),
orthogonality identity hold here. In Lemma 3.10.9 we establish
(a, b, n), and (n, c, k ) all form admissible triples. Alternatively, if
the diagrammatic rules that are necessary to prove the analogues
one of these triples is not admissible, then we declare the corre-
of the identities give11 in Theore111 2.7.14.We esar-tlinc the svm- \ I
I
108 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM SYMBOL^
I
! 3.8.3 Definition. Define the quantum 6j-symbol to be the and
{ }
!

coefficient in the following equation.

4
Observe that these calculations are analogous to the classical case.
Moreover, the recursive method given in Section 2.8 that is used
to compute the values of the 6j-symbols in general also applies to
the quantum case.

3.8.4 Identities a m o n g diagrams. The key to simplifying the

computations of the classical case was t o derive identities among
the diagrams that represented various maps. To this end we ob-
serve that Theorem 3.7.1 gives the evaluation of the closed theta
network for certain values of (a, b, j).
The identities that are expressed in Lemma 2.6.4 and their
proofs go over to the quantum case as theg are stated. The essence

( a , j , k), (a, b, n), (n, C,k) is not admissible. The matrix on the left represents the maps U and n, and this
For example, consider the case when a = b = c = = 112. element squared represents the composition of the operators fl €4
One can compute directly from the definitions that

3.8.5 T h e o r e m (Orthogonality). Suppose that qr # 1. The

quantum 6j-symbols satisfy the following relation: .

Proof. Identical to the proof of Theorem 2.6.6.

3.8.6 T h e o r e m (Elliott-Biedenharn Identity). The follow-

ing relation holds among the 6j-symbols when qT # 1.
 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS UANTUM ~ l (

Two tangle diagrams are regularly isotopic if one can be ob-

tained from the other by a sequence of the type I1 and type I11
Reidemeister moves. More precisely, when a height function is
chosen on the plane of projection, then the 3-dimensional ana-
logues of the identities expressed in Lemma 2.3.2 together with
the diagrammatic representations of the identities s,syl = 1,
- sjsj+l sj = sj+lsjsj+l, and their obvious variants obtained by
changing appropriate crossings are the moves that generate regu-
lar isotopy of tangle diagrams. These last two moves are depicted
below. Thus a regular isotopy is a sequence of these diagrammatic
Figure 6: A tangle diagram
moves, and each such move corresponds to an identity between
f maps represented by the respective diagrams.
3.10.1 Definition. A tangle diagram is a diagram of a collection
of knotted and linked proper arcs and circles in a rectangular box
in which the arcs in the diagram terminate on the top and bottom
rectangular faces of the box. The box is projected to the plane of I l l
the paper, and the diagralll is a.ssiuucd to b(! 111 ~ c ~ l c r posibion
al
meaning that a t most two arcs cross at a given point, and such
a crossing is transverse. The diagram depicts over and under
crossing information in the standard way: a t a crossing point, the
arc that is farthest from the plane of projection is broken. An
example of a tangle d.iagram is given in Figure 6.
A tangle diagram for which n arcs come out of the bottom
of the diagram and m arcs come out of the top of the diagram
represents a map We have established the following:

T:(V, 1 ,
112 8 n
(Vl/2)8m
3.10.2 Lemma. (cf. Lemma 2.7.2). Regularly isotopic tangle
via the association of maps n and U to generic maximal and min- diagrams with n strings at the bottom and rn strings at the top
imal points and via the association of the bracket identity to each represent the same map
crossing. In the sequel, we will identify the diagram and the rep-
resented map. T : (v:/~)@~-+ (v:/~)@~.
114 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS 115

3.10.3 Definition. Let a, b E (0,1/2,1,. . .). Define maps Suppose that 2b strings come out of the top left edge of the
I;:(+) "nd I;:(-) that are quantizations of the map that switches tangle S , suppose that 2a strings come out of the top right of S,
factors defined in Lemma 2.7.5. Thus, and 2 j strings come out of the bottom of S. The top-right, top-
left, and bottom of the tangle are called the a , ,f3 and y regions of
the boundary, respectively. Thus S represents a map ( V ; I ~ ) @ -+
~~
The (unquantized) switching map X:t can be written as a prod- (v;/~)@~'@ (v:'~)@~~.The strings that come out of the coupon
uct of adjacent transpositions since it represents a permutation; are represented by the three ribbons in the picture below.
choose a minimal such product. Each transposition uk ='(k, k t 1) We will compare the composition Kt:(+) o S to the composi-
in the product is lifted to a braid generator ci,, = sk to define tion (Tz,(-) @ T2b(-)) 0 2 0 Tzj(+) where each of these tangles
&$(+), and it is lifted to &-I = s i l to define Kt:(-). Hence, in is associated canonically with a map among tensor powers of the
the diagrammatic representation of Kt:(+) the 2a strings on the fundamental representation.
left cross over the 2b strings on the right as one reads from top to
3.10.5 Observation. The diagrams depicted below are isotopic
bottom; in Xt:(-) the strings on the top right cross over those on
but not necessarily regularly isotopic diagrams. The isotopies fin:
the top left.
.1/2..>, 11.2 . . , L , ,
])cfilLe i~kapsI ; , , ( & ) : J -" - 1 tl~i1.1,i i ~ . ~I.O~II'C~-
' //I( ((I</, (I-f !h(
.q O I I / ~ O ; I I / ~~ < / i ~ t ? , % ,

sented by half-twists in the cable of n-strings. Specifically, the

half-twists can be spelled out in terms of braid generators as the
products:

Tn(-) = (S;~)(S;~S;I) - .. (S,~~S,:~- .ST')

while Z
Tn(+) = (sl . . .sn-2~,-1)(sls2 - - .sn-3sn-2) . . - ( s I s ~ ) ~ I .
To obtain the desired maps, It:(&) and Tn(f) apply the bracket
identity t o each braid generator in the product. -

3.10.4 Notation. Suppose that S is a planar tangle with no

closed loops. Thus S consists of properly embedded arcs in the
rectangular region containing S. We depict S as a rectangular Demonstration. Cut out a piece of paper in the shape of a
coupon as in the illustration on the left below. The tangle is a thick Y with fairly long edges. Arrange the edges with a crossing
180' rotation of S through a vertical axis. as in the left hand diagram and tape the ends to a table. Write
 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
63-SYMBOLS 4 2 )
QUANTUM

the letter S on the neighborhood of the vertex of the Y. Then f and

rotate the vertex about the vertical axis. This gives the isotopy. 6 OX.(*) = (-aA3). o(Tn(+) 8 Tn(+))

The maps that are represented by the diagram on the left and where X,(f) denotes n strings crossing from top left to lower right
the diagram on the right differ by a factor of ( - A ~ ) ' ~ , for such a over/under n strings running from lower left to upper right, re-
factor measures the difference between isotopy and regular isotopy. spectively.
We next quantify that difference.
Proof. Bracket aficionados will recognize that
In the planar tangle-S (with ,8 region on the upper left, a region
on the upper right, and y region on the bottom edge) suppose that X(f)u = (-A)*~u
x strings start and end in the p region, r strings start and end
I in the a region, p strings start and end in the y region, w strings and
run between the ,8 and the cr region, u strings run between the p nX(k) = ( - ~ ) * ~ n ,
and y regions, and t strings run between the cr and the y region. -
"-
with signs read respectively. (Non-ahcionados are encouraged to
Otherwise the diagram for S can be quite arbitrary, and there is
111 follows I,y ind~~ct.io~t.
~ i o, I ~ ~ ~ ion
I I I ~I 1I ) o~1 11 11c
t 1 1 c ~ \ 1I I I P , 01 i ~ l f ~ l . li11g
i~( of ~ ~ P S~ tFr i l l q \
Tlle LI.ILI\ 1s to l e g u I a l I y 15o~opc
beyond the condition that no strings cross. The tangle Z denotes ;d A
,

01
L, ,a -
Lne alagram. u
the map represented by a rotation of S by 180' about the vertical
The diagrams representing Xn(f) ?J and fi In(&) will be called
axis.

i 3.10.6 L e m m a . In the notation above For the case in which x = r = w = a = b = 0 and p = n

we have the first equation below. The second equation below
corresponds t o the case when all strings start and end in either
the a or the /3 region; i.e. j = 0 and either a = 0 or b = 0.
Proof. We establish some special cases then we will proceed to
1
I
the general result. 3.10.8 S u b l e r n m a ( c a s e 2).
t
i Corresponding to the case x = r = p = u = t = 0 and

I
w = 2a = 2b = n in the notation above, we have the first equation ?I= ( - A ~ ?I) ~
oT2,(f)
~
in the following:

3.10.7 S u b l e m m a (Case 1). 6=( - A ~ ) * ~ T ~ , ( + )I?o

where the signs are read respectively.
 118 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

Proof. We induct on n. The case n = 1 is the same as Case

1 above when n = 1. For larger values of n, one small kink can
be canceled from the diagram representing the map on the right
(of either equation) at the expense of multiplying that factor by
(-A~)*~ .
Because T represents a complete half-twist, the arc from
which the kink has been canceled can be isotoped away from the
rest of the diagram.

We turn now to the proof of the general result. Let S' denote
the tangle obtained by twisting the w curlicues out of )$:(+) o S.
Specifically, in each string that runs between the CY and P regions,
the small loop is removed. These loops are removed successively.
Thus we replace Xw(+) o Uw by (Tw(-) @ Tw(-)) o U
,. Then

as in Case 1.

Similarly, let Z' denote the result of removing the curlicues

from the T,X, and p strings that run back and forth to the a,
p, and y regions, respectively. The nesting among arcs that run
back and forth to a given region is not relevant, as can be seen by
examining the figure below. In this way we obtain, Furthermore, Z' and-S' are regularly isotopic, and thus rep-
resent the same map from ( ~ i / ~ ) ' @to
~ j( ~ i / ~ @) (v1I2
@A ~ )8%
~ .

(T2,(-) @ T2b(-)) o Z o T2j(+) = ( - A ~ ) ~ - ~ - ' Z ' )$:(+) 0 S=(-A~)~s'

= ( - A 3 ) ~ ~=' ( - A ~ ) ~ + " + T(T2a(-)
-P 8 T2b(-)) 0 0 T2j(+)-
by Case 2. This completes the proof.

1
120 T H EC L A S S I C AALN D Q U A N T U M
~ ~ - S Y M B O ~ ~

3.10.9 Lemma. The following identities hold among the Uq(s1(2))

invariant maps.

Proof. \,\'(, 115t 3.10.6

L!tl~iil~a. I\!(.
t.o provc it.cn.1 I as follo\~~s.

restrict to the case of Xi:(+),the negative crossing case is similar.

The map Y ba
can be written as a linear combination of maps

f o h v s . Expand each of the projectors %a, 4tb,and +fj in terms

of the bracket identity. Replace any closed loop that might appear
in the expansion by the factor -A2 - A-2. Thus we have

where f s ( A ) is a polynomial in Af and the sum is over all planar

tangles S with 2b + 2a outputs on the top and 23' outputs on the
bottom. Next we consider the exponent on the factor -A3 on the
right hand side of 3.10.6. We have

x+r+w-p=a+b-j
122 T H EC L A S S I C AALN D Q U A N T U M
6j-SYMBOLS

regardless of the planar tangle S. This gives Item 2 follows from item 1 by techniques of regular isotopy.
Items 3 and 4 follow trivially from the invariance of the map
represented by regularly isotopic diagrams.

3.11 Symmetries. Here the twisting rules will be used to

adjust the 6j-symbol to one that has full tetrahedral symmetry.

because the projector +,Ais invariant under 180' rotation for n =

3.1 1.1 Lemma. The quantum 6j-symbols possess the followiny
2b, 2b, 2j.
symmetry
The second step of the proof is now relatively easy. Observe
that
Tn(-)0 +; = A"("-')/~+A n-

This follows by-applying the bracket relation to each of the neg- Proof. Identical to Lemma 2.7.8. U
ative crossings in the half-twist. In the bracket relation either
3.11.2 Lemma.
stra.ig11tstrings or lnasilnum and minimum points result. The op-
\

annihilated by the Jones-Wentzl projectors. Consequently, all of

these terms with a coefficient of A-' vanish in the bracket expan-
sion. Similarly we compute

where the functions @(-, -, -) and A are defined as i n Theo-

Combining results we have

3.11.3 Lemma. The symbol, -

a+b-j~3(a+b-j)~a(Pa-I)+b(2b-l)-j(2j-l)

= (-l)a+b-i~2(a(a+l)+b(b+l)-j(j+l))

This completes the proof of item 1.

 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

where a choice of each square root is made once and for all, is
invariant under all permutations of its columns and under the ex-
change of any pair of elements i n the top row with the correspond-
+
[: t ]
where Ak = ( - 1 ) ~ ~ [ 2 k 11.
ing pair i n the bottom row. Equivalently, the symbol
9
Proof. This is a direct computation. EI
is invariant under the permutations of the set
3.11.5 Remark. These identities are slightly different than
{ { a , b, f 1,{ a , c , d l , {b,c, e l , {d, e, f }1. -
they appear in the classical case. In that case, our choices of the
r

b c j
symbol were motivated by the desire to make con-
Proof. The proof of Lemma 2.7.12 needs t o be modified as fol-
L -
lows. When the closed tetrahedral network depicted in that proof tact with the existing literature, specifically [2]. In the quantum
is rotated through space to reverse its orientation, four twists at case, these identities coincide exactly with those in [32].
the vertices are added. Each of these twists contributes a factor
of An where n , by Lemma 3.10.9, depends on the labels at the 3.12 Theorem.

vertices. A careful count indicates that these powers of A cancel.

n
U

In [24], Masbaum and Vogel use the recursion relation for the
Jones-Wentzl projectors t o give a formula for the quantum 6j-
A.,
svmbols. See also Section 2.8.

3.11.4 Theorem. The orthogonality relation and the

Elliott-Biedenharn relation hold for the normalized quantum 6j74
coefficients i n the following form.
b Orthogonality,

Elliott-Biedenharn:
 .
THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

4 The Quantum Trace and Color Repre-

sentat ions
= E(-
n
l)k+c+n+m A2(k(li+l)+c(c+l)+n(n+l)+m(m+ 1)).

In this section we will define the quantum trace and use it in the

{ ;} , { } , { ;1 , . case where A is a root of unity to distinguish representations that

are not used in the topological applications that we have in mind.
The representation theory of Uq(s1(2)) in the root of unity case
3. 12a12b = z3@ ( a ,b, j ) is worked out in [20] under the assumption that E and F are
nilpotent and I(; is of finite order where the orders are determined
4. by the value of q. We will not need to make that assumption as it
a+b-kA2(k(k++l)-a(a+l)-b(b+l))~, b, k)
(-1) holds on all the representations that we consider, nor do we need
- 'y(-1)a+b--3 to classify all of the representations of Uq(s1(2)).
3

4.1 The quantum trace. We will define the trace of a linear

'2
,12(a(b+l)+b(b+l)-1(~+1))@((~,

{UZ }
b13)
Proof. The proof follows along the same lines as in the proof
of Theorem 2.7.14, but crossings are lifted to over and under cross-
ings in a consistent manner so that the diagrams can be isotoped in
3-dimensional space. The remaining details are left to the reader.
1I 0
I 3.12.1 Remark. Similar identities hold for the normalized 6j-
symbols as well.
I g
map f : W - 147 in case Mr 15 a lT,(s1(2)) ~epresentation.This
notion of trace is quite versa.tile. In particular, such a, tra.ce a.1-
lowed Jones [12] to define an invariant of knots via braid group
representations. Lickerish's [23] combinatorial definition of the
Reshetikhin-Turaev invariants [29] is given via the trace. Lick-
orish's techniques are employed in Section 4.2 in order to prove
that the matrix representation of the Temperley-Lieb algebra is
faithful for generic values of q.
Finally, we will use the trace to characterize certain represen-
tations in the case when A = eZ"/(2T)(or any other primitive 4rth
root of unity). The tensor power (vif2)@Indecomposes as a direct
sum of a trace 0 summand and a sum of representations Vi where
j is taken from the finite set (0,112, . . . ,( r - 2)/2). By excluding
the representations that have trace 0, we will be able to define the
Turaev-Viro [32] invariant as a state summation.
 128 T H ECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS T H EQUANTUM
TRACEA N D COLORREPRESENTATIONS129

4.1.1 Definition. Let W be a representation space for Uq(s1(2)).

Then the quantum trace of a linear map f : W + W is the ordi-
nary trace of the map K 2 o f .
In particular, if

L : (vy2)@n 112 @n
-+ (VA )

denotes a linear map, then

tr,(L) = t r ( l i 2 o L ) . "..--'
Consider the bases { f s : S C {1,2,. . .,n ) ) and {fs : S c
Figure 7: The braid closure of a tangle
{1,2,. . . , n ) ) for ( v : / ~where
)@~ f, = xf 8 - - .8 x z and f, =
z,S 8 . . .8 ~f with
Proof. The second equality follows because Ir' fs = A ~ ( ' / ~ - "fs
/ ~=)
x if j @ S ~ ~ 1 ~ Tl = # { k : x z = x ) and s = # { k : x: = Y).
- fS~ where For
XjS =
y if j E S the first formula, wc compute using Lemma 3.6.4

and
- ( z if ~ F S i4 o ( L @ In)o ilr ( 1 ) = ij o(L 9 1,)

1 and the sum is taken over all subsets R c ( 1 , . . ., n).

C
1 4.1.2 Lemma.
= (-1)n-
S C { ...,
~ ,n }
~ 2 ( n - 2 1 s l ) ~ ~ ~

This completes the proof.

4.1.3 Remark. The point of the Lemma is, for maps L defined

I ."1.
S <

where the sum is taken over the set of all subsets S C {I,. - . on ( v ; / ~ ) @in~ terms of Temperley-Lieb elements, the trace of the
130 T H ECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
63-SYMBOLS
operator can be computed by the bracket expansion of the braid
closure of the operator; the braid closure of a tangle diagram is
depicted in Figure 7. In particular, we apply the Lemma to the
Jones-Wentzl projectors to obtain the following:
4.1.4 Proposition. Suppose that A4T # 1, or if A is a primitive
4rth root of unity, then suppose that n < r - 1.
In particular, if A is a primitive 4rth root of unity and i f n = r - 1,
then
trq(C-")= 0.
Proof. The proof follows from comments made in Remark 3.7.2.
4.1.5 Definition. Now suppose A = e"il(27'),
and as usual,, let
trace 0 if trq(f ) = t r ( K 2o f ) = 0 for every Uq(s1(2))invariant map
4.2 A bilinear f o r m o n tangle diagrams. Recall that a
tangle diagram is a diagram of arcs embedded in a thin rectan-
gular prism obtained by projecting in the short direction onto a
rectangular face and depicting crossing information by breaking
the arc at an intersection point that is farthest away from the
plane of projection. Now suppose that such a diagram h s the
same number of incoming and outgoing strands, say n. Such a
tangle diagram (in general position wi.th respect to a height func-
tion) represents a map (v:'~)@"
-+ (v:l2)gn via the association
of n, and U to the maximal and minimal points respectively, and
T H EQUANTUM
TRACEAND COLORREPRESENTATIONS131
the association of the bracket identity to each crossing. Regu-
larly isotopic diagrams where the end points are fixed during the
isotopy determine the same maps.
Let I, denote the set linear combinations of such tangle dia-
grams. The bilinear form
is defined as the h e a r extension of the map defined on tangles S
and M by:
(S,M) =; o(S @ M ) o ir
where W is a rotation of the tangle M through 180" about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the dia.gra.m. The second cqua.lity
follows because the diagrams representing these tangles a.re regu-
larly isotopic. The image of (., -) is C by evaluating the diagrams
via the bracket identity; the parameter A is assumed to be a non-
zero complex number.
The Temperley-Lieb algebra, TL,, has dimension (:)/(n+ 1).
A vector space basis is a certain set of monomials in the generators
(1, hl, - -,h,-I}. Because of the relations among the products of
these generators, any monomial can be put into a normal form.
We will not list the normal form monomials here, but we will
assume that these form a basis.
We can mod out the free module generated by regular isotopy
classes of tangle diagrams by the ideal generated by the bracket
relation and the relation that the loop value is 6. In this way, every
n-string tangle diagram can be written as a linear combination of
elements in the basis of TL,. A matrix representation of the inner
132 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS THEQUANTUM
TRACE
A N D COLORREPRESENTATIONS 133

product (., 0 ) is given as the collection In [21] KOand Smolinski show that all the roots of the equation
det T, = 0 are of the form 6 = 2 cos kn/(m + 1) where 1 < m < n
and 1 5 k < m. So T, is non-singular unless A is a 4rth root of
where w j and wk range over the set of normal form monomials. unity and n > r - 1. This completes the proof.
For example, when n = 3, the matrix is the matrix
4.2.2 Remark. The singularity of the pairing (., .) when n >
r - 1 is a key ingredient in Lickerish's [23] construction of the
- S 3 S2 S2 6 6 - .
Reshetikhin-Turaev invariants. KO and Smolinsky give an ele-
S2 6 63 S2 S2
mentary combinatorial proof of this singularity via a recursive
S2 S3 6 .S2 6'
construction of the Temperley-Lieb basis. The proof of singular-
6 d2 S2 6 S3
ity is originally due to Jones [13].
6 S2 S2 S3 S3 -
Our proof of faithfulness breaks down in case the matrix Tn is
where S is the value associated to any simple closed curve, and
singular, but according to [7] the representation BA is faithful in
the ordered basis of the algebra TL3 is (13, hl, h2, hlh2, h2hl).
a.11 ca.ses except possibly when A = -1. Their proof follows along
the sa.nic li~icsas ours ill t,l~ccla.ssical ca.scl n.llic.11 ; ~ i s oc.o\.cr:, ;.!lo
because this is the loop value associated to the identification
case of A = -1.
U
n I+ [0, iA, - i ~ - ' , 0It. [0, iA, - i ~ - l , 01.
4.3 Color representations. We keep to the case that A is a
More generally, 6 is the loop value in C of the Temperley-Lieb primitive 4rth root of unity with the integer r 2 3. In this case
algebra regardless of the representation. [T] = 0. For such values of A define the set of colors to be the
set {0,1/2,1,3/2, ...,( r - 2)/2). We will consider representations
4.2.1 Proof of Theorem 3.3.4. This proof was indicated to
vi where j is a color, for these representations are irreducible and
us by Paul Melvin. Let T, denote the matrix of the inner product
by computing modulo the trace zero representations, we will still
(., .) defined on n-string tangles with respect to the basis of normal
have a Clebsch-Gordan theory.
form monomials in the generators 1, h l , . . . ,h,-l. Observe that
4.3.1 Lemma. The representation V i is not of trace 0 if a is
det T, is a polynomial function of thk loop value 6. Under the
given representation 6 = -A2 - A-2. a color. I t is of trace 0 if a = ( r - 1)/2.

The representation, Proof. A computation with weight vectors shows that the rep-
resentation V i is irreducible when a < ( r - 1)/2. By Schur's
Lemma, any Uq(s1(2)) map is a multiple of the identity. It suf-
of the Temperley-Lieb algebra into a matrix algebra is faithful fices to compute trq(+&) = [2a + 11 (Lemma 4.1.4); this trace is
when the matrix Tn is non-singular. non-zero unless a = (T - 1)/2.
134 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS T H EQUANTUM
TRACEAND COLORREPRESENTATIONS135

4.3.2 Definition. A q-admissible triple is a triple (a, b, j ) of col- Proof. Let 4 : M 8 v;/'
M 8 v;/' be a Uq(s1(2)) invariant
+
ors such that map. Define an invariant map 4 : M -t M by the formula

1. a + b + j is an integer; 4= ( 1 8 ~n) ( 4 8 I) 0 (IM 8 u)

2. a + b - j , b + j - a, and j $ a - b are all > 0; mapping

The role of the last condition is as follows. When A is a prim- An algebraic computation shows that trq(4) = -trq($). Since M
itive 4rth root of unity and when (a, b, j) is q-admissible, then the
-
has trace zero, trq(+) = 0, and so trq(+) = 0, which completes the
ab
map y j
is non-zero (Theorem 3.6.6). Consider the computa- proof.

tion of the closed 0-network, @(a,b, j), given in Theorem 3.7.1.

4.3.5 Lemma. For colors a and 6 , there is a subrepresentation
In the root of unity case, @(a,b, j ) = 0 when w + b + .j ~ b> r. - 2. Ua,b of 63 V: such that
, . I , ,
The inter~retationis tha.t t.he corllpositioll 1 o \/ va.uislles
" ab I j
1. Ua,b has trace zero, and
because y ab

j
maps into a summand of ( v ' / ~ ) @ ~ ( ~that
+ ~ )is of
2. V j 8 ~1
I UaC $ (ej
vj) where the sum is over all colors
trace zero.
j such that (a, b, j) is a q-admissible triple.

4.3.3 Lemma. For colors b,

Proof. The proof is by induction on b. The case b = 0 is trivial.
if b = 0; The case b = 112 is Lemma 4.3.3.
v; €4 v;I2 2
Now suppose that 1 5 b 5 ( r - 2)/2. On the one hand, the
2 - 2 i f 1 1 2 5 b 5 ( r -2)/2.
-.
inductive .hypothesis applied to b - 1 shows that
Observe that vF1l2has trace zero if b = ( r - 2)/2.
vj 8 v,b-112
Proof. The relevant maps
y Y2 are defined and non-zero

j = b f 112; so the result follows by a dimension count.

2! vj 8 (v; @ vj-l)

c2 v; 8 v; $
4.3.4 Lemma. If M is a finite dimensional Uq(s1(2)) repres j:(a,b-1 j)g-admissible

tation of trace zero, then M 8 ~ 1also' has

~ trace zero. where Ua,b-l has trace zero.
138 T H ECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS THEQUANTUM
TRACEA N D COLORREPRESENTATIONS139

where the sum is over all colors j such that (a, b, j ) is a q-admissible is a Uq(sE(2)) endomorphism of (v;'~)@~("'~). Its quantum trace
triple, and the summand U' is a subrepresentation of trace 0. is the value @(a,b, j ) # 0 (See Remark 3.7.4). Let W $ U denote
a direct sum decomposition of (v:'~)@~("+~)where W is a subrep-
Proof. First we observe that in the case of colors k the Jones- resentation complementary to U, and let pw and pu denote the
Wentzl projectors +& are defined. Thus is defined, for projections onto the indicated summands. Now we compute
112 82j is
(a, b, j ) a q-admissible triple, and the map $j : Vi + (VA )
defined.
Let V j @ V; = W' $ U' be a direct sum dec~mpositionwhere
W' is a direct sum of color representations and U' is a subrep-
resentation of trace 0. By Lemma 4.3.5, we just have to prove
that under the stated conditions (pa @ pa)( y ab

j
(4j(Vi))) is not The first term is 0 because the image of f is assumed to be in U ;
the next two terms are 0 because in a block matrix representation
contained in U'.
of these maps, the two diagonal blocks are 0. The last term is
Let U1' = da@db(U1)c ( l ~ i ' ~ ) @Since
~ ~ ++ ~, @
~ d. b ( ~ i @ ~isl )
0 because it equals the quantum tra.ce of the l1,(s1(2)) inva.ria.nt

for any color t, the multiplication map peld,(v;) is an isomorphism

inverse to 4e. So (pa @ ~b)l~,@+,(v;gv,)is an isomorphism that
4.4 The q u a n t u m 6j-symbol - root of unity case. In
is the inverse of 4, @ 4b. Now the image of order lo define the 6j-symbol in the case that A is a primitive
4rth root of unity, we will need to decompose the tensor product
of three color representations into a direct sum of colors and a
summand that is of trace 0. We will mod out by the trace 0 piece
and construct bases for invariant maps into the quotient. The
6j-symbol, then, will be defined as a change of basis matrix in a
family of maps from a color representation to the quotient of the
tensor product by a maximal trace 0 summand. Let us turn to
the construction.

4.4.1 Proposition. Let A denote a primitive 4rth root of

pose it were. Consider the composition f =
unity, and let a, b, c E (0,112,. . .,( r - 2)/2) - the set of colors.
140 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS TRACE
THEQUANTUM REPRESENTATIONS141
A N D COLOR

ab
Let pabc = Pa 8 pb 8 pc. T h e n -
v,. 8 v; 8 v,. = n:(a,b,n) is q-ad.

=
n:(a,b,n) is q-ad.
(y 8
: 1) o(+n~+c)(v~8vj)@(u8vA")

where Ul and Uz are trace 0 subrepresentations of V i @ V: @ V j .

-
- €3
n,k:(a,b,n)&(n,c,k) are q-ad.

Proof. \,\:e lla.\:c i s v ~ ~ ~ v r p l l(*)

is~~~s

(v; 8 v;) 8 vi = @ v,"@Vj@(Ua,b@V;) By computation (*) and the Remak-Krull-Schmidt Theorem,

{n:(a,b,n) is q-ad.}
the subrepresentation Ul must be of trace 0. This completes the

-
N

{n:(a,b,n) is q-ad.}
( {k:(n,c,k) is q-ad.)
vjaun,c
) @(ua,b@vi)
proof of the first equality.

Now we turn to establish the second equality. We claim that

- up to isomorphism,
-
@
{n,k:(a,b,n)&(n,c,k) are q-admis.}
v,k

@ ( @
{n:(a,b,n) is q-ad.}
un,c@(ua,b@vi)
) -
v,. 8 v; 63 vz;l 2
( @
{~,k:(bc,~)&(a,~,k)are
q admis.)
v-
) @ ut
where U' has trace 0. By the computation (*) and the Remak-
where the term @{n:(a,b,n) is q-admis.) Un,c @ (Ua,b 8 V;) On the
Krull-Schmidt Theorem, it suffices to show (*)
right of the last equality is of trace 0. Furthermore,

03 v*k 2 @ VA"
(v,"8 v;) 8 vi {~,k:(b,c,~)&(a,~,k)are
Q admis.) {n,k:(a,b,n)&(n,c,k)areq admis.)
 THECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS TRACEA N D COLORREPRESENTATIONS145
T H EQUANTUM

be a U,(s1(2)) invariant map. Then there are unioue comvlex num.- maw. Thus S = S', and by the linear independence of the maps
bers d, and map S : VJ -+ V j 8 V; 8 V , such that

{ n : ( a ,b, n ) & ( n ,c, k) 4.4.5 Definition. In light of the preceding Lemma, we can

1:
are q-admis.) define in the case that A is a primitive 4rth root of unity the 6 j -

symbol to be the coefficient

I

}
\

in the following epua-

and s ( v ~is )contained in a trace zero summand of V j 8 V; 8 V,L. q
tion:

Proof. The existence of the numbers d, and map S is immediate

from Proposition 4.4.1. Suppose that dk and S' were another
solution. so that

where S maps into a summand of trace 0, pat,, = pa €3 pi, 8 p,,

and the sum is taken over the set of colors n such that the triples
( a ,b, n ) and ( n , c, k) are q-admissible.

4.4.6 Theorem. ~ e At denote a primitive 4rth root of unity.

By the preceding lemma, the image of the right side S' - S lies
within any maximal trace zero summand of V j 8 V; @ V,L, and
by Proposition 4.4.1 the image of the left side must intersect
such a summand trivially. Therefore both sides are the zero
Then the quantum 6j-symbols satisfy the Elliott-Biedenharn and
orthogonality identities as stated in Theorems 3.8.6 and 3.8.5 where
the sums are over q-admissible indices. Moreover for such val-
ues of A, the normalized 6j-symbols are defined and the identities
stated in Theorem 3.1 1.4 hold.
c k j
9
 T H ECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS T H EQUANTUM
TRACEAND COLORREPRESENTATIONS149

We form a closed network by reflecting

from which it follows that

the horizontal axis to obtain the diagram a b c

This is juxtaposed (with the upper index n changed to s ) to Now we establish the Elliott-Biedenharn identity using the
same technique. As in the proof of Theorem 2.6.7, we have the
identity -

(.he top os I 1; t,o C ~ I . ~ It.l~c!

L IIC~IVC,I.I<:

where T is the tree depicted on the left below - that holds in the
N = N(a, b, c, n, j, k) = a sense of insertion into closed networks.

Then the network, N , is closed by joining the arcs that are labeled
by k. Let N denote this closed network, or its value in C . We
Let T* = T*(a, b, c, d, s, t, g) denote the mirror image of T through
a horizontal axis as shown on the right of the diagram above.
Consider the closed network Closure(T*T).
150 T H ECLASSICAL
A N D QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

5 The Turaev-Viro Invariant

In this last section we explain how to use the normalized 6j-symbol
(in the case that A is a primitive 4rth root of unity) to give the
definition of the Turaev-Viro invariants of 3-dimensional mani-
folds. Computations of this invariant can be found in the paper
[32] and the book [18]. Specialization to the root of unity case is
necessary so that the sum in the definition of the invariant is a
finite sum (physicist's renormalization).
While the invariants have not distinguished 3-manifolds that
We compute cannot be distinguished in other ways, new applications of these
invariants are expected. Furthermore, the framework of a topolog-
Closure(T*T) = Sh,tO(t, d, c)Ss,kO(t,b, s)O(a, s, g)/(AtAs).
ical quantum field theory - into which the Turaev-Viro invariants
fit - is quite general, and is currently being explored in its own
right. In particular, there is hope that interesting Cdimensional
g c ~ ~ ~ l a l i ~ a t call s foulld. n ~ r dt h a t thc D o ~ l a l d s o nirir.;lr.ia~~t<.
i o n Ijt.
for example, can be defined as state summations [4]. We men-
tion the following interesting problem: Suppose two manifolds of
dimension 3 have the same Turaev-Viro invariants, in what ways
are they similar? In other words, what qualitative features do the
Turaev-Viro invariants distinguish?
.@(t,d, c)@(t,b, s)@(a,s, 9)/(AtAs).
5.1 Definition. Fix an integer r 2 3, let A = eTil(2T),and
It follows that for any choice of s and t so that (t,d, c), (t, b,s),
let q = A2. Let M denote a triangulated 3-dimensional closed
and (a, s, g) are q-admissible:
manifold. Let t denote the number of vertices, let {El,. ..,E,)
denote the set of edges, and let {TI,. . .,T,) denote the set of
tetrahedra of the triangulation. Let C = (0,112,. . . ,( r - 2)/2)
denote the set of colors associated to the integer r. A coloring of
M is a mapping f : {El,. ..,E,) + C. An admissible coloring is
a coloring such that for each triangle with edges Ee, Em, and En
This completes the proof. CI the triple (f (El), f(E,), f (E,)) is a q-admissible triple of colors.
 152 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

Suppose that a coloring is admissible, and consider a tetrahe- on the left can be manipulated to the figure on the right and vice
dron T with colors a, b, c, j, k, n associated to its edges so that the versa.
triples (a, b, n), ( n , ~k),
, (a, j, k), and (b, c, j ) are admissible, and

I: : ;1
these are the labels on the bounding triangles of the tetrahedron.
r -I

Associate the symbol T~ = to this tetrahedron.

The value associated to the coloring 1 of the 3-manifold M is

0

the quantity.
7L ?,I

where
A = AT'
3 C AkAl.
{k,e:(j,k,l)isq-admis.)
It is a consequence of the orthogonality identity that the quantity

(I;,~:(~,rl-,l)is
q-admis.} '4 \y

is independent of j (see [32, 181 for a proof).

The T~raev-Viroinvariant of the 3-manifold M is the state In the first figure two tetrahedra with edges (a, b,e,g,h, k)

sum and (,-, d, e, f , g, h ) are glued along their common triangular face
(g, h, e). Then an edge labelled j is inserted, so the polyhedron
IMI = IMI f
is the union of 3 tetrahedra: (a, b, e, e , f, j), (b, e, di h, j, li), and
f
where the sum ranges over all admissible colorings f of the given (,, d , f , g, j, k). The Elliott-Biedenharn identity
triangulation.

5.1.1 Theorem (Turaev-Viro [32]). The value IMI E C is

independent of the triangulation chosen; as such it is an invariant
[;::I., . [ R"1,
of the manifold M. b e jl [ j d k 1 d h]

Proof. The Pachner Theorem for triangulations of $manifolds,

states that any two triangulations of a given 3-manifold are related
by a sequence of the two moves depicted below where the figure
 156 THECLASSICAL
AND QUANTUM
6j-SYMBOLS

5.1.2 Definition (Kauffman-Lins 1181). In Kauffman-Lins

the following alternative definition of the Turaev-Viro invariant
f If a given edge, e, forms a simple closed curve with no vertices
from the dual complex, then let ~ ( e =
) 0; if the edge has a vertex,
is presented. First a triangulation of a 3-manifold is chosen and then let ~ ( e=) 1. With these conventions, a state sum is defined
dualized. The vertices of the dual correspond to the tetrahedra of by the formula
the triangulation, the edges in the dual correspond to the faces of
the triangulation, and the faces in the dual correspond to edges
in the triangulation. Colors are associated to the faces of the dual
in such a way that three colors coincident to an edge form a q-
admissible triple. To a vertex, at which six faces meet, the value The proof that this does not depend on the choice of triangu-
of a tetrahedral spin network is associated. The spins on the edges lations is given in [18]; the proof depends on expressing the tetra-
of the tetrahedral network are the colors associated to the faces hedral networks in terms of the 6j-symbol. In Kauffman-Lins a
of the dual, and the edges of the dual correspond to the vertices nice glimpse of the shadow world is presented, as well.
of the tetrahedral network. To an edge in the dual with colors a ,
b and 7 coincident the value @ ( a ,b , ~ is) associated. Since these 5.1.3 Theorein (Piunikhin [ZB]). ' The Iicr~<ffnza~n-Liizs
(1e.b-
for111a q-admissible triple, the value of 0 is defined and 1s non- ~zitio~z t Y L I . U ~ lfiro
u i ~ the U - definitioizs coi~lcide.
zero. To each colored face in the dual we associate the value A,
Proof. This is a computation dependent on the definition of the
where j is the color on the face. r -!

Thus a state, S , of the triangulation is an assignment of colors

. .. to the "faces7'of the dual such that the colors coincident at an edge
.,. form a q-admissible triple. (The term "face" is in quotes above
because as the dual complex to the triangulation is deformed,
some of the 2-dimensional pieces may not be 2-.cells. For example,
the Matveev bubble move introduces an annular face.) To such
a state, we have TET(v1S) the value of the tetrahedral spin net
associated to each a vertex v dual to the given cell. To an edge, E ,
with colors (a, b, j ) coincident, we associate the value O(EIS) =
@(a,b, j). And to a face, f , with color j ( f ) = j ( f IS), associate
the value Aj(f). Let ~ ( f denote
) the Euler characteristic of the
2-dimensional face f where the term face is interpreted as above.
5.2 Epilogue. In the current work we have presented the
diagrammatics of the classical and quantum representation theory
with topological applications in mind. One major focus has been
the Clebsch-Gordan theory and the explicit construction of the
Gj-symbol in all three cases - classical, generic quantum, and
quantum root of unity. In the process of developing this theory,
we have touched on some other topological aspects that deserve
mentioning.
The Jones polynomial [12], which is an invariant of knotted
and linked curves in 3-dimensional space, is the starting point
of the quantum topology invariants. The bracket identity leads
 THECLASSICAL INVARIANTS
THETURAEV-VIRO 159
158 AND Q U A N T U M 63-SYMBOLS

known algebraic structures. We have seen this happen already in

directly to a definition, and this construction can be found in [16],
the passage from classical sl(2) to quantum sZ(2). For computa-
for example.
tions of the Turaev-Viro invariants see [18].
The quotient of the quantum group Uq(s1(2)), when A is a
Finally, there are deep connections to theoretical physics that
primitive 4rth root of unity, by relations Er = Fr = 0 and K4' =
require much further study from the mathematical, theoretical,
1 has the structure of a modular ribbon Hopf algebra as defined
and experimental sides. The mathematical aspect that is the most
by Reshetikhin-Turaev [29]. Rather than explicitly describing this
problematic is the definition of functional integration - which
structure we have worked with the algebra via its representations.
might be thought of as a continuous version of the state sum
However, in doing so, we have verified that the ribbon structure is
method. A rigorous definition of the functional integral will lead
present. The modular ribbon Hopf algebra gives the Reshetikhin-
to analytic interpretations of the algebra and of the topology, and
Turaev invariant, and Lickorish [23] has presented the definition of
such intepretations will certainly shed light on all of the aspects
the invariant in a diagrammatic form. From the present point of
of the theory.
view, there is not much more that needs to be done to get to that
formulation. The details of that construction can also be found in
[161.
T h e Turaev-Viro illvariant is an esanlple ol a topologica.1quan-
tum field theory (TQFT), namely a functor from the category of
smooth manifold cobordisms to the category of Hilbert spaces. A
great deal of effort is currently being exerted towards finding new
extended topological field theories, and towards finding higher di-
mensional analogues. One formulation of the higher dimensional
theories is found in Lawrence [22]; from that point of view the
structure that is associated to a 3-manifold is a "3-algebra," and
the quantum 6j-symbol gives an explicit construction of such an
algebra. In dimension 4, an example of a 4-algebra would give rise
to a state sum invariant of the type constructed here. There are
very good reasons for searching for such higher dimensional invari-
ants. Evidence for their existence is given by the solutions to the
tetrahedral equation [35] which is an analogue of the Yang-Baxter
equation. Furthermore, non-trivial examples of these higher alge-
braic structures will give new and in-depth meaning to the well-
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