Power Transformer Design, Manufacturing and Testing

1. General Design Principles and Facilities

The design process starts with the active part or core and windings assembly. The core is
dimensioned and then the windings and main insulation. The calculated performance data is then
checked against the specification with respect to impedance, load and no-load losses, test and
service voltage withstand, cooling, etc. The short circuit forces occurring in the windings are
checked against their withstand strength. The mechanical design ensures strength to withstand
winding assembly pressures, short circuit forces, lifting, transport, pressure, vacuum, earthquakes,
etc. The constraints due to manufacturing methods and transport limitations must be taken into
consideration. Simultaneous fulfillment of all the requirements with economic optimization is
achieved using an iterative process.

Extensive use is made of calculators and computers to aid the designer. These have two main
advantages.

a) They reduce the burden of routine calculations, allowing the designer to explore more
possibilities, and to concentrate on decisions and choices requiring judgment.

b) It is now possible to obtain accurate solutions to certain problems not amenable to manual
calculation, e.g. problems involving leakage flux paths in complex three-dimensional space.

The main design facility available in Pretoria is an ABB developed programme named EDS (
Electrical Design System ) This programme, which is continually being updated and improved,
contains within it calculation tools for the following:

a) Transformer design optimization, which gives comprehensive performance data for the
transformer including impedances, losses, and occurring short circuit currents and radial
stresses in the windings at nominal and extreme tap positions.

b) Design of individual windings: conductor dimensions in axial and radial direction, losses,
winding temperature gradient, and allowable short circuit forces.

c) Tapping current and voltage together with tapping turns, turns ratio, and ratio error over the
specified tapping range.

d) Impulse voltage stresses in disc windings and series loop (regulating) windings.
 e) Magnetic leakage flux program, with complete calculation of axial and radial short circuit
forces, eddy current losses, in whole windings as well as at likely hot spots, and stray flux
entering tank sides or core clamping structure at various points.

f) Diagrams showing the best position for transpositions between parallel cables in layer and
screw windings, to minimize the eddy current losses due to the leakage flux pattern
calculated in e) above.

g) Crossover diagram for stabilized disc windings.

h) Core cutting program for the particular core series and core diameter involved.

i) Core clamp design as determined by the pressure to be applied to the windings during
assembly and by short circuit forces.

The EDS system is linked electronically to the MDS ( Mechanical Design System ), which is used to
complete the design of the active part. It can also be used for the design of the cleats and leads and
tanks.

A stand alone computer facility is also available for

a) Design of conservator vessels.

b) Tank designs

c) Mass calculations

These programs permit “conversational” interaction.

2. Short Circuit Strength of Power Transformers

The thermal effects of short circuits are easy to calculate but are not normally decisive for the
design. In nearly all power transformers the dynamic stresses due to short circuits are more
important. Unfortunately they cannot be calculated as easily.

The leakage flux interacts with the current carrying conductors according to the well-known formula
F = B x I. At the center of the windings the flux direction is axial and the radial stresses are highest
at this point. The inner windings experience a buckling (compressive) stress, and the outer
windings a tensile hoop stress. These radial stresses can be calculated using simple formulae, and,
furthermore, the tensile strength of copper is fairly accurately known. The critical compressive
stress is calculated from empirical formulae based on research results.

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 Towards the ends of the windings the leakage flux fans out and has a radial component which
causes axial compressive forces in the windings. In the simplest case the forces sum up from zero
at the windings ends to a maximum at the center. The accurate calculation of these forces has only
become possible in the last twenty to thirty years, using powerful digital computers which use
iterative methods to calculate the elemental leakage flux distribution and the resultant forces and
losses.

The axial forces can cause failure in three ways;

a) In a layer winding the conductors can “climb over” one another, causing the whole winding to
collapse.

b) The conductors can crush the solid insulation (paper and pressboard).

c) The conductors can twist and collapse.

Again, empirical formulae have been developed to calculate the axial strength of the winding to
ensure that it will withstand the actual occurring forces.

The axial forces will increase if the winding ampere-turns do not balance at every point along their
length. This could happen for example in the case of tappings on a winding, which could be
connected in circuit or disconnected by the tapchanger. It is ABB’s design policy to balance the
windings as closely as possible, using compensating gaps on the untapped windings opposite the
tappings. If this fails to keep the axial forces within bounds a separate regulating winding is used in
which each tapping occupies the entire winding height, ensuring balance on every tap.

It should be noted that if two windings are axially displaced they will experience an axial short circuit
force tending to increase the displacement. This has two important implications for the design and
manufacture of transformers.

a) The windings must be accurately aligned top and bottom, and the winding height must be
accurate. If for any reason a winding is under or over size, the height adjustment must not be
made all at one end, or even both ends, but be spread over the length.

b) The windings must be firmly clamped under positive axial pressure, as any movement which
might occur during short circuit would increase the forces, causing further movement, and so
on, in a vicious spiral.

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 For large transformers the short circuit currents and forces are significantly influenced by the
impedance of the supply network. The actual value for each installation should be given at the
tender stage.

ABB’s design philosophy is firmly based on experiments and full-scale tests carried out where
facilities exist, such as Sweden, Italy and France and latterly in South Africa. Some of ABB’s earlier
work was published in CIGRE reports in 1956, 1958, 1962. In 1997 ABB published a book “ Short
circuit duty of power transformers” – The ABB approach.

The short circuit testing is continuing to prove the soundness of new materials and techniques as
these are developed. ABB’s excellent service record confirms the tests and calculations.

A complete list of transformers tested in the ABB Transformer group is available.

3. Cores
Cold rolled grain oriented steel has long been employed in transformer cores because of its superior
characteristics, enabling the use of higher flux densities with consequent saving in material. Over
the years steels of continually lower loss have become available. Super oriented steel commonly
called Hi B (grade MOH) can operate continuously at flux densities close to 2 tesla (absolute
maximum) and provides significant reductions in no-load loss, magnetizing current and in sound
levels. The steel is imported in standard width coils and slit to required plate widths in the works. It
has to comply with the ABB specification which includes requirements for losses, ageing, insulation,
space factor, waviness and burrs.

The use of MOH material coupled with the proven design features of 45° mitred and interleaved
joints, boltless construction, and judicious introduction of cooling ducts as the size increases,
enables ABB cores to be worked at high flux densities and still accommodate 10% overfluxing ( if
specified ) without any thermal instability, excessive noise or vibration, or other adverse effects.

Further improvements in both loss and sound level have been achieved using step lap cores, which
are part of the TrafoStar design concept

The slitting machine is fitted with tungsten carbide cutting edges which can slit over 300 kilometers
of steel before requiring sharpening. The criterion for the latter operation is the burr height
exceeding 10 microns (thousandths of a millimeter).

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 Following slitting, the core plates are accurately cut to length and profile (tol. ± 0,5mm) in the
“GEORG” automatic shearer.

During core stacking, the steel yoke clamps and high tensile steel tie bars (flitch plates) are
assembled with the core plates on special cradles. These facilitate accurate joints, and permit
raising of the completed core to the vertical position without stressing the laminations. Insulated
steel straps or ‘asecond’ (a fibreglass resin impregnated band which incorporates a semi-conductor
to improve electrode shape) bind the limbs and yokes securely.

Smaller cores are stacked on temporary channels and the legs are secured by gluing with epoxy
resin.

The completed core is inspected and the insulation tested.

4. Windings
Rectangular electrolytic copper strip covered with paper is mainly used for winding conductors in the
power transformers made in Pretoria, although more usage of continuously transposed conductor is
now evident. (See subheading below )

The strip is purchased from local producers and supplied on drums ready for paper covering. It has
to comply with Powertech specifications as regards purity, dimensional accuracy and surface finish
and this is checked on receipt. A higher standard of finish is specified if the copper is for use in high
voltage windings. The copper is supplied fully annealed or to the required hardness, as specified..

Paper made from pure sulphate pulp is used for covering the conductors. Supplied by Munksjo of
Sweden, it has to meet strict ABB specification requirements regarding composition as well as
mechanical and electrical properties. The paper is delivered to Pretoria in large rolls and slit to the
standard widths used in the works.

The paper is applied to the conductors in a closed, high speed paper lapping machine. A high level
of humidity is maintained within the machine to minimize paper breakage during covering. The
dimensions of the covered conductor are continuously monitored as it leaves the machine and the
underside is given a light coating of paraffin wax to facilitate relative sliding between turns when it is
wound into coils on the winding machines.

When specified by the electrical designer, the conductor is work hardened by passing it between
vertically staggered rollers before entry into the paper lapping machine.

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 Within the windings it is necessary to introduce spacers (or ducts) between the conductors to enable
oil to circulate for cooling purposes. This is done with continuous clack strip (creating radial ducts)
and radial spacers (creating axial ducts). In addition, directed oil flow washers are fitted at the
designed sections to create improved cooling by causing the oil to ‘zigzag’ through the winding.

The former cylinders on which the windings are wound are rolled from 3mm or 5mm pressboard with
a tapered joint to give a continuous cylinder. This is fitted on a special collapsible-spoke mandrill
designed for direct mounting in the winding machine.

The following brief description covers the characteristics of the winding types in common use.

Layer Winding

Helical winding without axial spacers. A strong winding used for low voltage (comparatively small
number of turns) heavy current applications where heat dissipation is not a problem. Frequently
found in tertiary windings of large transformers where the copper section is determined more by
short circuit radial stress withstand considerations than load current carrying capacity.

Quite often incorporates a heavy conductor bunch with several parallel cables in radial direction
necessitating transpositions at intervals over the winding length. These can be tricky if there is only
one cable in the axial direction and no axial ribs i.e. winding is wound directly on the former cylinder.
Axial space for effecting each transposition then has to be created by insertion of presspahn ring
segments.

Screw Winding

Helical winding with axial spacers. Takes over from layer winding where heat dissipation becomes
determining. The winding bunch often comprises two or more conductors in the axial direction
(multi-thread as opposed to single thread) with several in the radial direction. In single thread
windings, transpositions are necessary and space for these is created by increasing the number of
axial spacers in the vicinity. The total spacer thickness must be the same for each rib to achieve
uniform pressure around the circumference of the winding.

Disc Winding

As its name implies, this winding consists of flat coils (or discs) placed one above the other in a
stack and separated by spacers. Disc windings are chosen when a comparatively large number of
turns are involved and this generally means for high voltage windings.

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 In a continuous disc winding, the conductor bunch comprises a single conductor in axial direction
with one or more in the radial direction, wound in alternate “down” and “up” discs. An “up” disc is
wound from the former cylinder outwards. For a “down” disc the conductor is taken by way of a
tapered ramp from the outside of the preceding “up” disc to the former cylinder and completed like a
normal “up” disc. It is then “collapsed” and re-assembled in reverse order as a “down” disc, ending
against the former cylinder again.

The disc winding just described has a non-linear impulse voltage distribution requiring expensive
insulation for insulation levels above 1050 kV impulse. The invention of the interleaved or stabilized
disc winding to solve this problem was a notable advance in high voltage winding technology. The
feature of this type is that each conductor path passes through each disc twice, increasing the
series capacitance and improving the impulse voltage distribution. To achieve this the winder has to
cut half the conductors after each up disc, and the interleaving connections are made after the
winding is complete.

Recently, a simpler form of voltage distribution control has been achieved with the ‘shielded disc’
winding. This winding incorporates a conductor which does not carry current but because of it’s
location in the winding again has the desired effect of increasing the series capacitance.

Series loop winding

This is a helical winding used mainly for the regulating windings of transformers with on-load
tapchangers but occasionally also for transformers with de-energized tapchangers where a heavy
current tapped winding results in a conductor bunch which is awkward for tappings directly on the
winding.

Each series loop incorporates the turns of one tapping step and embraces the full axial height of the
winding. In this way no ampere turn unbalance is created between the main windings when tapping
steps are cut in or cut out.

For linear tap changing, the number of cables in the winding bunch is equal to the number of tapping
steps and for plus/minus switching equal to half that number. The choice of switching method is
based on economics.

The winding can be layer type (no axial spacers) or screw type (including axial spacers) depending
on heat dissipation requirements. Voltage between turns and to earth can often reach high values
during impulse testing resulting in the use of thick paper covering in these windings.

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 Special steps have to be taken to lock the ends of series loop windings in order to prevent them
unwinding after completion. A locking cylinder is placed over the end turns plus a locking plate in
the vicinity of the tails, and the two are then pinned to the former cylinder through the end insulation
above and below the winding.

For large transformers with heavy current regulating windings it is often necessary to use
continuously transposed cable to minimize eddy current losses in the conductors.

Continuously Transposed Conductor ( CTC ) Windings

This conductor consists of many wires in parallel, which are continuously transposed within the
bunch. In addition the individual wires, which are enamel insulated, can be treated with a stage B
epoxy.

These windings are used in selected designs and have the following advantages

a) Reduced load losses.

b) Improved mechanical strength. During drying of the winding the epoxy cures and bounds the
individual wires together to give a winding almost as strong as a solid conductor.

c) The CTC can be used for ( at this stage ) low voltage windings, without paper covering giving
improved cooling

Winding manufacture

Moving now to the actual manufacture of the windings we find that this falls naturally into two parts

1. The winding operation

2. The processing operation

Winding is carried out on one of the 14 machines in the medium and large transformer winding
shops at Pretoria. Of these, 7 are traditional horizontal machines and 7 are vertical. The first
vertical machines have been in service since May 1975 and were installed primarily to handle the
large, heavy disc windings associated with high voltage transformers of 100MVA rating and above.
Disc windings with high radial dimension create problems in a horizontal machine due to the
hanging mass of the discs. The vertical machine overcomes this difficulty and is also more
convenient to operate. The winder has access to the whole circumference of the disc by merely
walking around the machine. He thus quickly picks up and corrects discrepancies for example in
the positioning of the radial spacer strip in the disc or looseness of turns. With stabilized disc

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 windings particularly which involve cutting of the one conductor bunch after completion of each disc
pair, the additional work is more conveniently and thoroughly carried out on a vertical machine.

The completed windings are dried and large windings are oil impregnated to reduce moisture
absorption during later assembly processes. The windings are then adjusted to a predetermined
height at a controlled axial pressure in a hydraulic press. All windings for each transformer are
adjusted to the same height, so that when they are finally assembled on the complete transformer
they will be clamped at the same pressure as before.

During assembly windings will absorb some moisture and grow. After final processing pressure is
again applied such that windings are at their predetermined height and the clamping is locked in this
position such that the windings remain pressurized in service.

The effectiveness of the drying process for the windings, as well as that for completed transformers
at a later stage is checked regularly. A test block of pressboard is processed together with the
winding or transformer, and then sent to the laboratory for measurement of moisture content using a
Karl Fischer apparatus. Windings or transformers whose moisture content exceeds the maximum
allowed are reprocessed.

5. The tank and structural aspects

Production of tanks, etc. can be divided broadly into two parts, namely surface preparation and
cutting to size of the raw material, followed by actual manufacture of the finished product. Standard
size plates delivered from Iscor are initially stored in the steelyard. At the start of manufacture the
plates are shot blasted in an automatic machine resembling a rolling mill in its materials handling
concept. The plates pass from a roller table through the shot blast chamber and onto a second
roller table on the other side. The aim is to achieve a 70% finish and the degree of finish is
determined by the feed rate through the machine. On the reverse pass all loose shot is cleaned
from the plates which are then automatically fed to the flame cutting shop by the use of further
rollers.

A numerically controlled machine is used here to both cut the specified profile and mark the piece
for subsequent drilling. The machine straddles two tables transversely and two longitudinally i.e. 4
in all each of which can accept the maximum standard plate size of 12m long by 3m wide. Any
practical plate thickness can be cut, the flame being set to suit, but the maximum to date is 100mm.
The traversing of the head is computer controlled on a ancillary machine.

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 The various profiles to be cut from the same plate thickness are nested together in a way that
results in the least scrap material.

Cutting of the profile or marking for subsequent drilling is achieved by using either a cutting head or
a punching head on the machine. The cutting heads have a closely controlled action which yields a
smooth, profile requiring little or no dressing. Oxy acetylene cutting (for normal mild steel) or
plasma cutting (for non-magnetic materials) can be done by using the appropriate head and supply
unit.

Other complementary operations carried out at this stage of the production cycle are guillotining on
a machine able to shear 3m of 12mm plate in one cut, cold saw cutting of standard sections and
tumble shot blasting of small components.

Processed material passes to the material receiving and control section of the fabrication shop
where it is sorted into works order head groups and palletized for transport to the appropriate work
area.

The machining, drilling, forming and bending section includes a 700 ton semi automatic bending
brake used to form the curved body plates of the tank by programmed incremental bending. Vertical
tank stiffeners up to 25mm thick can be formed on this machine.

The tank top-frame and main cover are drilled as one piece if a bolted top cover is required (all cut-
outs in the cover having previously been made on the flame cutting machine). Nowadays, more
customers are seeing a welded cover as an attractive alternative. Then comes the sub-assemblies
section covering manufacture of conservators, bushing turrets, bushing chimneys, tapchanger tanks,
etc., moving to the tank assembly section divided into large tanks and medium/small tanks. Here
the tanks are assembled by tack-welding the various components together in preparation for the
main welding team.

This specialized team is trained to do all forms of welding, manual arc, submerged arc and metal
inert gas. They perform all the main structural welding on the transformer. It is interesting to note
that the main covers and bottom plates of large transformers made in Pretoria are frequently too
wide to be cut from a single standard plate and two plates are then butt welded together. The
submerged arc process is used in these instances and also for final seam welding of curved body
plates when the tank is erected. All welds are tested for leaks, and butt joints on bottom plates and
main covers are ultrasonically tested for weld defects.

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 With completion of the welding operation the job moves to the lining up section where the
transformer is fully erected and lined up with the help of a theodolite. All parts including auxiliary
pipework are marked using weld-on numbered tags on connecting parts stamped and finally welded
and then dismantled.

The dismantled components then go through a cleaning, grinding and washing procedure in
preparation for painting. Various paint finishes can be applied namely “standard” with a total film
thickness of 75 microns, “coastal” where the film thickness is increased to 125 microns or as
specified by the Customer.

Finally before transport into the main assembly hall, the transformer tank is pre-assembled as far as
possible i.e. main covers, conservators, bushing turrets, cable boxes, etc. are fitted to the main tank
as well as ancillary devices such as oil gauges and valves.

6. Assembly, Processing and Oil Filling

6.1 Assembly

Both the medium and large transformer assembly lines at Powertech Transformers, Pretoria
are equipped with motorized personnel platforms capable of vertical and horizontal travel
which allow the work of assembly and connecting up to be completed with minimum strain
on personnel.

The stands which will support the cores during this operation are carefully leveled before
placing the core in position. This is especially necessary for large heavy cores which can
deflect more easily because of their weight and length. On the large transformer line the
stands are fitted with screw-thread feet for fine adjustment and a dumpy level is used to
ensure all stands are square and at the same level before receiving the core.

Medium size transformers are delivered to the assembly shop without their top yokes in
position but the large five-limbed cores have to be fully assembled complete with top yoke to
avoid distortion whilst being moved to the assembly line.

Considering a large five limbed core placed in position on the line, the top yoke is first
unstacked and then the bottom end press frames, winding supports, filling pieces and
winding-to-yoke insulation is fitted. The windings can now be lowered over the limbs.
Special cradles are used to carry the windings during this operation which must be done
slowly and with care if insulation is not to be damaged or windings distorted. Points which

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 must be watched are winding tails in the correct position relative to center line of limb, axial
spacers (or clacks) on the individual windings lining up radially with one another, with the
intermediate spacer ribs between windings and with the clacks on the common clack ring
(ring which bridges all the windings of a limb), former cylinders moving down with their
windings and not jamming and being left behind.

With all windings in position, the top end is carefully inspected to check that axial oil ducts
are clear and that the assembly of winding collars, end insulation and common clackring is
correct for free circulation of the oil. The final elements making up the limb stack namely the
top end winding supports, filling pieces and press frames are then fitted and when the three
limbs are complete the windings are ready for pressing.

For this operation the top core clamps are placed in position and the various elements of the
pressing framework are assembled between the top and bottom core clamps. For large
transformers, this framework incorporates 8 x 100 ton and 6 x 50 ton hydraulic jacks
although the maximum pressing force that can be exerted amounts to 800 ton, being limited
by the strength of the through bolts between the core clamps. These bolts are made of a
special high tensile steel and were manufactured in Europe.

The winding stacks are pressed to 3mm below limb height and left under pressure for a
minimum of 3 hours. The framework is then locked in this position so that the topmost
beams and the hydraulic jacks can be removed to allow stacking of the top yoke. As soon
as the center step of the top yoke is complete, a ratio check is carried out and if this is
satisfactory, stacking is continued. The stacked yoke is inspected when complete and has
to meet certain minimum criteria regarding evenness and gap between plates. The yoke
plates must also have a smooth finish both along the top surface and the end face where
they engage with the limb plates.

The cross bars are now fitted to the top core clamps and the yoke straps located and pulled
up. Next the top beam and hydraulic jacks of the pressing framework are reassembled so
that they can take over the pressing load and allow the locking arrangement to be released.
It must be remembered that the windings are still 3mm below leg height so it is not yet
possible to engage the tie-bars with the top yoke clamps.

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 With clamping of core and windings completed, the insulation between phases (and between
phase and outer limb for 5 limb cores) is assembled next, care being taken to keep to the
specified sequence of part cylinders and other barriers.

6.2 Connections

The next step in the assembly sequence is to attach the harness to the structure and
connect up the winding tails. On medium size transformers the harnesses are completely
pre-assembled in the harness shop but on large transformers only partially so.
Interconnection of harnesses and windings tails demands great care if sound joints are to be
achieved and all specified clearances between leads met.

Joints are made using high frequency induction heating and copper/silver alloy brazing rods
with nickel plated ferrules. Heating by high frequency is localized and fast with minimum
spread of heat to the body of the winding, and nickel plating on the outside of the ferrules
ensures that no brazing adheres to that surface which, if present, could result in high stress
points in an electric field causing puncture of the insulation.

Alternatively, special compacting and crimping equipment approved by ABB Transformers,

has recently been introduced for certain applications.

When the winding tails have been fully linked up to the harness a ratio check is carried out
on the line without the tapchanger by manually connecting the tapping leads.

The tapping leads are now cut to length and made off with the appropriate cable lugs using
high frequency brazing or crimping. When this operation is completed the assembly is ready
for processing.

6.3 Processing

The assembly hall is served by three 150 ton cranes travelling on the upper gantry and a
further two 30 ton cranes on the lower gantry. Two of the larger cranes can be coupled
together and using a special beam, can lift a mass of 285 tons (or 300 ton including the
beam). All the cranes are fitted with 5 ton auxiliary hooks for light loads.

Drying of the assembled core and windings is done in a sophisticated vapour phase plant.
This process is extremely efficient and fast as the kerosene vapour is sprayed onto the
active part and gives up its latent heat at the same time having a washing effect on the

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 windings. The process consists of holding the component under vacuum and heating it by
means of hot kerosene vapour as mentioned above. Any moisture present in the insulation
is converted to water vapour in this low pressure, heated environment and is then drawn off
with uncondensed kerosene vapour at a particular stage of the drying cycle.

The vapour phase plant in Pretoria includes the following main components.

a) the “pot” in which the component is placed for processing. This vessel is 10m long by
4m wide by 5m deep and is mounted below floor level in the assembly hall. It is
equipped around its periphery and in the cover and base with steam heated coils for
retention of heat and thermally insulated for the same reason.

b) the kerosene evaporator i.e. steam heated boiler in which the kerosene is raised to a
temperature of about 135°C under a pressure of about 30 mBar.

c) the separator drum and associated condenser, also normally under a pressure of 30
mBar.

d) a large capacity vacuum pump and associated condensers used to evacuate the “pot” to
a pressure of less than 0,4 mBar.

e) a smaller vacuum pump used to lower the pressure in the separator drum and in the
evaporator (via a pressure regulator) to a level of 30 mBar.

f) sundry circulating pumps and valves.

g) process controller and software. A drying cycle program is selected, based on the
insulation mass to be dried, and when the cycle is started the various stages of the
process are controlled automatically.

h) various measuring devices for temperature and pressure which are fed back to the
process controller and displayed and recorded.

i) Steam heated pipes around the pot walls as well as under the floor and in the cover.
These are primarily to prevent heat loss but can also be used to heat up an active part
which has cooled off during re-tightening.

The processing cycle commences with the main vacuum pump evacuating the pot to a
pressure less than 5 mBar. In the meantime the kerosene in the evaporator is being heated
and the pressure in the evaporator and separator drums reduced to 30 mBar by the smaller

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 vacuum pump. When the required pressures and temperature have been reached the large
vacuum pump is shut down.

Simultaneously hot water is allowed through to the heater coils around the pot and the
isolating valve to the evaporator drum is opened allowing hot kerosene vapour to be drawn
into the pot. This condenses on the core and windings with transfer of latent heat, and the
resulting liquid kerosene is pumped back to the evaporator.

The kerosene temperature is started at 90°C, to prevent bursting of the insulation due to
entrapped steam, and slowly increased to a maximum of 135°C. Intermediate pressure
reductions are carried out with the vapour supply off to remove excess moisture/vapour in
the pot.

The process continues with the core and windings gradually heating up and the pressure
differential between evaporator and pot gradually disappearing. When the core has
acquired a temperature of about 110°C, heating is considered complete with all moisture
having evaporated from the windings. This part of the cycle takes between 32 and 72 hours,
depending on the insulation mass.

The line to the evaporator drum is now closed and that between pot and separator drum
opened. The smaller vacuum pump begins exhausting the mixture of water vapour and
kerosene vapour from the pot. This converts to a liquid in the condenser and passes to the
separator drum, the water sinking to the bottom and the kerosene rising to the top.

Evacuation continues until the pressure in the pot is reduced to 18 torr at which stage the
line to the separator drum is closed and that the main vacuum pump reopened. The
pressure in the pot is further reduced to about 0,5 mBar and held at this level for 6 hours.
The cycle is then complete. The pressure in the pot is allowed to return to atmospheric and
the cover can be opened.

A side effect of the vapour phase process is that when the kerosene vapour condenses over
the core and windings the liquid kerosene absorbs all oil in the insulation material and
thoroughly cleans the whole assembly. The kerosene being pumped back to the evaporator
drum thus contains some transformer oil which sinks to the bottom of the drum and is
periodically drawn off and used as furnace fuel.

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 6.4 Tanking

After processing the transformer is removed from the pot and all components subject to
shrinkage are tightened again. The temperature and exposure time is monitored during this
time to ensure that the transformer is not too cool by the time it is in its tank.

Vacuum is then drawn for a period of time dependent on the voltage of the unit and the time
for which the active part was exposed to the atmosphere and the humidity at the time. The
vacuum period is between 12 and 36 hours, counted from less than 1 mbar being achieved.
In this period the external wiring between ancillary equipment and the terminal box or
marshalling kiosk on the tank is also completed.

6.5 Oil Filling

The oil plant serving the medium/large transformer factory comprises two parallel “Vokes”
paper element filters with built-in heaters and vacuum pumps connected to a de-gassing
chamber with integral vacuum pump. A separate pump circulates oil through this plant at
the rate of 5000 litres per hour. Oil is stored in 4 x 82000 litre underground tanks adjacent to
the plant.

When it is known that processed oil will be required at a particular time, one of the tanks is
selected to supply the oil and circulation then commences. The oil passes from tank
through filters (being heated in the process), and degassing chamber, and back to tank until
its electrical strength has reached the desired level. For transformers above 132kV this is a
breakdown voltage of 75kV over the 2,5mm electrode gap in the Baur tester and a moisture
content of 5 ppm maximum..

For oil filling, valves are then opened and hot oil is pumped into the oil main laid through the
factory which has numberous draw off points along its length. A transformer tank to be filled
is normally at a pressure of 0,5 mBar and it is thus necessary for the pressure in the oil main
to be maintained at a value greater than atmospheric to avoid moisture being sucked into
the pipe should there be any leaking fittings in the line. Oil in excess of the filling
requirement is returned to the storage tank.

In the assembly area itself, the tanked transformers are served by 3 x Pheiffer mobile
vacuum pumps each with a capacity of 1700m³/hour. The internal pressure in these

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 transformers is measured by means of a portable vacuum gauge which registers “mBar”
directly.

After oil filling the transformer is tested for leaks at 35kPa overpressure for 24 hours.

7. Testing
7.1 General

The test equipment at Powertech Transformers factory in Pretoria is designed to handle the
largest high voltage transformers capable of being produced there. Three phase Auto
transformers of 800MVA 400/275/22kV, single phase auto transformers of 333MVA and the
same voltage ratio and 795MVA 22/420kV double wound generator transformers have been
successfully tested. The full 100% of the losses were supplied during the temperature rise
tests.

A 765kV 133MVAr single phase reactor has been subjected to full lightning and switching
impulse tests. Due to the power requirements for a large shunt reactor the over-voltage test
was replaced by an oscillating wave test.

The following brief resume will give some idea of the plant available for testing of large
transformers at Powertech Transformers factory in Pretoria.

7.2 Impulse Testing

The impulse generator has a nominal output of 3200kV peak and 320kJ. The generator was
used to test the 765kV reactor at 1950kV lightning impulse, 1425kV switching impulse and
1425kV oscillating wave test. An electronically controlled spark gap enables the time-to-
chop for chopped waves to be set with precision.

A Haefely “HIAS” digital storage and recording system is available for recording the
transients.

A recurrent surge oscillograph unit comprising an ABB recurrent surge generator and
Tektronix oscilloscope with differential amplifier, is available for checking the probable levels
of impulse voltage to be expected in different parts of the windings during the impulse test.
These RSO results are a valuable aid to the electrical designer.

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 7.3 No-Load loss, load loss and temperature rise

The 50Hz supply for the load loss measurement, heat-run testing, etc is derived from a
20MVA generator driven by a 2,5MW synchronous motor. This unit has controlled excitation
up to 20kV maximum output voltage and four possible internal winding connections namely
star (series and parallel and delta (series and parallel).

For export transformers operating on a 60 Hz supply a 20 MVA generator of this frequency

is used. We also have a small 60 Hz generator to allow testing of auxiliary items such as
current transformers and cooling fans.

Between this generator and the test object is a 60MVA coupling transformer with a voltage
ratio of 20kV/66kV. There are 12 tapping positions for variable voltage and current output.

Several banks of capacitors are available for use in conjunction with the generator and
coupling transformer to provide the current for temperature rise tests. Banks of 63MVAr are
arranged on the 20kV side of the coupling transformer and a further maximum of 90MVAr on
the 66kV side. These banks can be coupled together and with the generator represent a
total installed capacity of over 150MVAr.

A power analyzer giving digital readout and a printout of voltage, current and power is used
for the measurement of no-load and load losses.

7.4 Induced and partial discharge testing

All induced testing is done at 225Hz and a 5MVA 11kV generator of this frequency is
coupled to the shaft of the 2,5MW synchronous motor to provide this supply either single
phase or three phase.

Measurement of internal discharge level in a transformer under test is done with the ERA
measuring circuit connected to the capacitive tap of the appropriate condenser bushings.
Microphones for holding to the tank side are used to assist in locating the physical position
of any unacceptably high discharge.

IEC 60076 part 3 “Method 2” offers the possibility of reduced power frequency test voltages
for transformers for 275kV and above, in conjunction with partial discharge measurements,
and with the addition of a switching surge test.

This has found general acceptance in Europe and South Africa.

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 The test involves extensive pre-calibration using calibration pulses of known charge injected
at each terminal in turn, and measuring the response at the capacitor tap. The test is
extremely sensitive, and all external discharges must be eliminated, for example by proper
earthing of all metal objects in the vicinity, and fitting static shields to any which have sharp
corners. The voltage supply must also be discharge free.

The procedure followed is to take the transformer up to 1,5 x system highest voltage ÷√3 per
phase and hold for 5 minutes. Increase to system highest voltage per phase for 5 seconds
(to produce discharge inception if any) and lower to initial test level and hold for 30 minutes,
during which time discharge is monitored. The IEC acceptance criteria are that there shall
be no significant increase in discharge during this period and the level must be below 500
pC.

As an alternative testing can be carried out to ANSI/IEEE requirements

7.5 Other tests

The supply for separate source testing is drawn from a special fixed ratio single phase
transformer with maximum output voltage of 375kV supplied from the 20MVA 50Hz
generator. Voltage is adjusted by varying the excitation on the generator.

A Hartmann and Braun Schering bridge is used for tan delta (power factor loss angle)
checks on the condition of the transformer insulation material.

Sound pressure measurements are usually carried out according to the IEC 60551 or
ANSI/IEEE method and a Brüel and Kjaer sound level meter is used for this purpose. If
required a full frequency spectrum of sound emission can be recorded and the sound power
determined.

Ratios are taken on any one of 4 Hartmann and Braun ratiometers in the department and 3
Hartmann and Brown bridges are available for resistance measurements, which can be
arranged either as Wheatstone or Thompson bridges.

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