000000000001007082

Fan Repair Guideline
1007082
Fan Repair Guideline
1007082
Technical Update, July 2002
EPRI Project Manager

Kent Coleman
EPRI • 1300 W.T. Harris Blvd., Charlotte, North Carolina 28262 • PO Box 217097, Charlotte, North Carolina 28221 • USA
800.313.3774 • 704.547.6176 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF
LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
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ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT
Euroweld
NOTICE: THIS REPORT CONTAINS PROPRIETARY INFORMATION THAT IS THE

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY OF EPRI, ACCORDINGLY, IT IS AVAILABLE ONLY
UNDER LICENSE FROM EPRI AND MAY NOT BE REPRODUCED OR
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ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to the EPRI FRAC, 1300 W.T. Harris Blvd., Charlotte,
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Copyright © 2002 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
EPRI Repair & Replacement Applications Center
1300 W.T Harris Blvd.
Charlotte, NC 28262
Principle Investigators
K. Coleman
G. Hudgins
This document describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The publication is a corporate document that should be cited in literature in the following
manner:
Fan Repair Guideline, EPRI Repair & Replacement Applications Center, Charlotte, NC:
2002. 1007082.
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EPRI Proprietary Licensed Material
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to recognize Johnny Johnson of Barron Industries for reviewing
this document and providing industry practices. They would also like to thank Derek
Overcash of the EPRI RRAC for his assistance in writing and reviewing this document.
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REPORT SUMMARY
The successful repair of a fan component is affected by a number of different factors.
These include, correctly assessing the root cause of failure, determining the best repair
option, implementation of proper repair procedures, and compliance with applicable
codes and standards. However, in many situations the proper solution is not clearly
evident. The purpose of this document is to provide guidance in the area of induced draft
forced draft fan repair. Specifically, this document deals with the repair of fan blades,
casings, bearings, centerplates / sideplates, hubs, and shafts. Given these six main areas
of interest, the guideline expands on descriptions of the components, associated damage
mechanisms, common materials, repair techniques, and maintenance actions.
Background
In modern power plants, fans represent one of the largest groups of rotating equipment.
Except for turbine generators and pumps, fans represent some of the greatest capital
investment in the plant. The fan component repair and/or replacement process can be an
area of large cost or potential savings depending on the proper selection and
implementation of repair options. Typical problems arise in fan units due to vibration,
high/low cycle fatigue, corrosion, and erosion damage mechanisms. This document is
intended to provide repair guidance for the six most important components.
Objectives
• To identify the most prominent damage mechanisms and repair technologies
applicable to fan casings, bearings, hubs, centerplates/sideplates, blades, and shafts.
• To incorporate a repair decision matrix and weld repair schedule to implement the
most cost-effective repair solutions.
• To illustrate proper maintenance actions to reduce the likelihood of component
damage.
Approach
This guideline was developed through research and investigation of the most prominent
fan casing, hub, centerplate/sideplate, bearing, blade, and shaft repair issues and repair
technologies. This information is assembled in a coherent guide, which provides the
knowledge needed to effectively direct repair. This guideline is aimed at the system,
maintenance and welding engineers responsible for maintaining the fans. Secondary
audiences are the design engineers and others interested in understanding the types of
problems that affect fans and available repair techniques utilized to correct those
problems. This guideline will also lead the engineer through the repair process. Finally,
vii
the guideline will assist the engineers in writing the repair specifications and provide
them with knowledge to help them better understand the operations they will oversee.
EPRI Perspective
Today, with the emphasis on shorter refueling outages and tighter radiation exposure
limits, utilities are looking for faster and more cost-effective approaches to getting back
on-line quickly. Consequently, there is an on going effort to identify and implement the
most cost-effective repair solutions. One of the main methods of communicating these
repair solutions is through the development of guidelines. In the past, EPRI has produced
numerous reports concerning the maintenance, operations, and monitoring of fans.
However, these documents do not specifically address the subject of fan repair. The goal
of this document is to move beyond the aspect of maintenance and focus more on the
aspects associated with fan repair.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Various fans are used in fossil power plants to transport air and fuel to and from the
boiler, and it is vital that these systems operate at peak performance to contribute to
optimum combustion efficiency. In order for fans to operate at peak performance, they
must be in acceptable working condition, both through efforts of maintenance and repair.
These systems can be extremely costly and important maintenance and repair issues must
be addressed to limit their expenses. Below is a list of the general topics of this report.
• Fan Background Information
• Common Damage Mechanisms
• Fan Repair Issues
• Fan Maintenance Issues
• Sample Vendor Welding Procedures
The information found in the fan unit background section introduces the purpose of fans
in fossil power plants, describes fan components, and the various types of fans. Then
detailed descriptions of four common damage mechanisms; erosion, corrosion, vibration,
and high/low cycle fatigue are introduced. The fan repair section is divided into the
repair of the six most important components. These components are essential to proper
operation of the fans and include the blades, centerplates/sideplates, hub, shaft, casing,
and bearings. Each of the component repair sections was broken down into subcategories
that include general information, associated damage mechanisms, common materials, and
repair techniques. In addition, a decision matrix (Table 3-1) and a weld repair schedule
(Table 3-2) was developed by a welding engineer to assist in the welding techniques of
various materials for centerplates, sideplates, blades, and wear plates. There is also a
section entitled Field Welding Procedures and Guidelines, which includes topics such as
the general safety precautions, code required inspections, damage analysis and repair
option evaluation, surface and weld preparation issues, welding qualifications, and
essential welding variables.
The fan maintenance section was primarily taken from EPRI document “Operation and
Maintenance Guidelines for Draft Fans,” report number TR-101698, and due to its
abundance of information was essential to include with the repair issues of fan units.
This section includes a general introduction to maintenance, pre-examination techniques,
inspection methods, vibration and balancing issues, cleanup issues, dust collection
devices, flue gas desulfurization equipment, noise control, basic maintenance checks, and
maintenance actions to conserve energy. Various welding procedures were included in
the appendix to assist the user of this document in developing a proper repair routine.
This document is not intended to replace any O&M repair techniques, but should only be
used as a supplemental reference. With the proper usage of this document and O&M
recommendations, the maintenance and repair cost of power plant fans will drastically
decrease. It is the purpose of this technical report to allow the user of this document to
ix
become familiar with fan units and their various components, common damage
mechanisms, repair issues, and maintenance issues. With this information and sample
vendor welding procedures an effective repair routine can be developed.
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CONTENTS
1 FAN UNIT BACKGROUND...................................................................................... 1-1

Introduction............................................................................................................. 1-1
Fan Components.................................................................................................... 1-2
Types of Power Plant Fans .................................................................................... 1-7
2 DAMAGE MECHANISMS ........................................................................................ 2-1
Erosion ................................................................................................................... 2-1
Corrosion................................................................................................................ 2-3
Vibration ................................................................................................................. 2-5
Low / High Cycle Fatigue........................................................................................ 2-7
3 INTRODUCTION TO FAN REPAIR.......................................................................... 3-1
Field Welding Procedures and Guidelines.............................................................. 3-2
Safety Precautions ............................................................................................ 3-2
Code Required Inspections............................................................................... 3-2
Damage Analysis and Repair Option Evaluation............................................... 3-3
Surface and Weld Preparation Issues............................................................... 3-3
Welding Qualifications....................................................................................... 3-3
Essential Welding Variables.............................................................................. 3-4
Fan Blade Repair.................................................................................................. 3-10
Types of Blading ............................................................................................. 3-10
Blade Damage ................................................................................................ 3-12
Blade Materials ............................................................................................... 3-14
Blade Repair ................................................................................................... 3-17
Centerplate / Sideplate Repair ............................................................................. 3-20
Types of Centerplates / Sideplates ................................................................. 3-20
Centerplate / Sideplate Damage ..................................................................... 3-20
Materials ......................................................................................................... 3-21
Centerplate / Sideplate Repairs ...................................................................... 3-22
Hub Repair ........................................................................................................... 3-24
Types of Hubs................................................................................................. 3-24
Hub Damage ................................................................................................... 3-24
Hub Materials.................................................................................................. 3-25
Hub Repair...................................................................................................... 3-25
Shaft Repair ......................................................................................................... 3-26
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Types of Shafts ............................................................................................... 3-26

Shaft Damage ................................................................................................. 3-27
Shaft Materials ................................................................................................ 3-27
Typical Usage....................................................................................................... 3-28
Shaft Repair .................................................................................................... 3-28
Fan Casing Repair................................................................................................ 3-29
Types of Casings ............................................................................................ 3-29
Casing Damage .............................................................................................. 3-30
Cracking and breaking caused by insufficient bracing / welding ..................... 3-30
High vibrational bolt failures ............................................................................ 3-30
Improper clearance between housing and fan wheel ...................................... 3-31
Improper access doors / plates maintenance.................................................. 3-31
Foundation Deterioration................................................................................. 3-31
Improper fly ash / gas distribution to / from the fans........................................ 3-31
Corrosion / leaking ductwork........................................................................... 3-32
Ductwork misalignment ................................................................................... 3-33
Damaged lagging / insulation.......................................................................... 3-33
Damaged slide plates...................................................................................... 3-33
Casing Materials ............................................................................................. 3-34
Casing Repair ................................................................................................. 3-35
BEARING REPAIR ............................................................................................... 3-36
General ........................................................................................................... 3-36
Rolling Element Bearings................................................................................ 3-36
4 FAN MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................... 4-1
Introduction to Fan Maintenance ............................................................................ 4-1
Pre-Examination Techniques - Surface Cleaning & Surface Preparation............... 4-2
Surface Cleaning............................................................................................... 4-2
Surface Preparation .......................................................................................... 4-3
Inspection Methods ........................................................................................... 4-3
(Wet/Dry)-Magnetic Particle Testing ................................................................. 4-3
Visual Inspection ............................................................................................... 4-6
Ultrasonic Inspection......................................................................................... 4-7
Liquid Penetrant ................................................................................................ 4-7
Vibration and Balancing.......................................................................................... 4-8
Vibration Parameters ........................................................................................ 4-8
Vibration Analysis.............................................................................................. 4-9
Vibration Causes............................................................................................. 4-11
Balancing ........................................................................................................ 4-12
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Cleanup ................................................................................................................ 4-12

Dust Collection Devices........................................................................................ 4-12
Mechanical Collectors ..................................................................................... 4-12
Electrostatic Precipitators................................................................................ 4-13
Bag Filterhouses ............................................................................................. 4-13
Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Equipment ......................................................... 4-13
Noise Control........................................................................................................ 4-14
Basic Maintenance ............................................................................................... 4-14
Pre-startup Checks ......................................................................................... 4-14
Operational Checks......................................................................................... 4-15
Out-of-Service Checks .................................................................................... 4-18
Maintenance Actions to Conserve Energy............................................................ 4-22
5 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 5-1
A APPENDIX.............................................................................................................................A-1
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1: Effect of Blade Type on Erosion Resistance and Efficiency [3] ....................... 5
Table 3-1: Fan Repair Decision Matrix............................................................................... 7
Table 3-2 Weld Schedules................................................................................................... 9
Table 3-3: Typical Industrial Applications for Heavy-Duty Fan Blades .......................... 12
Table 3-3: Typical Blade Materials [6] ............................................................................. 15
Table 3-4: Centerplate and Sideplate Materials [6]........................................................... 21
Table 3-5: Shaft Materials [6] ........................................................................................... 28
Table 3-6: Casing Materials [6] ........................................................................................ 34
Table 4-1: General Maintenance Actions for Energy Conservation [2] ........................... 22
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1-1: Airfoil-blade centrifugal fan with inlet-vane control [3]...................................1-2

Fig. 1-2: Two-stage variable-pitch axial-flow fan for induced-draft service [3] .............1-3
Fig. 1-3: Centrifugal (radial) fan blade types [3] .............................................................1-4
Fig. 1-4: Close-up of adjustable airfoil blading of an axial-flow fan [3] .........................1-4
Fig. 1-5: Inlet vanes give an initial spin to air entering a centrifugal fan. By adjusting the
angle of vanes, the degree of spin and volumetric output are regulated [3]..............1-6
Fig. 1-6: Louver Damper [4] ............................................................................................1-6
Fig. 1-7: Coal-fired utility power plant schematic (gas-recirculation fan not shown)[4] 1-8
Fig. 3-1: Typical blade types for heavy-duty fan operation [11] ...................................3-10
Fig. 3-2: Specific diameter and efficiency versus specific speed for single-inlet fan types
[1].............................................................................................................................3-11
Fig. 3-3: Fan rotor blades with heavy erosion [3] ..........................................................3-13
Fig. 3-4: Blade Alloys ....................................................................................................3-16
Fig. 3-5: Blade Repair Flow Chart .................................................................................3-19
Fig. 3-6: Centerplate / Sideplate Locations [10] ............................................................3-20
Fig. 3-7: Hub location in a fan unit [10] ........................................................................3-24
Fig. 3-8: Shaft location in a fan unit [10].......................................................................3-27
Fig. 3-9: Corroded / Leaking Ductwork [2] ...................................................................3-32
Fig. 3-10: Corrosion Buildup on Ductwork [2]..............................................................3-32
Fig. 3-11: Self-Aligning Ball Bearings [7].....................................................................3-37
Fig. 3-12: Single-Row Radial Ball Bearings [7] ............................................................3-38
Fig. 3-13: Double-Row Radial Ball Bearings [7] ..........................................................3-38
Fig. 3-14: Single-Row Angular-Contact Ball Bearings [7]............................................3-38
Fig. 3-15: Double-Row Angular-Contact Ball Bearings [7] ..........................................3-38
Fig. 3-16: Cylindrical Roller Bearing [9].......................................................................3-39
Fig. 3-17: Needle Bearing [9] ........................................................................................3-40
Fig. 3-18: Tapered-Roller Bearing [9] ...........................................................................3-40
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1
FAN UNIT BACKGROUND
Introduction
Steam generators use thermodynamic energy in order to convert water into steam for the
generation of electric power. Modern utility coal-fired furnaces use the process of
combustion in order to obtain the necessary thermodynamic energy for this phase
transformation. The combustion reaction within the furnace provides the heat source for
the boiler or steam generator. Combustion can be defined as:
The rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel,
which ultimately results in the production of heat. Combustion is accomplished by
mixing fuel and air at elevated temperatures. The air supplies oxygen, which unites
chemically with the carbon, hydrogen, and a few minor elements in the fuel to produce
heat. [5]
Ideal combustion conditions will lead to the release of all of the energy in the fuel while
minimizing any losses due to fuel imperfections and excess air. In this respect, it is vital
that a plant’s air and fuel handling systems operate at peak performance. Auxiliary fan
systems provide the draft necessary to supply the airflow to the furnace for the
combustion reaction or can provide a negative pressure in order to exhaust combustion
products. Fossil power plant fan systems are also responsible for the transportation of
coal from the pulverizer to the furnace and for steam temperature control within the
furnace. In order to maintain optimum combustion efficiency, the engineer and field
operators must be assured that the plant’s auxiliary fan systems are operating properly
and at peak performance. Improper draft control could lead to inadequate combustion or
even boiler room fires.
Because of the harsh environment and stringent duty cycles associated with most utility
fan operation, concerns arise over the propensity for component damage, such as
corrosion, erosion, and fatigue to occur. Material degradation of the blading or wheel of
the fan or any rotational system can lead to serious vibration problems and possibly
catastrophic mechanical failure. Other mechanical issues such as improper lubrication to
bearings, flow control devices, and couplings, as well as shaft misalignment and a poor
hub fit can also lead to mechanical failure of the fan and improper combustion
conditions. Fan maintenance issues are one of the leading causes for unit availability
problems for coal-fired power plants. In order to maintain sufficient fan operation with
minimal downtime due to fan damage, a thorough fan component repair plan must be
implemented should repair issues arise.
1-1
Through this fan repair guideline, the FRAC intends to provide utilities with the proper
repair procedures and relevant fan repair experience information needed to implement
field repairs for damaged fan components such as rotors, shafts, and bearings. This
guideline will address damage mechanisms, defect removal, welding, surfacing,
mechanical repairs, and heat treating issues associated with fan repair.
Fan Components
A fan can be considered a mechanical device that moves a volume of fluid such as air,
gas, or vapor through a pressure driven flow. Large capacity fan units typically consist of
a bladed, rotating impeller enclosed in a stationary casing. The rotor system causes the
motion of the fluid and the casing directs the output flow. The rotor can be powered and
controlled through a driver such as a variable speed motor, a single-speed motor, a
turbine driver, or a fluid-driver, which is directly connected to the shaft of the impeller.
A fan is classified by the direction of its flow through the bladed passages of the impeller.
A centrifugal fan moves the air perpendicular to the rotational axis of the impeller and an
axial fan moves the air parallel to the rotational axis of the impeller. Figures 1-1 and 1-2
denote the typical configuration of a centrifugal and axial fan. These fans can be further
classified as either a single suction fan, one with a single air inlet, or a double suction fan,
which has two inlets.
Fig. 1-1: Airfoil-blade centrifugal fan with inlet-vane control [3]
1-2
Fig. 1-2: Two-stage variable-pitch axial-flow fan for induced-draft service [3]
The blading on the rotating impeller causes the excitation or motion of the fluid particles
through the fan. There are essentially three different types of fan blading. These blades
include radial, forward-curved, and backward curved. Blading can be further modified
depending upon the desired flow conditions. The selection of blade type is dependant
upon the desired output air speed, the specified loading conditions, the environmental
conditions, allowable noise levels, and the required flow efficiencies. For example,
backward-curved blades will produce lower velocities than the forward-curved blades for
a given tip or peripheral speed. A radial blade fan runs slower than the backward incline
fan but deflects any particulates in the flow away from the blade surface which can
significantly minimize fan vibrations.
Fly-ash erosion is the most common type of blade damage. The high temperature
combustion of coal involves the decomposition of such compounds as aluminum, iron,
potassium, sodium and sulfur. This reaction releases volatile alkali compounds and sulfur
oxides (predominately SO2 with small amounts of SO3). The remaining minerals from
this reaction form glassy particles known as fly ash. Most blades are protected by wear
plates or liners to minimize fly-ash erosion.
It is clear that blading design is key to fan performance. Centrifugal fans usually utilize
radial, radial tip, backwardly inclined solid, or airfoil type blading. Axial fans use airfoil
shaped blades or blades of uniform thickness. Depending upon the fan environment,
certain types of blading may be inappropriate for use due to a higher susceptibility to fly-
ash erosion. Figure 1-3 denotes typical blade cross sections for centrifugal fans and
Figure 1-4 shows an adjustable airfoil blading of an axial fan. Table 1-1 reveals typical
efficiency ratings and erosion resistance for common blade types.
1-3
Fig. 1-3: Centrifugal (radial) fan blade types [3]
Fig. 1-4: Close-up of adjustable airfoil blading of an axial-flow fan [3]
1-4
Table 1-1: Effect of Blade Type on Erosion Resistance and Efficiency [3]
Blade Type Typical Max. Static Efficiency Tolerance to Erosive
(%)* Environment
Radial 70 High
Radial Tip 80 Medium to High
Backwardly Inclined Solid 85 Medium
Airfoil 90 Low
* A fan’s static efficiency can be defined as the total fan efficiency multiplied by the fan static
pressure to fan total pressure. A fan’s total efficiency is defined as the ratio of the fan output
power to the fan input power.
The output flow of a fan can be controlled or adjusted during operation in two ways:
1. By manipulating the aerodynamic flow into or within the fan
2. By controlling the speed of the fan.
A centrifugal fan utilizing inlet vanes controls the airflow via the first method by altering
the flow of gas within the fan. The fan can be “throttled” by the inlet vanes to provide the
flow and pressure necessary for lower operating conditions. Variable inlet vanes can
provide swirl to the impeller, which tends to increase fan efficiency compared to other
methods of damper control. The angle of variable inlet vanes can be adjusted to control
the volumetric output of a centrifugal fan as seen in Figure 1-5. Inlet box dampers
provide a similar flow control or spin to the air as inlet vanes except that the inlet boxes
are upstream from the rotor system where as the variable inlet vanes immediately precede
the rotor system. Damper controlled flow usually consists of a constant speed operation
which is throttled through a variable obstruction (the outlet damper box) downstream
from the impeller. Figure 1-6, depicts a typical louver style damper which can be used to
alter flow distribution. An axial fan can control the flow within the fan using variable
pitch blading. Most axial fans are operated by variable pitch axial blades, which controls
the flow by altering the internal geometry of the flow pathway. Fixed pitch axial fans will
use inlet vanes to control the flow. A fan that is run with a variable speed motor can
adjust the speed to control the output flow properties (method two).
1-5
Fig. 1-5: Inlet vanes give an initial spin to air entering a centrifugal fan. By adjusting the
angle of vanes, the degree of spin and volumetric output are regulated [3]
Fig. 1-6: Louver Damper [4]
1-6
As with all rotating equipment, bearings play an important role in maintaining stable
rotation and therefore should be well maintained through proper lubrication and cooling
systems. Improper or contaminated bearing lubrication could present bearing oil film
stiffness and damping concerns. Some of the typical types of bearings used in power
plant fans are listed below.
• Sleeve-ringed oiled bearings
• Self-aligning water-cooled sleeve bearings
• Grease lubricated bearings
• Anti-friction oil bearings
• Thrust ball bearings at the blade root of variable pitch blading
• Pedestal mounted journal bearings for large centrifugal fans
It is equally important to maintain proper alignment and balance of the fan during
operation. Proper lubrication and cooling methods should be maintained for all couplings
to prevent wear. In order to maintain stable rotation and minimize vibration and wear, the
motor or driver should be properly aligned with the shaft of the fan. Special attention
should be paid to possible expansion differentials between the shaft and hub of the
impeller. Improper alignment, as well as any change in weight distribution due to fly-ash
erosion or other material degradation could throw the fan into an unbalanced state
causing severe vibration problems and possible fan failure.
Types of Power Plant Fans

There are four main types of fans used in fossil power plants. These fans include forced
draft fans, induced draft fans, primary air fans, and gas-recirculation fans. Draft fans are
generally responsible for maintaining the flow of gases through the boiler. A power plant
can create draft through forced draft, induced draft, balanced draft, and natural draft. If a
plant utilizes only forced draft, a large unit forced draft fan is placed upstream from the
boiler and it applies a positive pressure to push the air and flue gases through the system.
If the plant utilizes an induced draft fan, then the fan placed at the boiler system outlet
supplies a negative pressure or suction to exhaust the air and flue gases through the
system into the atmosphere. If the flow through the system is achieved through the stack
alone then it is considered natural draft. A balanced draft system uses both a forced draft
fan at the inlet of the system and an induced draft fan at the outlet of the boiler system.
The balanced draft system tends to be the most efficient by minimizing the amount of hot
gas that can escape the system. Fans that are not primarily used to maintain draft through
the system are the primary air fans and the gas-recirculation fans. These fans are used for
the drying or transport of pulverized coal and for steam temperature control, respectively.
A more detailed discussion on each of the four power plant fans will follow. Figure 1-7
shows a schematic of a typical balanced draft coal-fired power plant.
1-7
Fig. 1-7: Coal-fired utility power plant schematic (gas-recirculation fan not shown)[4]
Forced draft fans (FD) supply the air necessary for fuel combustion by pushing the air
through the combustion air supply system and into the furnace. Forced draft fans create a
positive pressure which drives the flow throughout the air ducting and other heating
systems between the fan discharge location and the furnace. Forced draft fans must
supply enough airflow to overcome any frictional resistance and air-heater leakage
problems. These fans are typically the most efficient fans in the power plant because they
have the cleanest operating environment; they handle cool, clean air upstream from the
hot flue gas exhaust. Typically, these fans are centrifugal fans utilizing radial airfoil
blading or variable pitch axial fans. These fans tend to have particulate catching screens
upstream from the impeller to minimize abrasive damage from foreign debris.
Induced draft fans (ID) are placed at the outlet of the boiler system and exhaust all
gaseous combustion products, or flue gas, from the boiler by creating a negative pressure
or suction within the furnace. These fans are usually placed downstream from a
particulate catching system in order to help maintain a clean fan surface. However,
because these fans handle hot flue gas, they are generally more susceptible to erosion and
corrosion even with particulate removal or scrubber systems. If the ID fan system can
maintain sufficiently clean surfaces then an airfoil-bladed centrifugal fan or a variable
bladed axial fan is appropriate for service. If greater wear resistance is necessary, a
modified radial, forward-curved, or backward-inclined blading can be used at the expense
of efficiency loss.
Primary air fans (PA) are high pressure fans used to supply the air for the transportation
of coal either directly from the pulverizer to the furnace or to an intermediate bunker.
These fans can either provide a positive pressure upstream of the coal pulverizer and
handle relatively clean air or be located downstream from the pulverizer providing
negative pressure while handling coal-dust laden air. The pulverizer exhauster fan or
“hot” PA fan, located downstream from the pulverizer, transports the coal/air mixture for
ignition from the pulverizer to the fuel pipes, which leads to the furnace. A PA fan
1-8
upstream from the pulverizer, or a “cold” PA fan, pushes the coal/air mixture through the
pulverizer and is most commonly used. Cold PA fans typically are airfoil centrifugal fans
or multi-stage axial fans similar to FD fans. If the fan is located downstream from the
pulverizer (pulverizer exhauster fan) there are severe particulate concentrations, and
possibly high temperature excursions, straight radial or modified radial blades are more
appropriate.
Gas-recirculation fans are used to control steam temperature, furnace heat absorption,
and slagging of heating surfaces. These fans extract gas from the economizer outlet and
the pre-heater inlet and then discharge the gas either to the bottom of the furnace for
steam temperature control or to various locations in the furnace. The duty cycle of a gas-
recirculation fan is very stringent due to heavy dust loads and extreme temperature
excursions. Mechanical dust collectors should be installed ahead of this fan to minimize
the impact of some of the abrasive particles. Due to the high temperature excursions
associated with the gas-recirculation fan environment, expansion differentials between
the hub and shaft are of great concern. An integral hub, as opposed to a shrink-fit, may be
more appropriate to handle these temperature changes. Thermal shock could present
problems for this fan as well during shutdown and startup operations. Straight or
modified radials or forward curved, backwardly inclined centrifugal wheels are
appropriate for gas-recirculation fans.
1-9
1-10
2
DAMAGE MECHANISMS
Erosion
One of the most common damage mechanisms associated with power plant fan failure is
erosion, which is responsible for serious and costly maintenance. The effects of erosion
can lead to extreme unbalance and high vibration. Erosion of fan units is characterized
by the loss of fan material through the mechanical action of particulate matter in the flue
gas impinging on or abrading on the fan surfaces. The primary cause of erosion is fly ash
contact with the fan surfaces during operation. The rate of erosion depends on the
following characteristics of the suspended particles in the flue gas.
• Fly ash mass flow rate / Ash load

• Particle size
• Particle shape (spherical or sharp)
• Particle surface texture (jagged or smooth)
• Particle hardness
• Particulate contamination
• Impact angle and velocity
In a more detailed description of erosion, an examination of how the damage mechanism

occurs is explained. When gases pass through a fan unit particulate matter strikes and
abrades the fan unit surfaces, such as the casing, blading, hub, shaft, centerplates,
sideplates, and the overall result is known as surface thinning. Slight surface material is
abraded from the fan unit and carried though the power plant’s route gradually producing
what is known as an erosive environment. This can further cause vibration due to the
unbalanced rotation of the fan caused by the improper distribution of the mass about the
axis of rotation. Ideally, there should be a symmetrical mass distribution about the center
of rotation. The seven factors above directly relate the particulate matter to the erosion
problem that exists in boiler fan units. Since those factors can not directly be influenced
under operating conditions, the opposing side, which is the maintenance, engineering,
and repair of fan units, must be utilized.
As discussed in Section 1.0, power plant fans can be placed into four distinct categories,
which include the forced-draft, primary-air, induced-draft, and gas-recirculation fans.
Gas-recirculation fans tend to suffer the most from erosion because of the heavy dust and
operation elevated temperatures, which causes softening of metals. These fans must be
reliable due to the rugged environment in which they operate. One particular concern is
how the fan hub is mated with the shaft as the often-used shrink-fit method may not be
adequate. Erosion can occur between these two surfaces and cause slight slippage, which
can lead to further failure at the joint known as fretting. Fretting is a problem associated
with shrink fits, where two metals in constant contact abrade one another. This allows a
2-1
more profound effect of erosion on the mating surfaces and can lead to catastrophic
failure. Those with integral hubs are preferable and straight or modified radials or
forward-curved and backwardly inclined centrifugal wheels meet those needs the best.
Induced-draft fans are typically located downstream of any particulate removal system
and consequently operate in a much cleaner environment than gas-recirculation fans.
Therefore, the airfoil-bladed centrifugal or variable pitch axial fans can be implemented.
This will enable superior static efficiencies, because high tolerance to the erosive
environment is not a concern. Through the examination of all types of fan blades it was
observed that the greater the static efficiency the lower the tolerance to an erosive
environment, and vice versa. In older plants that have been retrofitted with particulate
removal systems, the ID fans are frequently ahead of the removal systems and have high
ash loading. Additionally, ID fans installed downstream of wet scrubbers, carryover can
cause erosion and buildup. Where greater wear resistance is needed because of dust
burden, wear pads can be placed on blades and center plates, and replaceable nose
sections can be attached. This creates an environment for slight erosion to occur without
affecting the fan unit. They are typically replaced when they have worn halfway down.
A modified radial or forward-curved, backward-inclined design can be used. If ID fans
are downstream of the wet scrubbers, erosion can result due to limestone buildup and the
solutions previously mentioned can be employed.
Forced-draft fans operate in the cleanest environment associated with boilers. They are
generally the most efficient and quietest of all fans in the power plant. Airfoil bladed
(extending in the radial direction from the rotor) centrifugal or variable pitch axial fans
are typically used for FD service in boiler units. FD fans have screens to protect the fans
from any entrained particles in the incoming air. This limits the passage of abrasive
particulate matter, which creates a less erosive environment. It also limits the passage of
large matter that might cause structural damage upon contact.
Primary-air fans are usually equipped with centrifugal airfoil or multi-stage axial fans as
they draw air from the environment but frequently have recirculated air for temperature
control. In cases with severe particulate concentrations or high temperatures, straight
radial or modified radial fans are recommended. Therefore, the fan blade arrangement is
dependent upon the particulate environment within the fan unit. Air handled by the cold
primary-air fans can decrease the size requirements of the FD fans.
In the case of centrifugal fans, the heaviest erosion occurs in the region where the blades
and center plates are joined and in advanced stages, it can cause serious structural
damage. Erosion in axial fan designs is somewhat less serious because most of the
damage occurs on the blade tips and does not usually pose as great a threat to the
structural integrity or balance of the fan. It is less serious because the blade root stress is
actually reduced as the blade erodes. However, blade tip erosion does impede the
performance of the fan.
The rate of erosion experienced by fans used in harsh applications is often controlled by
the use of repairable liners, replaceable liners, or renewable coatings. Reducing fan speed
2-2
and selecting a fan blade type that is more resistant to erosion will slow down the
abrasive wall thinning experienced by fan unit surfaces. However, erosion problems are
still significant and account for a larger portion of fan repair in fossil power plants.
Consequently, there is a need for systematic inspection and improved repair guidelines to
address the fan erosion problems.
Corrosion
Chemical corrosion was limited to chemical process plants in the past, but with the
introduction of FGD (flue gas desulfurization) systems, the problem has been brought to
the utility industry. Corrosion is the loss of material through the reaction of various
chemicals in the flue gas, which are exposed to the fan surface. The corrosion buildup is
then swept away though the boiler route by the impact of incoming gases with the
corroded fan surfaces. This environment is more susceptible to erosion and its wall
thinning effect becomes more profound due to the vulnerable corrosive fan surface. Fans
made of standard carbon-steel or low-alloy-steel, where entering flue gas has properly
been dehumidified and heated at least 30°F above the adiabatic saturation temperature
(approx. 130°F) from experience have shown excellent corrosion resistance. High alloy
steels have also proven an expensive alternative to flue gas drying and re-heating. The
following list is the most common types of corrosion problems found in boiler power
plants. The most common associated with fans units are intergranular corrosion, general
corrosion (wastage), and erosion corrosion.
• Erosion corrosion
• Crevice corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion
• Pitting
• General corrosion (wastage)
• Differential Oxygenation
• Biological corrosion
• Intergranular corrosion
A brief introduction to erosion corrosion, intergranular corrosion, and general (wastage)
corrosion will be given for explanation of the types of corrosion damage that exists in
boiler fan units. Erosion corrosion is an accelerated form of corrosion that results from
the flow of fluid through a component. Erosion removes the oxide film on the surface
and exposes the base metal to higher levels of corrosion. The parameters below are
influencing factors for erosion corrosion.
• Fluid film flow rate
• Temperature, typically between 250°F and 500°F, but can exist outside of this range.
• pH of the solution – corrosion is more active at low pH values
2-3
• Steel composition – chromium, molybdenum and copper reduce the corrosion rate
(2% Cr is enough to suppress it)
Intergranular corrosion is the corrosion that occurs at the grain boundaries of the material,
and is primarily a problem in austenitic steels. The material properties can be drastically
reduced without any apparent surface damage. It occurs as a result of chromium carbides
precipitating out at the grain boundaries leaving the boundaries depleted of chrome and
therefore making them susceptible to corrosion. The strongly bonded matrix of the metal
grains is destroyed due to the attack of grain boundaries in the corrosive environment.
Intergranular corrosion damage can result from a slow cooling rate experienced during
the heat treating process as well as when the steel is heated by welding to a temperature
between 900°F and 1500°F.
General corrosion (wastage) is a mechanism that affects the entire metal surface resulting
from exposure to an aggressive fluid. This electrochemical process may result in the
complete dissolution of the metallic part unless an oxide or paint protective layer is
implemented. Rust is an example of general corrosion, which is caused by steels being
contained in a moist environment.
The high temperature combustion of coal involves the decomposition of such compounds
as aluminum, iron, potassium, sodium and sulfur. This reaction releases volatile alkali
compounds and sulfur oxides (predominately SO2 with small amounts of SO3). The
remaining minerals form glassy particles known as fly ash. Coal-ash corrosion starts with
the deposition of fly ash on surfaces around 1000-1300°F. Over time, the volatile alkali
sulfates and sulfur compounds condense on the fly-ash deposits to form complex alkali
sulfates, which promote a chemical reaction between the metal surface and the alkali
sulfates. This chemical reaction corrodes the metal surface and causes thinning and
material degradations at the location of the fly-ash deposit. This corrosion process
doesn’t really affect fans, however knowledge of it is important to help clarify the
different types of corrosion.
The fans that are primarily affected by corrosion are those located downstream of wet
scrubbers, especially when the wet scrubbers are used to reduce the sulfur dioxide content
of the flue gas for environmental purposes and ID fans operating below the dew point
temperature. The potential for severe corrosion arises from a combination of several
factors. One of the primary factors is slurry droplet carryover from the saturated flue gas.
These droplets are usually acidic and contain high concentrations of dissolved sulfides.
Since water vapor exists in the flue gas, surface condensation is unavoidable. The acidic
condensation (pH less than 1.0) that forms on the surface of the fan leads to rapid and
severe corrosion.
Several efforts have been made to reduce the effect of corrosion caused by wet scrubbers.
The two approaches that have been used to minimize these effects are flue gas re-heat
techniques and flue/stack lining. The flue gas re-heat technique involves re-heating the
flue gas that leaves the scrubber to reduce the moisture content and the associated
condensation that forms on the surface of the fan. The process of re-heating the flue gas
has been accomplished using the following systems.
2-4
• Steam coil heaters

• Mixing with hot flue gas that is bypassed around the scrubber
• Mixing with hot air
• Mixing with hot gases generated by the combustion of clean fuels
• Regenerative heater exchanger which transfers heat from the hot flue gas inlet to the
cooler flue gas outlet
Each of these methods has been used with a limited degree of success. One problem that
occurs with systems using heat exchangers is corrosion development upon itself. The re-
heating method that uses bypass gas reduces the overall effectiveness of the FGD system.
Another problem that results when the droplets are evaporated is that the corrosive
constituents in the slurry become concentrated, which creates the need for corrosion
resistant flue liners and stacks lined with acid resistive bricks. Consequently, no clear
solution effectively eliminates the corrosion problem that affects fans or other
components that are downstream of a wet scrubber. Therefore, utilities are forced to
manage the corrosion problem and implement effective repair strategies. Consequently, a
systematic inspection and improved repair guidelines are needed to address the fan
corrosion problems.
Vibration
Excessive vibration is a common damage mechanism associated with fan unit failures.
When a centrifugal fan operates near the peak of the pressure-curve corresponding to the
minimum flow rate at which the fan can operate without instability the surge limit has
been attained. When an axial fan operates near the peak of the pressure-curve at a
particular blade angle corresponding to the minimum flow rate, the fan can operate
without separation of airflow over the blades and the stall limit has been attained.
Operation in either of these limits should be avoided so that substantial reduction in
fatigue life is not obtained.
Understanding the mechanism of vibration is very important and will be explained in a
brief example. Through the examination of an axial fan, a stall occurs when the angle of
attack exceeds a certain value relative to the air or gas velocity. When this angle of
attack is exceeded, the convex side of the blade experiences airflow separation. Air
trapped in the separated portion is directed in the radial direction to the outer tip of the
blade via centrifugal force. Pressure then builds up until it is relieved through the blade
tip clearance. The result is a very unstable oscillatory pressure force on the blade, which
can create severe vibrations throughout the entire region of the fan. There is also a
reduction in head capability and fan flow during this operating mode. Attack angles less
than the maximum values relative to their corresponding air or gas velocities create a
noisy and unstable fan unit, but it is no longer subjected to stalling. Possible reasons as
to why vibration occurs in boiler fan units are listed below.
• Improper balancing
2-5
• Loose components
• Worn/damaged parts
• Improper Lubrication
• Improper clearance of moving parts.
• Excitation of a resonant frequency
• Corrosion, erosion, high/low cycle fatigue effects
• Misalignment or bent shaft
• Flow induced vibrations from rotating stall or secondary vortex generation
• Cracking of fan components
• Improperly designed or deteriorated foundations
• Build-up of material on the rotor
Vibrations occur in several parts of the fan unit, which can affect its total performance.
Through examination of the fan blades, it is important to note if the fan has hollow airfoil
fan blades. If it does a possible cause of the vibration is that the blades fill with dust
particles, which affects the mass distribution. When there is uneven mass distribution the
unbalanced rotation (vibration) is produced. If hollow airfoil blades are not implemented
the fan unit has several areas that need to be investigated to find out if the fan is properly
balanced. Blade/rotor deposits on the fan surface, missing balance weights, ice buildup
on the rotor, ingested foreign object debris, and weld cracking on blades, sideplates, and
centerplates also produces uneven mass distributions. It is also important that the fan is
properly balanced, there is sufficient wheel clearance, and all components are rigid to
produce proper wheel rotation. If any parts are loose the fan unit will have a lot of
flexibility and therefore can exhibit a wobbling motion during operation. This creates
high level vibration that can cause catastrophic failure of the fan unit. All of these cases
can cause a vibration damage mechanism associated with fan wheels in fan units.
The structure of the fan unit is also an important area to examine for vibration damage.
The resonant frequency of the members should not be excited during operation. If the
problem does occur, the solution should be to examine methods for installing more
stiffness. The foundation should be crack-free with no loose bolts. Inspection of the
bearing pedestal for cracked welds should also be implemented. Bearings should be
damage free, which includes no excessive clearance, loose fasteners in housing,
misalignment, loose thrust collars, damaged rings or rolling elements, and lubrication
contamination. The oil temperature should also be in the proper operating range. There
should be no dry gear couplings, worn or damaged couplings, or shaft misalignments.
The shaft/hub is another area that should be investigated to avoid vibration in fan units.
Careful consideration must be paid to cracked shafts, loose hub-to-shaft fits, and bent or
distorted shafts during high-temperature shutdown. Dampers should not prematurely
close or fail partially open. There should be no coupling misalignments, coupling
unbalance, rotor unbalance/bent rotor, running off magnetic center, and motor internals
should be working properly.
2-6
Vibration problems arise during fan start up and during operation. Careful consideration
must be taken during the repair of fan units. For example, repairing a crack on a fan
blade ideally should be ground out, weld repaired, and ground back down to exactly the
same shape, with all material properties being compatible. The first grinding procedure
is used to remove the crack entirely. Then during the weld repair careful consideration
must be taken as to what filler material to use. The filler material must not only be
compatible with the blade material; it must also be approximately the same density so
that the mass distribution from the center of rotation remains even. The last grinding
procedure produces the exact shape as the other fan blades in the unit. This can not be
physically achieved so therefore careful attention must be paid to accomplishing a
reasonable equivalent. If not, the air resistance and improper mass distribution can lead
to the vibrational damage mechanism. Vibration is a very broad damage mechanism in
fan units and consequently is the most challenging to prevent. Therefore, guidelines for
the repair of fan units must be developed to assist repair specialists with adequate
solutions and procedures to prevent and control vibrational damage mechanisms.
Low / High Cycle Fatigue

Cyclic fatigue is another common damage mechanism associated with boiler fan units. It
is the failure of a material under cyclic loading. Fatigue life can be described by a
standard number of 10,000 cycles with “high-cycle fatigue” above this quantity and
“low-cycle fatigue” below it. Failure occurs due to local strains repeatedly exceeding the
yield point of the material, eventually leading to plastic flow failure. If the material
surpasses the yield point, the material becomes strain hardened due to local distortions in
the lattice structure, but if the yield point is repeatedly exceeded small cracks appear due
to the largely distorted lattice. This occurs early in the material’s fatigue life, usually
<5% of the number of cycles to failure. These small stress fractures begin to propagate
eventually leading to material failure.
Surface defects are usually located at the slip bands where cyclic plastic flow occurs due
to a material extrusion or intrusion. These slip bands occur along the maximum principal
shear stress planes although the opening is directed towards that of the maximum
principal normal stress. Slip bands originate parallel to the crack propagating motion, but
as the crack opens, these parallel slip bands are relieved and the result is usually limited
to one single crack.
Boiler fan cyclic fatigue is a consequence of residual tensile stresses left in the surface
due to defects and other indications during cyclic operation. Ideally, one would like to
have the material in compression because that is where a material has the most strength,
but due to the residual tensile stresses, the material is subjected to crack formation. Once
the crack initiates it will continue to propagate under cyclic loading eventually leading to
material failure.
There are generally three ways to classify the types of material fatigue, which include
torsional fatigue, axial fatigue, and bending fatigue. Torsional fatigue is a direct
consequence due to the fluctuating or alternating twisting moment, or torque. Axial
2-7
fatigue results from alternating tension and compression loading or fluctuating tension
loading. Bending fatigue can be subcategorized into two types of bending loads which
include unidirectional (one-way), reversed loading (two-way) and rotating. Any of the
following may be the root cause of fatigue cracking.
• Longitudinal Grooves
• Manufacturing Defects
• Wear (Abrasion/Adhesion)
• Corrosion
• Fretting
The repair of fatigue cracking in fan units usually involves metal removal, weld repair,
and a final metal removal. Shot peening can be utilized as a preventative technique to
help reduce the vulnerability of materials to fatigue failure. The reason for this is that the
shot peening technique induces compressive forces upon the material, reducing the
residual tension stresses, and thus creating a more fatigue resistant material.
Compressive residual stresses hold a material’s lattice structure together with more
strength, therefore creating a stronger resistance to crack formation.
Fan units experience high/low cycle fatigue problems at the shaft due to the torsional
effect. The load produced by the fan motor can be variable; thus producing repeated
increases and decreases in torque, which ultimately lead to cyclic torsional fatigue. This
alone is not the only cyclic fatigue problem associated with boiler fan units; it is just a
mere example. The majority of cracking and failures are from the manufacturing defects
in the fabricated structure of the rotor. Other typical areas of interest include the vanes,
hub portions of the impeller, and keyways. Therefore, guidelines for the repair of boiler
fan units must be established for damage mechanisms associated with high/low cycle
fatigue.
2-8
3
INTRODUCTION TO FAN REPAIR
Fans units such as induced draft, forced draft, gas-recirculation, and primary-air fans are
a few of the most important and largest energy consuming components in power plant
operations. A reliable repair guideline is helpful to ensure component availability and
adequate power plant efficiency. Fan units consist of many components however only
six were chosen to establish the foundation for this guideline. Other components are of
similar importance for proper fan operation, but their discussion will be limited to the
maintenance techniques, which are discussed in Section 4. The six components that will
be thoroughly examined are listed below with each section concentrating on general
types, common damage mechanisms, materials, and repair techniques.
• Welding Procedures and Guidelines

• Blade Repair
• Centerplate / Sideplate Repair
• Hub Repair
• Shaft Repair
• Casing Repair
• Bearing Repair
Section 3.1 differs from the others in that it incorporates the field welding procedures and
guidelines for each of the six major components. A repair decision matrix (Table 3-1)
and a weld repair schedule (Table 3-2) were created to assist maintenance technicians in
obtaining and utilizing the proper welding repair schedule for a given application. In
addition, collections of utility procedures are located in the appendix of this report so that
established proper guidance is readily available. Repair techniques will provide cost
savings as well as prevent catastrophic failure mechanisms. The results are well intended
if the six major components are properly repaired (Section 3), all other components are
well maintained (Section 4), and there is sufficient knowledge for the maintenance
technician to replace smaller damaged components (Sections 1 & 2). The results include
increased savings due to a decrease in downtime and increased electrical energy
production, which both contribute to better operational success. The repair guideline is
targeted towards establishing the background necessary for the development of a proper
fan repair schedule that should be utilized by power plant operations. It should be
characterized as a supplement to OEM recommendations and procedures.
3-1
Field Welding Procedures and Guidelines

Weld repair demands attention to detail. This is especially true for high strength steels
subject to fatigue stresses. Before beginning a repair, maintenance personal should be
aware of the following factors, which will influence the success of the repair:
• Shaft requirements
• Code related requirements
• Repair options
• Surface preparation
• Welding qualifications
• Essential welding variables
-Type and grade of material
-Type of filler material
-Welding Technique
-Proper welding procedures (preheat, interpass temperature, and postweld heat treat)
Safety Precautions
In order to perform the required repairs and inspections on fans, which have been taken
off-line, access by scaffolding and/or ladders will be required as well as adequate
lighting. It is important to properly secure all ladders, scaffolding and walk boards to
eliminate potential accidents. All welding personal should wear safety harnesses when
working at heights greater than six feet.
Fans are to be disengaged from the drive systems and air quality checked prior to
entrance (follow plant procedures). Upstream dampers should be closed to reduce
airflow to a minimum. Tarps or welding screens can be used to prevent drafts, especially
when preheating or postweld bakeout is being performed. The fan wheel should be
“chained out” so unexpected drafts do not cause “windmilling.” Welding personal should
also be sure that the welding machine is properly grounded prior to performing the repair.
Code Required Inspections

FD and ID fans are generally fabricated according to the American Welding Society –
Specification for Welding of Rotating Elements of Equipment, AWS D14.6. Annex C of
AWS D14.6 allows the usage of the liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, and radiographic
methods of inspection. It is strongly recommended that the fluorescent examination
methods be used for both liquid penetrant (WFPT) and/or magnetic particle inspections
(WFMT). For ferromagnetic materials, the WFMT method shall be used. Examining
non-magnetic materials such as austenitic stainless steels is accomplished by using the
WFPT method. The time of examination is contained in the “Weld Schedule” of Table 3-
2. Since linear discontinuities are those which may grow into cracks during service, it is
3-2
recommended that NO linear indications be considered acceptable in the weld repair area,
including the weld metal, heat affected zone (HAZ), and the adjacent base material.
Damage Analysis and Repair Option Evaluation

The repair plan should include a figure locating the damage relative to the other fan
components.
Damage analysis can be divided into the categories of erosion/corrosion, foreign object
damage, or fatigue. Past equipment history files can prove to be a good source for
evaluating damage based on previous inspections and repairs. Regardless of the type of
damage the reader of the document will have to determine whether “repair or
replacement” is necessary. Generally, localized wear, service damage and/or localized
unacceptable indications revealed by NDE can be weld-repaired in place. Localized
indications are most commonly found near blade tips, erosion shields, in welds joining
the blades to the centerplates or sideplates and blade to hub welds, especially in the
corners.
Surface and Weld Preparation Issues

Surface preparation is divided into two categories, (1) inspection and material
identification and (2) excavation and preparation for welding.
Preparation of areas to be weld repaired is performed using conventional grinding,
burring, and air-arc gouging. However, when preparing weld repair areas on high
strength-low alloy (HSLA) or quenched and tempered (Q&T) base metals, the oxy-
acetylene gouging method must be avoided. The high heat input required to remove
material may exceed the final tempering temperature, thus degrading the base material
properties, including toughness. Minimum preheat temperatures can be found in Table 3-
2 and is required to minimize distortion and reduce restraint stresses. Surfaces that have
been prepared by thermal gouging must be ground to a bright metal to remove any carbon
deposits or scale. A WFMT or WFPT examination will be required on the final
excavation to assure that all discontinuities have been removed. The excavated areas
should be mapped out and included in the equipment history file.
Welding Qualifications
Most FD/ID fans were designed and fabricated according to the AWS D14.6
Specification for Welding of Rotating Elements of Equipment. This is the most
applicable code for conducting fan repairs in the guideline. Contacting the insurance
carrier for concurrence is also advised. Other codes that deal with repairs are AWS D1.1,
Structural Welding Code and ASME Section IX Welding Procedure and Performance
Qualifications for alternate qualification of the procedures and welder. Regardless of the
code chosen for repair, the variables and techniques discussed in the following section,
3-3
including the welder’s knowledge and nature of the materials to be welded are of
paramount importance for the completion of a successful repair.
Essential Welding Variables

The critical variables that must be addressed in any welding procedure specification are:
Selection of electrodes (filler metals)
Weld filler material control
Preheat and interpass temperatures
Welding heat input
Welding technique
Inspection
Replacement of wear plates / liners
To select the proper filler material for a repair, the material should be found in Table 3-1.
This table refers the user to the proper welding procedure in Table 3-2, “Weld
Schedules”. Selection of welding filler materials for the various alloys used in the fan
fabrication should be in accordance with Table 3-2, “Weld Schedules”. However, if it
was determined in the “material” sections of this document that other filler metals were
utilized, those types should govern the selection process unless the weld metal itself has
failed. In this case, the user should utilize the filler metal types and grades recommended
in Table 3-2, “Weld Schedules.”
Weld filler metal control must be strictly adhered to. Filler metals should be purchased to
the H4R condition whenever possible and be maintained in heated ovens or portable rod
warmers at 250 °F to 300 °F until utilized. Exposure time should not exceed 4 hours and
if rebaking is required; the electrodes are only to be rebaked once per the manufacturer’s
recommendation. Chipped, contaminated, or wet electrodes are to be discarded.
Fabricated electrodes (EXXT-X) are to be kept in a container or packaged to prevent
contamination until use and spools should be removed and stored likewise at the end of
the work shift. If the spool is to remain at the work site, it shall be sufficiently wrapped
or covered to prevent contamination from moisture, grinding, dust, NDE materials,
cleaners, or solvents.
The preheat and maximum interpass temperatures should be in accordance with Table 3-
2, “Weld Schedules.” Localized preheating may be used for small repair areas.
However, because of the required hydrogen bakeout for HSLA or Q&T alloys, it is
recommended that the blades and adjoining base material (centerplates, sideplates, and
hub) be wrapped and preheated with electric resistive heaters. This approach may seem
conservative but has proved to be successful in making quality repairs. This is
3-4
particularly true in cold or inclement weather when air drafts are difficult to prevent.
Temperature monitoring can be achieved by utilizing contact pyrometers or crayons
indicating temperatures in the repair areas. Automatic temperature controlling devices
can also be used, but must be disconnected and reconnected if the fan requires rotation
during the repair process. This may be too time consuming to be cost effective and meet
schedule requirements.
Welding heat input is calculated as volts X amps X 60 divided by travel speed and
expressed in units of kilo-joules per inch. Table 3-2 gives the heat-input requirements
based on the alloy type. For HSLA or Q&T alloys, these maximums shall not be
exceeded, i.e. subsequent weld beads should not be deposited until the base material has
cooled to a temperature between the preheat and the maximum interpass temperature.
Forced cooling is prohibited.
Welding techniques shall incorporate the stringer bead method. For vertical welding, the
maximum weave shall be two times the electrode diameter for the SMAW process and ¼
inch for the GMAW process. Large weld cavities shall be “buttered” and receive a
WFMT or WFPT examination on HSLA or Q&T alloys before depositing additional
filler metal. The final weld layer or cover pass shall receive a tempering layer of weld
metal. This also applies to reinforcing fillet welds. The final temperbead deposit shall
not touch the parent metal.
Inspection shall be performed at the following work points.
Initial inspection of previous weld repairs by the WFPT or WFMT methods of
examination.
Examination of excavated cavities in preparation for weldout.
Examination at 1/3 and 2/3 weldout for a section of thickness or cavities exceeding 3/8”
in depth.
Surface examination of final weld layer after weldout and after grinding off the
temperbead layer, as applicable.
Delayed examination on weld surfaces after bakeout and 48 hour dwell period for HSLA
and Q&T alloys.
Wear plates and/or liners are typically applied to fan blades in order to reduce the effect
of an erosive or corrosive environment. The wear plates and/or liners are generally made
of air-hardened low alloy steels such as ASTM AR360 and ASTM AR400. Wear plates
are typically attached to centrifugal fan blades through bolts or welding techniques. All
wear plates or liners must be accounted for in the fan blade design. When the plates
become worn down to about ½ the original thickness, they should then be replaced.
Blade liners also protect the blade from erosive particles. A lined blade is designed with
two material layers; where the outer layer is intended to control and prevent some of the
erosive effects and be easily weld repaired in the field. Airfoil blades typically are lined
with hard erosion resistant materials, such as tungsten carbide coatings or more
3-5
commonly quenched and tempered steel plate. Axial fan blades also use renewable
coatings on the blade leading edge and surface.
3-6
Table 3-1: FAN REPAIR DECISION MATRIX
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 0 0 0 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 ALLOY
C.E
GRADE
2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 7 8 8 8 8 8 8
ALLOY
CLASS
APPLICA P M .
-TION No. No. 1 2 3 4 5 A B C D A B C D 11 65 A B C D K GRD.
(11)
WELDING SCHEDULE (refer to diagonal letters below)
A242 1 - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .33 A Application Key:
(a) Center plates
A242 2 - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .33 A A (b) Side Plates
A242 3 - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .33 A A A (c) Blades
(d) Wear Plates
A242 4 - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .33 A A A A (10) See note 10 on weld schedule C
A242 5 - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .33 A A A A A (6) See note 6 on weld schedule C
A283 A - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .37 A A A A A A

A283 B - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .40 A A A A A A A
A283 C - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .47 B B B B B B B B
A283 D - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .50 B B B B B B B B B
A302 A - (a)(b)(c) 3 3 C C C C C C C C C C
A302 B - (a)(b)(c) 3 3 C C C C C C C C C C C
A302 C - (a)(b)(c) 3 3 C C C C C C C C C C C C 10
A302 D - (a)(b)(c) 3 3 C C C C C C C C C C C C C 10
A387 11 - (a)(b)(c) 4 4 B B B B B B B B B C C C C C 6
A588 65 - (c) 1 1 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
A588 A - (c) 1 1 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
A588 B - (c) 1 1 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
A588 C - (c) 1 1 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
A588 D - (c) 1 1 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
A588 K - (c) 1 1 B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
3-7
A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
ALLOY
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
GRADE 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
ALLOY
CLASS APPLICA P M
A B C F H J K M R S T A B C F H J K M S T GRADE
-TION No. No.
TRADE
WELDING SCHEDULE (refer to diagonal letters below)
NAME
Application Key: A NAXTRA100
A514 A - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D (1297)
(a) Center plates
A514 B - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D (b) Side Plates B T-1 type A
(c) Blades
A514 C - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D C Jalloy100*
(d) Wear Plates
A514 F - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D F T-1(1204)
A514 H - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D H T-1 type B
A514 J - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D J RQ100A
A514 K - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D K Algoma (CHT)
A514 M - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D M RQ100B
A514 R - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D ______
A514 S - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D ______
A514 T - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D RQ 100b

NAXTRA100
A517 A - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D (1297)
A517 B - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D T-1 type A
A517 C - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D Jalloy100*
A517 F - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D T-1(1204)
A517 H - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D T-1 type B
A517 J - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D RQ100A
A517 K - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D Algoma (CHT)
A517 M - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D RQ100B
A517 S - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D ______
A517 T - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D D RQ 100b
3-8
Table 3-2 Weld Schedules
WELD SCHEDULES
Weld C.E. Prep. NDE Preheat IPT Kj/in Electrode Tech. Post NDE MT 48 Notes
Sched. Range Prep. Min. Max. Weld hr.
Bake
A Grind or
E7018-B2L
Air Arc
Visual + No E71T-1,5,6 String or Visual (1)
To 0.4 or 50F 600F N/R N/R
Mt Dry Max Or Weave +Mt Dry (11)
Oxy-Ace
ER70S-B2L
Gouge OK
Grind or
B Air Arc
Visual + E7018-B2L Visual +
(1)
0.41 to Mt Dry No E71T-1,5,6 String or Mt Dry
Or 150F 600F N/R N/R (2)
0.55 or Max Or Weave or
Oxy-Ace (11)
WFMT ER70S-B2L WFMT
Gouge OK
(1)
C Over Grind
E9018-D1
(3)
Visual + 200F (H4R) E91T1- Visual +
0.55 & or 500F 45 String (5) (5) (4)
WFMT (10) D1, ER80S- WFMT
HSLA Air Arc (6)
D2
(11)
(1)
D Grind
E11018M
(7)
A514 or Visual + (H4R) Visual +
or 200F 400F 55 String Yes Yes (8)
A517 WFMT E110T5-K3 WFMT
Air Arc (9)
ER100S-1
(11)
E AR-400
Notes:
1. Parameters based on 1” thickness for ctr. Pl, side pl and ½” for blades 8. The temperbead technique shall be utilized on ctr. Pl, side pl and blade
2. Increase preheat to 200F for over 1” repairs
3. Oxy-Acetylene gouging not recommended 9. Use 40 Kj max. heat input for type T1 and T1c. use 26 Kj max. heat input
4. Preheat may be reduced to 150F for greater than or equal to ½” thickness for T1A and T1B
5. 48 hr WFMT required if postweld bake not performed 10. Preheat to 300F for A302 Grades C or D over 1 inch thick
6. Fro A387 Gr11 to itself, use E8018-B2 (H4R) or E81T1-B2 electrodes 11. Carbon Equivalent determined by AWS method C.E. = C+
7. Oxy-Acetylene gouging not allowed for A514 or A517 materials (Mn+Si)/6+(Cr+Mo+V)/5+(Ni+Cu)/15
3-9
Fan Blade Repair
Types of Blading
There are several variations of fan blades that typically are used for fan operation in coal-
fired power plants. Depending upon the required duty cycle, loading capacity,
environmental conditions, allowable noise conditions, required output speed, and
required output efficiencies, certain blade types are more appropriate for use than others.
The following figures depict the cross-section of common fan blades.
Fig. 3-1: Typical blade types for heavy-duty fan operation [11]
Centrifugal FD fans will typically operate with airfoil impellers, while an axial FD fan
will commonly utilize variable-pitch full airfoil impellers. Centrifugal ID fans operating
under “clean” conditions tend to use airfoil blades and axial ID fans will use variable-
pitch airfoil blading. Fans under heavy loading or harsh environmental conditions (higher
pressures, higher temperatures, and/or erosive environments), such as the primary-air and
gas-recirculation fans, will tend to use the more hardy radial blades. Straight or modified
radials are common for PA fans and radial tip, straight or modified radials, or backwardly
3-10
inclined centrifugal wheels work well for gas-recirculation fans. Scrubber exhaust fans
tend to utilize radial-tip blading. The more abrasion resistant the blade, the lower the
blade efficiency. The following figure relates the efficiency of the fan as a function of
specific fan speed, specific fan diameter, and blade type. Table 3-2 denotes the limiting
environmental and operating conditions associated with the use of certain blade types.
Fig. 3-2: Specific diameter and efficiency versus specific speed for single-inlet fan types
[1]
3-11
Table 3-3: Typical Industrial Applications for Heavy-Duty Fan Blades

Blade Type Max Temp.
Pressure
(F) Max Applications
Range (WG) CFM
10"- 40" 800 300,000 Moderately dirty environment,
Radial Tip ID on coal fired boilers,
process exhaust. Medium
efficiency.
Radial Blade 20"- 40" 1250 90,000 Severe duty environment, ID.
Low efficiency.
Airfoil 8" - 35" 800 450,000 Clean gas, FD on boilers, ID
process combustion. High
efficiency.
Backward Curve 20" - 100" 800 120,000 Relatively clean gas, ID after
baghouse process blowers, FD
on fluid bed boilers. High
efficiency.
Forward Curve 8" 1500 60,000 High temperature applications
with low operating speeds.
Medium efficiency.
Backward Incline 30" 800 120,000 Clean to slightly dirty gas, ID
on boilers, baghouses, FD,
combustion air. Medium
efficiency.
Blade Damage
Erosion by solid particles is a form of abrasive wear. The high flow velocities of fly-ash
particles within the air or gas stream tend to promote abrasive wear of fan blades. If the
particles are moving relatively fast there is an increase in the probability of particle
impact on the component. Increasing the efficiency of centrifugal fan blading decreases
the blade’s resistance to erosion. Airfoil blades are very streamlined and promote higher
gas stream velocities and more attached flow, which increases the probability of particle
impact on the blade. The less efficient radial blade promotes a more turbulent flow,
which can scour ash-particles away from blade surfaces. Erosion by fly-ash causes
polishing, flat spots, pitting, and blade thinning. Figure 3-3 reveals erosion damage to
centrifugal fan blades. Erosion is a common threat to fan blades and sideplates.
Centrifugal fans tend to see erosion problems at the leading edge of the blade or just
between the blade and the sideplate. For axial fans, the severest erosion occurs on the
front outer tip of the blade. However, it is dangerous to describe wear patterns in a
general way because of their complex nature and the number of variables that drive them.
Fly-ash erosion can be controlled by coatings or other hard, wear-resistant materials.
Decreasing the speed of the fan can also help to minimize fly-ash erosion.
3-12
Fig. 3-3: Fan rotor blades with heavy erosion [3]
Erosion of fan blades poses a serious threat to the stability of the fan. The material loss
associated with blade erosion, especially at the outer edge of the blade, will tend to skew
the rotor mass distribution and can cause the system to become unbalanced and subject to
high vibrations. Any pitting in blades will allow for the buildup of fly ash or moisture
within the crevice and alter the center of balance. Typically, blades are fitted with wear
pads or repairable liners to combat the effects of abrasive particles in the air stream.
Particulate removal systems upstream from the fan are very helpful in eliminating blade
abrasion as well.
Wear plates can either be bolted or welded to centrifugal fan blades. Any type of wear
plates or liners must be accounted for in the fan blade design. When the plates become
worn down to about ½ the original thickness, they should then be replaced. Blade liners
also protect the blade from erosive particles. A lined blade is designed with two material
layers; where the outer layer is intended to control and prevent some of the erosive
effects and be easily weld repaired in the field. Airfoil blades typically are lined with hard
3-13
erosion resistant materials, such as quenched and tempered steel plate. Axial fan blades
also use renewable coatings on the blade leading edge and surface.
Another, somewhat less common type of blade damage, is corrosion. Typically ID fans
will see some corrosive effects from flue-gas contact if the gas has not been properly
dehumidified. Fans placed downstream from wet scrubbers or flue-gas desulferization
systems will also encounter severe corrosion if the entering gas is not re-heated above
saturation temperature. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) could occur in scrubber exhaust
fans as well.
Blade Materials
There is a variety of materials used for heavy-duty industrial fan blading. The fan
operating conditions will determine which blade material is most appropriate for use.
Because fan blading can be highly stressed either due to rotational or thermal stresses or
both, the blade material must be carefully chosen based on environmental conditions
including temperature, loading, and the propensity for abrasive or corrosive wear. The
wheel material must have sufficient strength to withstand rotational stresses, and it must
be suitable for operation in either corrosive, abrasive, high temperature or ambient
environmental conditions. Furthermore, when a blade weld repair is necessary,
environmental conditions must be considered, the original blade material, the
manufactured characteristics or properties of the original blade material, and the current
condition of the blade to be repaired. All weld-repaired blades should conform
approximately to the original blade material property and design requirements. The weld
metal utilized in blade repair should ideally match the tensile strength properties of the
original blade material, but fan manufacturers do not always use matching strength filler
metals in every situation.
Construction of fan blades tends to vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. High-
strength-low alloy steels are more commonly used for blading used under heavy-duty,
high temperature or pressure conditions. Typically, gas-recirculation fans use high
strength-low alloy blading because of the excellent high temperature impact strength and
corrosion resistance properties of the material. High alloy steels often proves to be very
expensive alternatives for corrosion resistant blading and are not commonly used. Low
alloy steels are used in blading for their excellent resistance to wear and material
degradation. Any material handling fans would benefit from the use of low alloy steels.
Carbon steels can be used for blading, in applications that handle relatively clean air, like
FD fans. The following table lists typical alloys used for blade construction.
3-14
Table 3-3: Typical Blade Materials [6]

Alloy Type Typical Usage Alloy Description
Wrought Steels (Structural Quality)
ASTM A283 Blades Low or intermediate-strength
carbon steel plates
ASTM A514 Blades Quenched and tempered alloy steel
plates with higher yield strengths
ASTM A242 Blades High strength-low alloy structural
steel
ASTM AR360 Wear Plates Air-hardened low alloy steel
ASTM AR400 Wear Plates Air-hardened low alloy steel
ASTM A588 grade A Blades High Strength - Low alloy
structural steel
ASTM A441 Blades
Wrought Steels (Pressure Vessel Quality)
ASTM A517 Blades Quenched and tempered high
strength alloy steel plates*
ASTM A302 Blades Manganese-molybdenum-nickel
alloy steel plates
ASTM A387 Blades Chromium-molybdenum alloy steel
plates for elevated temperature
service
Wrought Corrosion and Heat Resistant Alloys
Types 304, 304L, 316, and Blades Chromium-nickel austenitic
316L stainless steel plate, bar, sheet, and
forgings
Alloy 625 Blades Nickel-chromium alloy sheet, bar,
and plate
* Similar to A514 but with specified impact testing
Note: A588 & A242 are essentially the same steel.
3-15
The following pages contain the ASTM required alloying contents (by heat analysis) of
the specified blade material. ASTM A514 and ASTM A517 are very similar to one
another except that ASTM A517 is of pressure vessel quality with specified impact
testing.
Fig. 3-4: Blade Alloys
3-16
Blade Repair
Once blade damage is detected either visually or through NDE techniques, there are
certain steps and preliminary measures the engineer and welder should take prior to the
actual repair work. A definitive repair plan should be available and easily implemented
in the field describing the repair need. All applicable code requirements, inspection
criteria, pre-repair process, actual repair process, interim and post repair inspection
criteria, and post repair clean-up and testing should be determined and codified before
any actual repair is conducted.
Fan blades damaged by erosion or corrosion usually require that the damaged surface be
restored to its original thickness through welding and subsequent grinding. If cracks are
discovered, they will have to be ground out and verified prior to weld repair. Due to fan
balance, it is important that the repair return the blade to its original configuration. Since
fan blades can be fabricated from a variety of materials is important to determine the
material type prior to performing the repair. Care must also be exercised in selecting the
proper filler material. The guidelines provided below and the information in Section 3.1
should be used to perform repairs. Proper welding procedures can be selected using the
decision matrix and weld schedule provided in Tables 3-1 and 3-2, respectively.
Blade Repair Process
The following list describes a general weld procedure, which promotes good welding
practice. These repair guidelines are meant to outline general welding requirements and
best practices for blade damage repair; each utility should generate specific in-house
welding procedures within their specified jurisdiction. Typically, for any weld repair:
Make sure weld matches the strength of the parent metal, although in some cases this is
not done.
Make sure the weld is not a source of any undue hardening or softening of the parent
metal.
Know the material type and grade of the parent metal.
Use the specified electrodes.
Follow all instructions concerning preheat, interpass temperatures, and postheat.
Know the handling procedures of the electrodes specified for the job.
Follow the prescribed weld procedure for the job at hand.
Typically, blade weld repair procedures will require the following steps:
1) Inspect the blade with the appropriate flaw detection method to determine location and
amount of blade damage.
3-17
2) Remove blade damage or defect using appropriate flaw removal techniques such as
grinding or gouging
3) Surface grind and verify defect removal by NDE techniques.
4) If necessary weld repair cavity or overlay blade using the appropriate welding process.
5) If necessary, perform PWHT.
6) If necessary, perform final machining to contour blade to original manufactured
dimension.
7) Balance re-assembled fan to ensure proper operation.
8) Utilize damage prevention techniques such as protective coatings and wear plates.
The following figure is a flow chart that depicts the general repair sequence
recommended for the repair of damaged fan blades.
3-18
Fig. 3-5: Blade Repair Flow Chart
3-19
Centerplate / Sideplate Repair
Types of Centerplates / Sideplates

Centerplate and sideplate materials can be summarized as structural and pressure vessel
quality wrought steels or wrought corrosion and heat resistant alloys. The factor that
distinguishes the various types of centerplates or sideplates can only be identified by
material composition. Erosion problems of fan units occur heaviest where the blades and
centerplates are joined via welding applications. This problem can be reduced by
increasing the size of the fan and decreasing the speed. The centerplates and sideplates
combine to create the structural support system for the centrifugal fan blades as shown in
the photograph below. The blades are attached to the plates via a welding procedure, but
older fans utilized bolt/rivet attachments.
Fig. 3-6: Centerplate / Sideplate Locations [10]
Centerplate / Sideplate Damage
Typical damage mechanisms are listed below:

• Erosion
• Weld cracks and flaws
• Insufficient weld penetration
• Loose rivets / bolts caused by oversized holes (commonly found on older
fans)
• Foreign object debris and deposit buildup on the rotor surface
• Rubbing contact with inlet piece or housing
• Ice buildup
• Improper wheel rotation
It is particularly important to ensure that the fan wheel is properly balanced before initial
operation to expel the possibility of vibrational damage. Any loose components,
excessive contact between two components, and unbalance of the fan wheel will instigate
3-20
warping, cracking, or costly structural damage. An inspection routine encompassing both

VT and NDE techniques will significantly assist maintenance personnel in detecting the
problems prior to destructive damage. Increasing the frequency of inspection is strongly
recommended for fan units with cracking that continues to increase in severity. If
replacement wheels are being considered a high priority should be given towards
developing acceptability standards for the welds. Older fans should be inspected via
ultrasonic testing where insufficient weld penetrations are suspected.
Materials
The first step in making a successful repair on sideplates / centerplates is to identify the
type/grade of base materials to be repaired as well as the welding filler metal utilized in
the OEM fabrication or in subsequent weld repairs. In Table 3-4, a list of materials for
centerplates and sideplates is given with their corresponding alloy descriptions and types.
Table 3-4: Centerplate and Sideplate Materials [6]

ASTM A283 Centerplates & Sideplates Low or intermediate-strength
carbon steel plates
ASTM A514 Centerplates & Sideplates
Quenched and tempered alloy
steel plates with higher yield
strengths
ASTM A242 Centerplates & Sideplates High strength-low alloy
structural steel
Wrought Steels (Pressure Vessel Quality)
ASTM A517 Centerplates & Sideplates Quenched and tempered high
strength alloy steel plates
ASTM A302 Centerplates & Sideplates Manganese-molybdenum-
nickel alloy steel plates
ASTM A387 Centerplates & Sideplates Chromium-molybdenum alloy
steel plates for elevated
temperature service
Types 304, 304L, Centerplates & Sideplates Chromium-nickel austenitic
316, and 316L stainless steel plate, bar,
sheet, and forgings
Alloy 625 Centerplates & Sideplates Nickel-chromium alloy
sheet, bar, and plate
3-21
Centerplate / Sideplate Repairs

The following guidelines provided below and the information found in Section 3.1 should
be used to perform repairs. Proper welding procedures can be selected using the decision
matrix and weld schedule provided in Tables 3-1 and 3-2, respectively.
Carbon Steel Sideplates and Centerplates
• Excavate base material where cracks or other discontinuities exist until

they have been visually removed.
• Perform a WFMT examination on the excavated area to be repaired to

assure removal of all discontinuities or damaged areas. Note that if it has
been determined that the rotor/impeller was made from a casting alloy,
inherent casting anomalies may exist which should be disregarded as
damaged areas.
• Utilizing Table 3-1 (Fan Weld Repair Selection Matrix) for the base
material and Table 3-2 (Weld Schedule groups), select the applicable weld
schedule for performing the weld repair. Preheat should be increased to
150-200 °F if the carbon steel base material exceeds 2 inches in thickness
or if the carbon equivalent number exceeds 0.50. However, increasing the
preheat temperature should not be applied to quenched and tempered
materials.
• For repairs of cavities, a buttering layer of weld filler metal should be

initially deposited, i.e. temperbead technique used to enhance the HAZ
and base material properties and to avoid PWHT after welding. Stringer
bead techniques are advisable and an additional weld layer above the
“flush” layer should be deposited and subsequently ground or machined
off prior to performing NDE inspections. The ground off layer should be
replaced by a final weld layer deposit of the high chrome overlay material.
• After welding and removal of the additional temperbead layer, perform a

final visual and WFMT examination on the weld repair area. Note that if
analysis determined that the rotor/impeller material is either A514 or
A517, weld schedule D should be used for performing the repair including
a postweld bake and 48-hour delay WFMT examination.
• After the base material has been restored to its original dimension, a final
high chrome weld layer is to be deposited with a filler metal. This is
performed so that corrosion on the centerplate / sideplate surfaces are
prevented, because of the high corrosion resistance of chromium. The
3-22
welding procedure specification for either a 3xx or 4xx alloys is used

depending on the original chrome content analysis and hardness.
• If weld repair schedule D was used to restore the base material (A514 or
A517), the preheat and interpass temperature must not exceed 400 °F to
avoid underbead or reheat cracking of the substrate. Maximum heat input
values found in weld schedule D and stringer bead welding techniques
shall also be utilized.
Stainless Steel Sideplates and Centerplates
For weld repair of stainless steel (3xx or 4xx) sideplates or centerplates, the same repair
approach shall be followed as for the carbon steel plates with the exception of the
additional high chrome overlay.
• Austenitic stainless steel base materials should be excavated, inspected,

rewelded and reinspected by utilizing conventional welding procedure
specifications for 3xx base metals.
• Depending on the size and extent of the repair, either the SMAW process
or GMAW process (solid or tubular electrode) is recommended. Filler
metals should match the base materials. Weld sequencing and weld bead
placement must be employed to reduce warpage and minimize distortion
of the rotor/impeller.
• Excavated cavities and the final weld surface are to be examined by the
fluorescent liquid penetrant method. Existing welding procedure
specifications can be used for these repairs.
When performing weld repairs on 4xx rotors or impellers it is recommended that a nickel
based alloy weld filler metal is utilized.
Filler metals recommended are the ENiCrFe-X types, or more commonly matching filler
metals for stainless steels, utilizing the SMAW process for large repairs and the GTAW
process for smaller repairs.
The preheat and interpass temperatures of 4xx base materials should be in the range of
300-400 °F. The entire rotor/impeller should be wrapped with electric resistance heaters
to maintain and control dimensional stability. Slow cooling after completion of weld
repairs is imperative, i.e. turn off heaters, wrap with insulating blankets, and allow
cooling to room temperature in still air.
Postweld inspection shall be conducted by the fluorescent liquid penetrant method.
3-23
Hub Repair
Types of Hubs
The hub is the portion of the fan unit that connects the shaft to the rotor. This creates a
friction barrier between these two rotating elements thus eliminating slippage and loss of
fan power generated during operation. The following information will be separated into
axial and centrifugal fan equipment in order to distinguish them for clarity. In axial fan
configurations, the hub combines with other small fan components such as the blade-
actuating levers and oil hydraulic pistons and cylinders to support the rotating blades.
Propeller type fans incorporate very small hubs. These typically range from 0.4 to 0.7 in
hub-to-tip diameter ratios. It is important to have an inner cylinder approximately the
hub size located downstream of an impeller fan unit when larger hub sizes are
implemented. In centrifugal fan configurations hubs are typically attached to the shaft
via keyway locks, rivet / bolt connections, integrally made with centerplates/sideplates
unit, or shrink-fit methods. The connecting faces of any contacting components should
be flush with one another so that abrasion does not occur due to any misalignment or
rough surface texture. The photograph below shows the hub on a given centrifugal fan for
better understanding of how the component is utilized in a fan unit.
Fig. 3-7: Hub location in a fan unit [10]
Hub Damage
The following is a list of common hub failures experienced in fan units.
• Failure of rivets / bolts that connect the hub to the centerplate

• Cracks / inclusions on faulty castings
• Erosion
• Loose hub-to-shaft fit (Abrasion damage amongst the two components, which creates
material loss, friction, overheating, and power loss). In steel hubs, abrasion rarely, if
3-24
ever, separates hubs from shafts.

• Loose fasteners connecting the hub and rotor
A regular visual examination (VT) should be conducted in order to prevent these damage
mechanisms from occurring. A VT inspection in accordance with hubs could easily be
incorporated in any fan maintenance routine without committing an excessive amount of
time. An ultrasonic examination (UT) can accompany any VT approach in order to
check a hub for cracks, inclusions, cracked fasteners, or erosive wear.
Hub Materials
Typical forced draft or induced draft fans implement a forged steel hub in boiler power
plant operations. Centrifugal fan hubs are generally made of fabricated steel for larger
fan units and cast steel for the smaller fan units. Axial fans commonly utilize cast
aluminum material for the fan hub.
Hub Repair
The approach to performing weld repairs on hubs is the same as that for shafts except that
welding is normally performed on the ID surfaces of the hub where damage has occurred
due to corrosion, fretting, or bearing spin. Weld surface preparation, selection of welding
process, filler metal, technique, and inspections shall be the same as for shafts. For
internal weld repair of the inside diameter, a “bore welder” is ideal. It can be
programmed and setup to “skip” over keyways and may be setup to weld on tapered
bores if necessary. The following guidelines that are provided below and in Section 3.1
should be used to perform repairs. Proper welding procedures can be selected using the
decision matrix and weld schedule provided in Tables 3-1 and 3-2, respectively.
The GMAW process is normally used for ID repairs, however the GTAW process can
also be employed for these repairs. The SMAW process is NOT recommended for hub
bore repairs because of limited access and the probability of slag entrapment or lack of
fusion due to weld bead rollover. Selection of welding process depends on extent of
repairs, location of repairs, and bore diameter. Large bores can be successfully repaired
using SMAW, FCAW, or SAW.
For external repairs to hubs, depending on the extent and nature of the damage, i.e. cracks
in hubs, fretting or corrosion, the SMAW or GMAW processes lend themselves well.
For a situation where a hub has lost its shrink fit to the shaft, the hub may be rejoined by
welding, with the assumption of the two base materials being compatible. In such cases,
a weld joint detail must be designed (usually a partial penetration groove weld with a
fillet reinforcement). For this type of repair, analysis and/or calculations are required to
design the weld joint to withstand operating stresses and conditions.
3-25
Localized postweld heat treatment is strongly recommended if the hub/shaft were made
from ferritic alloys.
NDE should be performed prior to and after heat treatment methods and following rough
machining if it was necessary.
Shaft Repair
Types of Shafts
Shafts are the innermost driving components for any fan unit’s rotation and are usually
made of plain carbon and low alloy steels. Less commonly, they can be made of wrought
corrosion and heat resistant alloys. The shaft connects the motor to the fan hub and along
its length creates an axis of rotation for the rotor. Shafts are guided along journal
bearings that contain Babbitt material for anti-frictional rotation. Shafts are designed
according to fan arrangement, bearing centers, and the impeller weight by the application
of the proper diameters. Interference fits are used in the mounting of shafts in operating
environments of 200 °C, but above this temperature, a key is also utilized. The majority
of the fan shafts are mounted by utilizing both interference fits and a key. Interference
fits are created by boring the hub several thousandths of an inch smaller than the shaft;
the hub is heated or the shaft is cooled, and the parts are mated and allowed to return to
room temperature. Interference fits are used to ensure that the impeller hub bore is
centrally located on the shaft at all times, and a more reliable source would be to insert a
key. The primary purpose is to prevent slippage between the shaft and hub bore.
Therefore, with proper prevention measures such as the aforementioned, no movement
between the shaft and impeller would transpire during operation. Impellers are either
mounted between bearings or overhung in the case of a single inlet fan. Some single inlet
fans may be centerhung as well. Sleeve-ring oiled bearings are commonly used in fan
units in order to penetrate cool water by the shaft surface, not touching the surface, but
dissipating heat from the shaft into the cooled water by convection. The heat from the
flue gases is conducted from the shaft to the bearings and must be cooled in order to
prevent overheating. A typical shaft is shown in the following photograph to understand
its importance in a fan unit.
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Fig. 3-8: Shaft location in a fan unit [10]
Shaft Damage
Shaft damage typically is found to be experienced through operational modes and ranges
from bowing to scored journal surfaces. Shafts are subjected to torsion and bending
stresses that can be minimized through the right support, environment, bearing
application, operating load, material, and diameter selections. In addition, cracking is
commonly found at the step/change of section. Shaft seal rub, improper lubrication and
cooling of the fan shaft, and misalignment are common reasons as to why shaft damage
occurs. Follow-up NDE inspections should be conducted to confirm and/or eliminate the
possibility of cracking at the steps due to surface indications found during a visual
examination or an increase in vibration levels. Technology is available to determine the
presence of cracks on a shaft, but the maintenance action is hard to justify due to the
small amount of reported incidents and the low-stress levels placed on the shaft. A
cracked shaft may develop due to vibration, but may exist with shaft bowing,
misalignment, or looseness. Inspecting for cracks on a fan shaft is recommended in case
of misalignment, imbalance, or catastrophic wheel failure. Corrosion may develop in
areas outside the gas stream. This is most common in gas-recirculation and ID fans with
leaks around the shaft/housing seal. The seal must be replaced and the corrosion
removed in the case of steam leakage.
Shaft Materials
Table 3-5 contains typical materials for fan shafts with their corresponding alloy
descriptions and types.
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Table 3-5: Shaft Materials [6]

Alloy Type Alloy Description
Typical Usage
Types 304, 304L, 316, Shafts Chromium-nickel austenitic
and 316L stainless steel plate, bar, sheet,
and forgings
Alloy 625 Shafts Nickel-chromium alloy sheet,
bar, and plate
Carbon Steels Shafts Carbon alloy sheet, bar, and
plate
Low Alloy Steels Shafts Alloy sheet, bar, and plate
Shaft Repair
Weld Repair of shafts is normally performed on areas that have been scored, worn, or
galled due to bearing spin, fretting, or rubbing from seals or other internal components.
Occasionally repairs to worn keyways are also required. For such repairs on shafts, it is
suggested that the area of repair be turned down by machining to remove at least 1/8” of
material away to obtain access to clean unaffected base metal. This will also provide a
fresh surface to perform the required weld buildup. The machined surface should receive
a liquid penetrant examination after machining and prior to welding.
For fan rotors, which have carbon steel shafts with a chromium rich overlay, the overlay
must be removed prior to performing any weld repairs and then restored by overlay
welding after the substrate repairs have been completed. Hardness measurements and
determining the overlay chemistry shall be performed to assist in restoring the component
to its original OEM design. Removal of high chromium overlays shall be achieved by
grinding. Thermal methods of removal are not recommended. To determine if all the
high chromium overlay has been removed in the areas to be weld repaired, an acid
etching reagent can be applied (such as Nital or Ammonium Persulfate). The result will
reveal unstained areas where any of the high chromium overlay material may remain. The
following guidelines provided below and information located in Section 3.1 should be
used to perform repairs. Proper welding procedures can be selected using the decision
matrix and weld schedule provided in Tables 3-1 and 3-2, respectively.
Shafts are best restored by utilizing the GTAW or GMAW process with a continuous
wire feed, although SAW works as well. The shaft should be placed on rolls with the
welding arc near or at the 12 o’clock position.
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Weld deposits are to be made circumferentially starting at the inboard edge of the repair
area and progressing towards the end of the shaft in a spiral or helical manner. Orbital
welding may also be employed in the same manner as above.
Welding filler material should match the base material. Generally, “in house” welding
procedure specifications can be employed to perform shaft repairs. The lower heat input
parameters on the procedure specification should be selected without weave or oscillation
to control dimensional stability.
The weld repair should extend 3/32”-1/8” above the final machined surface. The
completed weld repair area is then to be rough machined to within 1/32”-1/16” of the
final diameter and examined by the liquid penetrant method.
After any localized small repairs are performed and final machining is complete, the
weld-repaired area shall receive a final examination by the liquid penetrant method.
Fan Casing Repair

The information in the following sections entitled Types of Casings and Casing Damage
were found in an EPRI document “Operation and Maintenance Guidelines for Draft
Fans,” report TR-101698. The report is extremely informative on maintenance of various
fan parts, and some of its information was used in this section to supplement the repair
side.
Types of Casings
Centrifugal fans utilize radial flow which enters the fan casing parallel to the rotational
axis and exits the fan casing perpendicular to the fan’s rotational axis. The centrifugal fan
casing is of a compact volute or scroll type shape designed to accommodate the
centrifugal or circular wheel and the 90o change in flow direction. An axial fan casing can
redirect inlet flow axially along the rotor axis. Both the centrifugal and axial fan casings
enclose the impeller system completely, including all blading, inlet vanes, or inlet
dampers. The only components not enclosed in the impeller casing include the shaft
journal bearings and the driver system. These components are usually separate and are
directly secured to the fan foundation with the motor or driver enclosed in its own casing.
The impeller casing usually has removable sections to allow for rotor access. Figure 1-1
and Figure 1-2 depict the casing configuration for a typical centrifugal and axial fan.
Centrifugal casings are designed to promote the most efficient draft, in combination with
the impeller, to direct the airflow from the tip of the blade to the housing scroll. The
design of a fan casing should be such so that the static pressure is maximized and the loss
within the fan is minimized. The casing should be securely attached to the fan’s
foundation in order to ensure proper fan balance and stability. Access doors are installed
on fan casings so that maintenance and inspection methods are easily implemented.
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Casing Damage
It is important to fully understand the proper maintenance routines for ductwork and fan
housing units. The ultimate result of casing damage includes an increase in capital
expenditure and a requirement for more labor so repairs can be made. Examples of
problems encountered in fan casings are listed below [2].
• Cracking and breaking caused by insufficient bracing/welding

• High vibrational bolt failures
• Erosion, corrosion, cracking, or breaking associated with inlet cones
• Improper clearance between housing and fan wheel
• Improper access doors/plates maintenance
• Foundation deterioration
• Improper fly ash/gas distribution to/from the fans
• Corrosion/leaking ductwork
• Ductwork misalignment
• Damaged lagging/insulation
• Damaged slide plates
Cracking and breaking caused by insufficient bracing / welding

The following four actions should be conducted to find the root cause of cracks
experienced at welds or other areas:
• Check original weld quality through NDE inspection or visual examination
• Check the original weld procedure quality
• Inspect the bracing for damage
• Reevaluation of the bracing requirements for the duct / housing may be necessary
High vibrational bolt failures

The vibrational damage mechanism is a direct consequence of extreme vibration levels
and can be prevented by restraining this range. The majority of the ductwork
construction is welded, but bolts are used to connect expansion joints and dampers.
Fasteners must be checked for proper torque values, corrosion and cracking of tack welds
on bolts / nuts during regular inspection intervals in order to phase out this damage
mechanism.
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Erosion, corrosion, cracking, or breaking associated with inlet cones
Inlet cones operating in an erosive environment can erode, corrode, or crack. Possible
solutions are protective coatings or hardening surface techniques, which also are
susceptible to wear.
Improper clearance between housing and fan wheel

Improper wheel clearance can act as an abrasion catalyst amongst the two contacting
surfaces, which can further lead to improper fan operation.
Improper access doors / plates maintenance

The following conditions are likely to occur if a door poses a problem such as a large
crack or leak:
• Corrosive / erosive gas emission into the environment

• Poor fan performance by not providing a gas-tight surface
• Corrosive gases escape and attack the surrounding lagging
• Reduced capacity and corrosion because of air leakage on the ID and GR fan inlet
Maintenance techniques for the prevention:
• Proper securing of the holddown bolts

• Missing / damaged bolt replacement
• Door gasket replacement / inspection
• Insulation cover reinstallation over the access plates - Failure to do so will cause cold
air to condense and initiate a corrosive attack on the immediate area.
Foundation Deterioration
Long term deterioration will cause unplanned stresses on the ductwork. This may further
lead to cracking, which can allow flue gases to escape and negatively impact fan
performance.
Improper fly ash / gas distribution to / from the fans

A properly designed system will prevent this condition by ensuring that the gas stream
velocity is adequate. Cycle-loaded units or units firing at a lower rate may experience
this for a short period. This could possibly cause damage to the slide bearings on the
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ducting. Fly-ash formation on the lower region of the duct creates an insulation blanket.
The upper region grows faster than the lower cooler section and therefore causes an
uneven growth with consequent damage to the expansion joints and slide bearings.
Corrosion / leaking ductwork

Below are two illustrations indicating corroded / leaking surfaces of ductwork designs:
Fig. 3-9: Corroded / Leaking Ductwork [2]
Fig. 3-10: Corrosion Buildup on Ductwork [2]
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Ductwork misalignment
Misalignment in ductwork can result from various conditions:
• Improper installation
• Inadequate thermal growth capability
• Fly-ash buildup causing improper function of expansion joint
• Inadequate bracing
• Foundation deterioration
If misalignment is not corrected cracking in the ductwork and/or expansion joints can be
expected. Installation of telltale markers throughout various points in the hot flue gas
draft system may provide an early warning to station personnel.
Damaged lagging / insulation

Damage to lagging and insulation may result from the following causes:
• Horizontal ductwork used as a walkway

• Corrosion
• Water damage
Cracks may develop over time on aluminum lagging if personnel are allowed to step on
the ductwork. The ductwork below this damaged area may also develop problems due to
the cracking and/or compression. Cracking of the inside welded ductwork will allow
corrosive flue gases to escape which attacks the lagging and damages the ductwork.
Lagging and insulation removed for maintenance should be replaced as soon as possible
to limit the “open patch” pathway for heat to enter. This affects personnel working
around the area, and if located outside, inside/outside corrosion of the ductwork can
develop as the damaged section is exposed to the environment.
Damaged slide plates
Self-lubricating and spherical bearings are used to allow thermal growth in a duct system.
Problems associated with this are:
• Corrosion buildup on the facing plate

• Paint on the facing plate surface
• Improper installation
• Edge loading
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The most common type of damage seen in ID fans is either fly-ash erosion or corrosion
and is caused by (boiler) gases that pass through the fan during operation. Severe erosive
or corrosive environmental conditions can cause cracking or pitting that might lead to
altered internal flow conditions or pressure loss within the fan. Distortion of the casing
might also misalign the fan, leading to vibration or system stability problems. Casing
distortion might arise over time due to excessive operating temperatures and pressures
with inadequate foundation support. Improper fan foundation could also put undue
stresses on the casing walls causing a weakened material state more susceptible to the
effects of erosion, corrosion, and induced vibrations. Improper casing to foundation
connections could lead to casing distortion, frictional wear, and/or vibration problems.
It is imperative that the casing be constructed with a high-strength, durable steel to
prevent environmental damage and increase wear resistance. Protective coatings will
further ensure minimal environmental degradation due to either erosion or corrosion.
Protective coatings on fan casings include epoxies, ceramics, hardened plate, weld
deposited hard surfacing, and eurothenes. As with all fan components, if the fan operates
in a relatively clean environment, the risk of material damage due to particulates is
greatly minimized.
Casing Materials
Table 3-6 provides typical materials for fan casings with their corresponding alloy
descriptions and types.
Table 3-6: Casing Materials [6]

ASTM A285 Grade C Casings Applicable in non-wear areas
ASTM A36 Casings Applicable in non-wear areas
Stainless Steel (4XX) Casings Applicable in wear areas
Ni Alloys Casings Applicable in wear areas
ID fan casings are constructed either of carbon steel, which is lined with protective
coatings such as epoxies / eurothenes or from corrosion resistant alloys such as stainless
steels / nickel based alloys. FD fan casings, which do not see the severe internal
environment experienced by ID fans, are normally constructed of a carbon steel plate
material such as ASTM A36 or ASTM A285 Grade C.
3-34
Prior to performing weld repairs on casings or other FD/ID fan components, it is

imperative that the user of this document identify the alloy and grade of the components
to be weld repaired, and the type/grade of welding filler metal used in the original
fabrication or in previous weld repairs. A thorough review of the OEM and plant
equipment history files is mandatory to perform successful weld repairs, and to avoid
cracking failures after weld repair or during subsequent operation. Contacting OEM
technical representatives is also strongly recommended to determine if the specific fan to
be weld repaired had included any material substitutions during manufacture. The user
can also perform local material checks using portable material identification instruments.
Hardness readings should be taken across the weldments. Weld filler metal types and any
post weld bakeout / PWHT performed by the OEM or other repair organizations should
be gathered and considered as part of the fan weld repair plan.
Casing Repair
In order to determine if erosion/corrosion or wear damage exists, protective linings must
first be inspected to determine if they have become detached from the substrate material.
If this condition exists, additional lining should be removed to determine the extent of
damage. If the damage is localized and found to be shallow in nature (such as pitting or
localized erosion/corrosion) localized replacement of the protective coating can be
accomplished. Furthermore, the fan can be returned to service without the need for
performing a weld repair. If damage to the substrate is severe, repair by welding is
required to return the casing to its original configuration. The following guidelines that
are provided below and that appear in section 3.1 should be used to perform repairs.
Proper welding procedures can be selected using the decision matrix and weld schedule
provided in Tables 3-1and 3-2, respectively.
For carbon steel casings, an as-welded carbon steel (P1) welding procedure specification
should be used with the SMAW process and E7018 electrodes to restore the casing to its
original configuration as outlined in weld schedule “A” in Table 3-2.
• For stainless steel (4xx) casings, a welding procedure specification, which utilizes as
F43 (nickel based) filler metal is suggested. A preheat of 350 °F is recommended and
the weld repair areas should be allowed to gradually cool.
• Nickel based alloy casings are best repaired by utilizing a welding procedure
specification with matching base material chemistry. The SMAW procedure should
be used with a maximum interpass temperature of 400 °F. This interpass temperature
is for nickel alloys in general, but for certain nickel alloys this may be too high.
Typical filler metals used are ENiCrFe-2 or ENiCrFe-3. Either 3/32" or 1/8"
diameter electrodes are suitable depending on the position and access to the repair
area.
• Completed weld repairs shall be blended by grinding to restore the surface to its
original configuration.
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• After blending of the weld repairs and adjacent base material and prior to relining or
recoating the casing, both a visual and surface non-destructive examination shall be
conducted.
BEARING REPAIR
General
The function of a bearing is to maintain correct alignment with stationary parts and
support the action of radial and transverse loading. Bearings that support radial loads and
positions are known as line bearings and those that align and support the shaft axially are
known as thrust bearings. In some fan applications, the thrust and radial bearings are
combined.
Various bearing types have been used in fans and in many cases, the same basic fan
design can use different bearing types, depending on service conditions or owner
preference. Most power plant fans utilize oil film journal bearings, but some applications
use rolling element bearings. The following is a discussion of each type of bearing,
which includes descriptions, problems, and repair procedures.
Rolling Element Bearings

The basic components of a rolling element bearing are [9]:
• The inner and outer rings, which have one or more rolling tracks
• The cage that maintains an equal space between the rolling elements (balls or rollers),
which guide them and/or retain them inside the rolling bearing
• The rolling elements (balls or rollers).
Deciding which type of bearing that will satisfy the performance requirements best
depends on factors such as load, speed, misalignment sensitivity, and space limitations.
Ball bearings are generally better suited for higher speeds and lighter loads, while roller
bearings are used for relatively slower speeds and heavier loads. Ball bearings are better
suited for high-speed applications because of the small coefficient of friction associated
with the rolling elements in the bearings. The load is carried on a single point of contact
between the ball and the race. The point of contact does not rub or slide over the race and
no appreciable heat is generated. Roller bearings are generally preferable in applications
involving heavy loads because they operate on a line contact. This enables them to
support a greater load, but they also have a greater coefficient of friction and therefore
generate more heat than a ball bearing. Of these two types, ball bearings are the most
commonly used in small to medium size fans and roller bearings are used in applications
involving larger shaft sizes.
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Ball Bearings
Ball bearings are divided into three categories: radial contact, angular contact, and thrust
type [7]. Radial contact ball bearings are designed for applications in which loading is
primarily radial with low axial thrust loads. Angular-contact bearings are used in
applications involving combined radial and axial loads where precise axial positioning of
shafts is required. Thrust bearings are used primarily in applications involving axial
loads. Although several types might be acceptable, it is best for the purchaser to leave the
choice up to the manufacturer.
The most common radial contact ball bearings used in fans are single-row deep groove,
double-row deep groove, and double-row self-aligning. The two common types of
angular-contact bearings are single-row or double-row. All except the double-row self-
aligning bearings are capable of carrying thrust loads as well as radial loads. Sealed ball
bearings, adapter ball bearings and other modifications have also found special
applications. Sealed prelubricated bearings require special attention if the fan for which
they are used is not operated for long periods of time.
Self-aligning
The self-aligning radial contact bearings are a popular choice in applications involving
heavy loads, high speeds, and long bearing spans, but they can not withstand high thrust
loads [7]. Its double row of balls run in fixed grooves in the inner race and its outer race
is ground to a spherical seat. As a result the bearings can accommodate slight vibration or
shaft deflection within approximately ± 4°.
Fig. 3-11: Self-Aligning Ball Bearings [7]
Single-Row Radial
The single-row deep-groove ball bearings are the most commonly used bearings
associated with smaller fans [7]. It is good for radial thrust and combined loads but
requires careful alignment between the shaft and the casing. It is sometimes used with
seals built into the bearing to exclude dirt and maintain lubrication.
3-37
Fig. 3-12: Single-Row Radial Ball Bearings [7]
Double-Row Radial
The double-row deep-groove ball bearings consist of two single-row bearings placed side
by side, and have a greater capacity for both radial and thrust loads [7].
Fig. 3-13: Double-Row Radial Ball Bearings [7]
Angular-Contact
Angular contact bearings are common in applications involving heavy thrust loads [7].
Single-row angular bearings are good for thrust in one direction whereas double row
angular bearings can carry thrust in either direction. Two single row bearings are
commonly matched face to face and their races ground so that they can be used in tandem
for large one-directional thrust loads or back to back for two-directional thrust loads.
Fig. 3-14: Single-Row Angular-Contact Fig. 3-15: Double-Row Angular-

Ball Bearings [7] Contact Ball Bearings [7]
3-38
Roller Bearings
As discussed, roller bearings are commonly used in applications involving high loads and
relatively slow speeds [9]. The main types of roller bearings consist of: cylindrical,
needle, tapered-roller, and spherical roller. The various roller bearing styles can be seen
in the following examples.
Cylindrical Roller Bearings
Cylindrical roller bearings utilize cylinders with approximate length/diameter ratios

ranging from 1:1 to 1:3, which are guided by a shoulder on one of the rings [9]. The cage
maintains the rollers inside the ring without a shoulder. This configuration lets the inner
ring move relative to the outer ring. The rollers are not perfectly cylindrical and their
shape varies with the manufacturer. They are slightly bulged at the ends, which gives a
better distribution of the load on the rollers, thus avoiding large loads between the rollers
and the rings. Because of the increase in contact surface, these roller bearings support
large radial loads. Variations of this type of bearing have two rows of rollers, which
allows for increased loading capacity.
Fig. 3-16: Cylindrical Roller Bearing [9]
Needle Bearings
These bearings have rollers whose lengths are at least 4 times their diameter [9]. They are
most useful where space is a factor and are available without inner races. If the shaft is
used as an inner race, it must be hardened and ground. Non-cage types should be used for
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high loads, oscillation, or slow speeds. Cage types should be used for rotational motion.
Needle bearings can not support any amount of thrust load.
Fig. 3-17: Needle Bearing [9]
Tapered Roller bearings
Tapered roller bearings are generally used in applications involving heavy radial and
thrust loads [9]. The bearing is designed so that all elements in the rolling surface and the
raceways intersect at a common point on the axis, therefore allowing true rolling.
Tapered bearings can also be preloaded to achieve maximum system rigidity.
Fig. 3-18: Tapered-Roller Bearing [9]
3-40
Spherical Roller Bearings
These bearings are designed for heavy radial loads and moderate thrust [9]. The bearings
also have some self-aligning capability, which is helpful in many applications.
Types of Damage Mechanisms
A rolling element bearing is a mechanical component that wears. Its lifetime is dependent
on the loads applied and the rotational speed. Under ideal conditions, a rolling bearing
should only degrade due to its normal wear. However, in operation there are a variety of
damage mechanisms that accelerate wear and lead to premature bearing failure. Some of
the more common damage mechanisms include the following [8]:
• Wear
• Electrical pitting
• Galling
• Spalling
• Fretting
• Corrosion
• Extreme operating conditions
• Improper Installation
Wear
Although the frictional effects in rolling element bearings are low they are not negligible
and lubrication is essential [8]. Theoretically, if a bearing is lubricated properly wear
should not occur. However in practice exposure to dirt, hard particles, or corrosive fluids
will initiate wear, causing increases in the running clearances of the various parts of the
bearing, and may lead to noisy operation and early failure. The amount of damage caused
by different types of foreign matter will vary considerably depending on the constancy of
the particles. Fine or soft particles will be ground by the balls or roller and will act as an
abrasive, which will wear away the raceways and balls. Eventually, the bearing will
become loose and fail. Hard particles present in the bearing could cause the inner ring to
turn on the shaft or on the outer ring of the housing, which would lead to subsequent
bearing failure.
3-41
Electrical Pitting
Bearings that are exposed to electric current in the form of arcing or sparks could become
damaged and fail prematurely [8]. The effects of the arcing result in local vaporization of
the metal, which causes craters and pits to form in the bearing. This spark-erosion effect
frequently gives rise to rapid vibration.
Fretting
One form of fretting damage that is experienced in bearings results from contact
corrosion that takes place between the bore of the bearing and the shaft. This may also
occur between the outside surface of the bearing and the bore of the housing [8]. Another
common area where fretting occurs is within the bearing contact area. This type of
fretting is frequently referred to as false brinelling, which is caused by vibration or
oscillation over a few degrees of arc between the rolling element and the raceways in a
nonrotating bearing. At the contact areas between the rolling elements and raceways,
lubricant is squeezed out, resulting in metal to metal contact and localized wear. This
type of fretting does not occur during normal running, however it is found in the bearings
of machines subjected to vibrations while at rest.
Galling
Galling occurs when sufficient heat is generated in dry contact areas, which results in
welding of the surfaces and simultaneous scraping between the areas in contact [8]. This
condition usually occurs where dry metal is present due to the absence of lubrication or
the break down of the fluid film due to friction. Application of excessive heat, pressure,
and speed of rotation can also lead to galling. The common areas where galling appears is
between the races of the two rings and the roller or balls. Galling appears either around
the rolling parts of the ball when they rotate, or when slippage occurs and seizes the ball
or roller from rolling. After some slippage has occurred, galling can also exist on the
guiding surface of the cage between the bore of the inner ring and the shaft.
Spalling
Spalling generally results from repeated high contact pressure within the rolling bearing
[8]. Some of the more common causes of spalling include permanent overload, shaft
bending, and bearing misalignment. Overloading causes spalling to occur between the
two races, shaft bending causes spalling on the edge of the races, and misalignment
results in non-uniform spalling.
3-42
Corrosion
General corrosion of the hardened bearing surfaces often takes the form of minute pitting,
which leads to noisy operation and provides surface discontinuities at which cracks can
originate [8]. Corrosion of bearings can occur during periods of non-operation or even
when the bearings are being stored prior to installation. Corrosion damage may not be
externally visible and may only be evident by subsequent noisy operation.
Extreme Operating Conditions
One common source of bearing failure results from excessive operating conditions [8].
Factors such as: continuous or momentary overloads, vibration during start-up and
shutdown, excessive speeds, eccentric loads, high temperatures, and bending of the shaft
can all result in bearing failure. Therefore, it is important to understand the application
and all of the associated loads and other service conditions prior to selecting an
appropriate bearing. Then after the selection is made it is important to periodically
monitor the equipment so that any excessive operating conditions that may develop can
be identified and corrected prior to bearing failure.
Improper Installation
Proper installation is key to bearing longevity [8]. Any damage experienced by the
bearing can lead to premature bearing failure. Some of the most common bearing damage
that occurs during installation includes bending, seal damage, excessive tightening,
insufficient tightening, casing defects, contamination, and misalignment. To prevent
these types of damage it is important to follow all recommended tolerances and
tightening procedures provided by the manufacturer. Care must also be taken not to
contaminate or force the bearing into place during installation.
Improper Lubrication
Improper lubrication is a common cause of premature bearing failures [8]. Rolling

element bearings used in fan applications can be lubricated using water, oil, or grease
depending on the service conditions and/or owner preference. However, the majority of
bearings are grease lubricated. This method of lubrication requires a minimal amount of
attention and provides good service when the proper amount of grease is maintained in
the bearing. Both inadequate and excessive quantities of grease can lead to bearing
failure. An excessive amount of grease will cause the bearing to heat up and cause the
grease to flow out of the seals. Unless the excess grease can escape through the seal or
3-43
through the relief cock the bearing could fail. It is recommended that only one-third of
the void space in the housing be filled with grease to facilitate proper lubrication.
In oil-lubricated bearings, a suitable oil level must be maintained in the housing. This
level should be at about the center of the lowermost ball of a stationary bearing.
Oil-lubricated systems can also present a problem when a low-level condition is
discovered during operation. Personnel should proceed with caution when adding oil to
the bearing while the fan is in operation. In addition, supplying cooler oil while the shaft
is rotating can disrupt the oil film that has been formed. If this condition occurs metal-to-
metal contact could occur and damage the bearing. The oil quality is also important and
should be properly maintained. Periodically, oil samples can be taken and analyzed for
water-content, dirt load, viscosity, total acid/base content, and conditions of oil additives.
Maintenance / Repair
In practice, rolling element bearings do not require extensive maintenance [9]. Typically,
bearings are designed for long operating lives (>150,000 hours) and will generally last for
the expected life of the machines. However, there are a few key parameters that should be
checked on a regular basis such as:
• Lubrication
• Temperature
• Vibration
Bearing lubrication should be checked on a daily basis and be changed periodically,

depending on service conditions, manufacture specifications, and owner preference. In
critical applications bearing metal temperatures should also be monitored. This will
provide an indication of how well the bearing is operating and will allow the maintenance
engineers to respond to problems prior to bearing failure. Monitoring of bearing vibration
is also useful for indicating problems that might lead to bearing failure.
In most cases it is not cost effective to repair damaged rolling element bearings.
Therefore, these types of bearings are usually replaced when problems arise with the
bearings, or when they have been dismounted for other maintenance activities.
3-44
Fluid Film Bearings
Fluid film or journal bearings are commonly used in turbines, large pumps, and large fans
that operate at high speeds and temperatures [7]. These types of bearings utilize
hydrodynamic lubrication, which means that the load-carrying surfaces of the bearing are
separated by a relatively thick film of lubricant that prevents metal-to-metal contact. The
film pressure is created by the moving surface or shaft pulling the lubrication into a
wedge-shaped zone at a velocity sufficiently high enough to create the pressure necessary
to separate the surface against the load on the bearing.
Journal bearings are coated with a layer of white metal or babbitt material that serves as
the bearing surface. The specific type of babbitt material required depends on the service
conditions that will be experienced by the bearings. Tin-based babbitt materials
composed of 65-90% tin plus small amounts of lead, copper, and antimony are the most
commonly used. Copper and lead based babbitt are also frequently used in various
applications. The primary limitation of a babbitt bearing is operating temperature, which
is approximately 300°F max. The bearing material must also have sufficient compressive
and fatigue strengths to resist externally applied loads. The bearing must be soft, have a
low melting point, and a low modulus of elasticity. The second set of requirements is
necessary to permit the material to wear or break in, so that it can conform to slight
irregularities and absorb and release foreign particles, which helps prevent shaft damage.
Babbitt material is bonded to a backing shell of another material such as steel or bronze
because they are not good structural materials. The thinner the babbitt layer the greater
the fatigue resistance. In applications where fatigue is important babbitt thicknesses range
from 0.001 to 0.005 inches. For less critical applications, thickness ranges from 3/32 to
1/8 in. The thicker layer provides good conformity and accepts embeded particles easier
without damage.
Types of Journal Bearings
Journal Bearings are used in a variety of rotating equipment such as turbines, pumps,
fans, and in automotive applications [7]. There is a variety of journal bearing designs
used in the industry and each of the different types of bearing designs have advantages
and disadvantages that make them suitable for a particular application. Some of the more
common types of journal bearings include the following.
Cylindrical Bearings
Cylindrical bearings are the most common type of journal bearings used in industry [7]. It
consists of a cylindrical steel backing plate with babbitt bonded to the inside bearing
surface, and the bearings are generally split into two halves for ease of assembly. These
3-45
bearings also have lubricating feed grooves at the parting line. The principal advantages
of cylindrical bearings are simple construction and high load capacities relative to other
bearing configurations. Plain cylindrical journal bearings are used in applications
involving medium speed (500 in/s) and medium to heavy loads (250 to 400 lb/in2). These
advantages make the plain journal bearings a leading choice for most applications.
However, these types of bearings also have several disadvantages that must be
considered. One disadvantage is whirl instability in that the bearing is prone to allow the
shaft to whirl at high speeds and low loads. Whirling is an orbiting of the shaft in the
center of the bearing, a motion that is superimposed upon the normal journal rotation.
This effect can be damaging to the bearing and lead to possible failure. These bearings
are also very easily contaminated and therefore they generate a larger viscous power loss
than other types of bearings. These disadvantages are largely due to the absence of
grooves that allow the contaminates to escape and the large uninterrupted surface area.
Cylindrical Bearings with Grooves
A typical configuration of this type of bearing is a plain cylindrical bearing with four
equally spaced longitudinal grooves extending the majority of the way through the
bearing [7]. There is usually a slight land area at either end of the groove to force the inlet
flow to each groove into the bearing clearance region rather than out the groove ends.
This configuration can tolerate more contamination and will run cooler than the plain
bearing. However, because the groove consumes some land area, this configuration has
less loading capacity than plain cylindrical bearings.
Elliptical and Lobe Bearings
Elliptical and lobe bearings have noncircular geometries [7]. A lobe bearing consists of
three lobes which can be either symmetrical or canted lobed. Canted lobed bearings
provide excellent whirl resistance and reasonably good load capability. However, they
are difficult to manufacture and are clearance and tolerance sensitive. Elliptical bearings
are two-lobe bearings and are often used because they provide better resistance to whirl
than plain cylindrical bearings, but they do not have high load capacities. As a result they
are generally used in high-speed low-load applications where whirl might be a problem.
Tilting Pad Bearings
Tilting-pad bearings are used extensively in high-speed applications, because of their

whirl-free characteristics [7]. They are the most whirl-free of all bearing configurations.
One of the most important parameters that govern the performance of these types of
bearings is the pre-load on the pads. Unloaded pads reduce the overall stiffness of the
bearing and results in a deterioration of stability because the unloaded pads do not aid in
3-46
resisting cross-coupling influences. In the unloaded position they are also subject to
flutter instability and to a phenomenon known as leading edge lockup. It occurs where
the leading edge of the pad is forced against the shaft and held in that position by the
friction between the shaft and the pad. This is especially prevalent in bearings that
operate with low viscosity lubricants. Consequently, it is important that these bearings are
preloaded. Some of the other major characteristics of tilting pad bearings include.
• They are not as clearance sensitive as other bearing types.

• Because the pads can move, they can operate safely at a lower minimum film
thickness than other bearings.
• They do not provide as much squeeze film damping as rigid configurations.
• Generally they are more expensive than other bearings.
Hybrid Bearings
A hybrid bearing derives loading capacity from the normal hydrodynamic pressure
generated and an external high-pressure supply that introduces oil into recesses machined
into the bearing surface via orifices [7]. External pressure significantly enhances load
capacity. These type of bearings also have excellent low or zero speed load capability.
One disadvantage is that these bearings require an external fluid supply.
Damage Mechanisms
Journal bearings are susceptible to a variety of damage mechanisms. The most common
damage mechanisms that affect journal bearings include the following [8].
• Abrasion
• Bond Failure
• Cavitation Erosion
• Corrosion
• Electrical Pitting
• Erosion
• Fatigue
• Fretting
• Non-homogeneity
• Overheating
• Seizure
• Surface Wear
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• Tin Oxide Damage

• Wiping
Abrasion
Abrasion occurs when a large number of solid particles that is harder than the bearing
surface is circulated in the lubricant and begins to wear down the bearing surface [8]. In
some instances both the bearing surface and the shaft material can be damaged due to
abrasive particles. In most cases where a small amount of particles are present they
eventually embed themselves harmlessly in the bearing surface. However, when a large
number of particles are present they circulate through the clearances causing wear and
scoring. The particles found in the oil system that lead to abrasion damage include: Sand,
grit blasting substances, metal chips, weld spatter, fly ash, and cast iron chips. Any one of
these particles can cause significant abrasion damage when present in large quantities.
Bond Failure
Journal bearings are manufactured by bonding a soft babbitt material, which serves as the
bearing surface, to a steel supporting structure [8]. In some instances where poor
adhesion is experienced during the manufacturing process, bonding failure could occur
and cause the babbitt material to separate from the supporting structure at the interface
between the two metals. This separation may occur by a local loosening of the bond by
pieces breaking away from the bearing shell or in severe cases by a complete dislodgment
of the babbitt material. A defective bond formed during the manufacturing of the bearing
might be caused by oxide films on the base material. This includes contaminates such as
dirt, soot, grease, dross from the surface of the molten alloy, gas evolution from the
metal, or improper fabrication techniques.
Cavitation Erosion
Cavitation erosion occurs due to cavitation in the oil film of journal bearings, and in some
cases thrust bearings [8]. Cavitation in bearings is somewhat different from the common
cavitation encountered in pump propellers or compressor blades where cyclic loading is
usually the culprit. In bearings, cavitation occurs by the presence of diverging film
shapes. In such diverging regions the oil film pressure drops from levels close to 500 psi
or 1000 psi to slightly below atmospheric pressure. This causes the full oil film that was
previously present to break up into streamlets interspersed with air, dissolved gases,
foam, and possibly vapor. It is the formation and collapse of these zones that may
occasionally lead to bearing damage. The damage action of cavitation is due to the
generation of high energy hydraulic impulses within the oil film and if numerous enough
3-48
will fatigue the surface of the bearing. Cavitation damage results in a spotty removal of
the surface metal.
Corrosion
Corrosion damage is due to the attack on metal surfaces by reactive agents, which can be
to both the bearing and the shaft [8]. This damage results from chemical attack on the
bearing material by substances originating in the lubricant or the environment. Corrosion
may either remove the bearing material or buildup a deposit on the bearing surface. The
two main corrosive agents that affect bearings are electrolytes and organic acids. In order
to cause problems the products of corrosion must be soluble or porous, or must be
continually removed to expose fresh metal. Corrosion is often selective in that it attacks
some constituents more than others, as in the case of the removal of lead from copper-
lead based bearings. Corrosion of lead based bearings may be caused by acidic oil
oxidation products formed in service, by ingress of water or coolant into the oil, or by
decomposition of certain oil additives. The onset of corrosion can be either sudden or
gradual.
Electrical Pitting
Electrical Pitting is caused by the sporadic transmission of electrical current produced

from a release of voltage potential build-up through an oil film, which separates the
bearing from the shaft [8]. This effect becomes more profound as a rough surface is
formed through mechanical wear (metal removal by arcing) and the oil or lubrication
becomes contaminated by the resulting debris. In addition, when the oil film thickness
between the bearing and the shaft is relatively small electrical pitting becomes less likely
to occur due to the voltage potential’s ability to produce continuous current. However, if
the oil film thickness is relatively large, a high resistance is formed across the film, thus
producing the inability to discharge sparks. Between these two extremes lies the
possibility of electrical pitting on the bearings. Electrical arcing produces four effects
which include pitting, wear, babbitt surface layer overheating, and abrasion due to
metallic particles being set free in the oil.
Erosion
Erosion is produced through the high-velocity impact of suspended foreign particles onto
the bearing surface [8]. Erosion differs from abrasion because erosion becomes a more
localized aggravated damage mechanism produced through the high velocity of the
carrier fluid. Foreign particles are primarily found in the lubricant or surrounding
environment. Erosion problems are most commonly encountered at grooves, chamfers,
3-49
steps, and any other discontinuities that exist in either geometry or fluid flow path. The
high kinetic energy of the fluid and debris accumulation is converted to stagnation
pressure or heat energy, which further emphasize erosion damage. Consistent erosive
action may lead to more severe forms of failure, such as wiping or fatigue cracking.
Fatigue
Fatigue failure (cracking or fracture) is the result of repetitive cyclic stresses attained
above the threshold limit for a certain material at a given temperature. Typical fatigue
failure in bearings is due to flexure forces that tend to reverse the stress direction or
produce thermal cycling. In addition, the intensity of these mechanical or thermal
stresses contributes to a more severe and rapid rate of fatigue failure. Cracks that reach
the vicinity of the bond travel parallel to it eventually lifting out small pieces of babbitt
material. This will result in bearing seizure or overheating because of oil drainage from
the high-pressure areas of the film. There is evidence that the rate of load application
increases the rate of failure. Below is a list of factors, which are the most common
causes of fatigue failure [8].
• Load and Speed – Increasing the difference between maximum and minimum stresses
on the bearing and the frequency of the stress cycle rises.
• Temperature – Physical properties of babbitt material deteriorates with increasing
surface temperature.
• Hardness and Thickness – Fatigue failure increases directly proportional with
thickness and inversely proportional with hardness.
• Superimposed Tensile Stresses – Superimposing tensile stresses on a pulsating
compressive stress accelerates fatigue failure.
• Thermal Cycling – Repeated heating and cooling creates thermal stresses that lead to
cracking of the babbitt, which becomes more pronounced as the frequency increases.
• Self-Excited Vibration – Occurs when the pivot’s radial play is larger than the
concentric clearance.
Fretting
Fretting is a form of corrosion that develops on contacting surfaces which experience

small oscillatory motions [8]. Oxidation of worn steel has a corroded appearance, thus is
sometimes known as fretting corrosion. Shrink-fits, bearing pivots, bearing shells, and
similar parts that utilize repeated movement are most likely to experience this damage
mechanism. Metal removal creates an environment for chemical attack, which often
increases the damage severity. An example of fretting is iron oxide (rust), which itself is
abrasive. Fretting damage may occur on bearing surfaces when the shaft is at rest
3-50
because of vibrations transmitted to the machine from external sources. A thrust collar
running out of true may also experience fretting corrosion.
Non-homogeneity
Non-homogeneity is a defect of bearings, which refers to the potential damage associated

with a non-gaseous or gaseous presence [8]. Three of the most common inclusions are
foreign inclusions, absorbed gas, and hydrogen diffusion. Foreign inclusions are cavities
due to inclusions such as slag or dross from the melting pot, which create a weak
structure, sensitive to fatigue and thermal cracking. Absorbed gases are cavities or
blisters formed by gases that are created through the solidification of the cast metal.
Hydrogen diffusion occurs where the atomic hydrogen seeps into the voids at the bond
and grows into molecular form, destroying and dislodging the babbitt.
Overheating
Overheating is defined as either damage to bearings through the exposure to temperatures

above the softening point of one of the babbitt material constituents or excessive thermal
gradients which cause the babbitt to crack [8]. At elevated temperatures babbitt materials
experience creep with rippling of the surface and possible wiping. When the
temperatures are sufficiently high, portions of the bearings melt. When one constituent
of the alloy melts it will ooze out of the structure, also known as sweating. Soft metal
detected near the low-pressure areas and beads of sweat along the oil grooves are primary
evidence of sweating.
Properties of some tin-base babbitts vary along different axes of the grains and may result
in grain distortion when thermal stresses are imposed, due to the different coefficients of
thermal expansion along each crystal axis. Repeated thermal exposure causes mottling of
the bearing surface, but generally does not affect performance. Ratcheting occurs when
grain distortion is severe, and cracks will occur in the babbitt surface along the grain
boundaries. Through repeated thermal stressing, the whole surface may eventually
undergo recrystallization and the normal and shear forces on the bearing surface will
cause cracking of babbitt pairs.
Seizure
Seizure is a failure of journal bearings due to the lack of clearance between the shaft and
bearing [8]. It can be described by severe wiping over the entire bearing periphery and
may hinder the shaft’s rotation. The sudden lack of clearance can be explained by the
difference in thermal expansion of the journal bearings being much greater than that of
3-51
the shaft material. The loss of clearance may also be attributed to a deprivation of oil, a
radical change in operating conditions in a bearing of tight clearance, or a rapid start-up
of a journal bearing. The latter can be explained through thermal expansion developed
through heat transfer created by the rapid rotation relative to the stationary surface, thus
creating a diameter growth and a reduction in clearance.
Surface Wear
Surface wear is a damage mechanism associated with the gradual removal of babbitt
material, which produces excessive clearance or distortion of the film profile, thus
degrading the performance of the bearing [8]. Wear can be explained through processes
such as abrasion by foreign particles, mechanical interlocking of the asperities, localized
formation and rupturing of welds, and corrosive or erosive action of the lubricant on
oxide particles. Wear occurs when smaller particles score the bearing surfaces or larger
particles embed into the bearing surface and rub against the journal, both relative to the
minimum oil film thickness. The total wear is dependent upon the length of time of the
particulate and surface contact. Wear often does not produce failure nor does it produce
any externally visible damage.
Mechanical wear also may occur due to an insufficient lubricant film, starting and
stopping, high loads, very low viscous fluids, high operating temperatures, vibration, and
many other contributing factors. Bearings can undergo wear for a prolonged period, but
eventually difficulty or failure will set in. Difficulties can arise from excessive clearance
or changes in geometry. In addition, parameters that affect bearing wear include
mechanical properties, thermal properties, and chemical properties of the bearing
materials. There is also a relationship between the contamination of oils and wear life of
journal bearings. Factors for this include particle properties, operating conditions, and
running time. Bearing wear may also be contributed to turning gear operation and
frequent start-ups and shutdowns.
Tin Oxide Damage
Salt water in hydrocarbon oils, with the negative ions of chloride acting as a catalyst,
forms tin oxide on babbitt surfaces [8]. It is commonly encountered in land units that use
estuarine or seawater for cooling. The initial formation or machining of a babbitt
material has a thin protective film that makes the surface appear bright and metallic.
When subjected to a weak acidic aqueous solution that contains chloride ions, a hydrated
oxide is formed first. Then it is converted into stannous oxide (SnO) and stannic oxide
(SnO2). Water with negative ions such as chlorine must be present for this chemical
reaction to occur. Damage is most likely to occur with oils that are contaminated with salt
ions. Oxides are then formed, the tin near the surface is consumed, and the oxide, being
less dense than the tin metal, builds up on top at the original surface. The rate of
3-52
formation of tin oxide becomes more evident at higher temperatures due to it being an
electrochemical reaction. Below is a list of harmful consequences of tin oxide formation
[8].
• Formation of hard black layers of tin oxide to a depth of 4 mils or more of the tin
matrix
• Oxides occupy a greater volume than tin; therefore, it protrudes into the clearance
• It is brittle and at a certain thickness it breaks up – special attention must be paid to
thrust pads that undergo flexing
• Particles are abrasive to journals
• Chlorides form undesirable electrolytes
Wiping
Wiping occurs when a substantial amount of babbitt material is displaced or removed

from the journal or runner due to direct contact [8]. Three mechanisms can describe the
most reasonable causes of wiping. The first is melting of the babbitt material due to
direct contact between the surfaces. The second is that the bearing metal is fractured in
shear during plastic deformation due to mechanical cold work of the journal. The third is
excessive pressures developed near hmin causing localized plastic deformation of the
babbitt once the yield strength is surpassed. The deformed material then protrudes into
the clearance and makes contact with the shaft resulting in wiping of the bearing. Wiping
can occur due to causes such as deprivation of lubricant, impact or excessive loading
contact, or thermal and elastic distortions of the bearing. Wiping also occurs due to other
damage mechanisms. Below is a list of primary causes for the physical displacement of
babbitt material.
• Misalignment
• Tight clearances
• Starting problems
• Elastic and thermal distortions
• Overload
• Instability
• Shocks
• Improper assembly
• Wrong load angle
• Oil starvation
3-53
Journal Bearing Repairs
There are several methods used to repair the surfaces of fluid film bearings [8]. These
repairs can be subdivided into two categories; minor and major. In most cases minor
repairs are those that can be performed in the field using hand tools and major repairs
usually require the facilities of a machine shop.
Minor Repairs
Journal bearings that experience shallow surface damage can in some cases be repaired
by reducing the thickness of the babbitt in load bearing areas enough to remove the
damaged material [8]. However, the amount of babbitt removal should be limited to half
of the original thickness, or less than 0.020 inch in remaining thickness. Full circular
journal bearings can be repaired in the field using a wide hand scraper, 0.0012 inch Mylar
film, bearing cloth, or Scotchbrite. The removal process would be as follows [8]:
1. Determine the contact pattern of the bearing to the shaft by applying Prussian blue to
the shaft. Then rest the bearing on the shaft and visually inspect the contact areas.
Scrape the areas that show contact with the shaft until an even contact pattern is achieved
using Mylar film, bearing cloth, Scotchbrite or a hand scraper if necessary.
Repeat the process until the bearing damage has been removed.
Care should be exercised to maintain the contour of the bearing and not to create flat
spots that would alter the bearing dynamics. This is especially critical for elliptical
journal bearings. Normally these repairs are best done by the manufacturer.
Major Repairs
Major repairs are typically considered a form of damage, which is too extensive to be
performed by hand and typically requires machining or grinding [8]. These types of
repair are usually performed by the manufacturer or other after market vendors
experienced in journal bearing repair. Some of the more common journal bearing repairs
includes puddling, rebabbitting, or TIG welding. Puddling is typically used to patch
localized areas of damaged babbitt material. Rebabbitting is done when extensive babbitt
damage is present. This repair requires the complete removal of the old babbitt material
and the rebonding of new babbitt material. TIG welding can also be used to repair
3-54
bearings when heat from puddling becomes a problem and causes significant distortion of
the journal shell. Procedures for these repair techniques are provided below. These
procedures were taken from the EPRI document titled “Manual of Bearing Failures and
Repair in Power Plant Rotating Equipment” GS-7352 and should only be used as a
general reference.
Puddling
The following procedure provides instructions for puddling babbitt to make oil dams, fill
in oil washes, and repair small damaged areas [8]. This process should not be used if the
area to be repaired has a loose bond. Only qualified operators should perform this type of
repair.
Equipment [8]:
The required items needed to perform puddling include the following.
Chorlthene SM (Trichloroethane)
Torch and gas tanks consisting of No. 1, No. 6, or No. 9 torch head, and oxygen and
MAPP gas.
Flux- Duzall Self-Cleaning or Dutch Boy #321. A mixture of pure tin (Acro-Solder)
Babbitt sticks- 0.125 inch square, 0.188 inch diameter of QQT390 Grade 2, or ASTM B-
23 Grade 2.
Procedure [8]:
1. Clean the area to be filled or repaired thoroughly with chorlthene SM.
Ignite torch with appropriate tip, which depends on the size of the repair area. Adjust the
flame with a mixture of one part oxygen to two parts MAPP gas until a bright blue flame
of approximately 0.25-inch in height is achieved.
Mix the babbitt with the liquefied area on the journal shell.
3-55
Repeat step 3 until the entire area is filled or repaired.
When the repaired area has cooled to room temperature, lightly peen the surface of the
new babbitt to relieve surface stresses and prevent cracking.
Machine off excess babbitt and lap or scrape the surface on the mandrel to make it
homogeneous with the original surface.
Rebabbitting
The rebabbitting of journal bearings is accomplished by a process known as centrifugal

babbitting [8]. This process is exclusively performed by bearing manufacturers or other
after market vendors who have the necessary equipment and expertise to perform the
work. The following procedure provides an overview of the process. A more detailed
procedure can be found in EPRI document GS-7352.
Equipment [8]:
Centrifugal babbitt machine

Babbitt conforming to ASTM B-23 grade 2.
Flux agent ( 80% zinc chloride –20% ammonium chloride mixed 50-50 with water).
Hand grinder with aluminum oxide wheels.
Immersion tank of 100% tin.
Vapor degreaser
Gasket material and shims
Water supply
Pyrometer
Thermocouples
Procedure [8]:
3-56
1. Clean or vapor degrease bearing to remove dirt and oil.
Chuck part lightly in a lathe or boring mill. Bore out the babbitt until the steel or base
metal is reached. An effort should be made during the machining operation to keep oil
and cutting compounds off the face to be babbitted.
If babbitt anchors are present, heat the part until the babbitt can be removed. If the
anchors are the only drilled holes, remove the babbitt using a hand drill.
Vapor-degrease bearing shell halves to remove all traces of dirt, grease and oil,
Apply Stop-off to all surfaces of parts, which are not to be babbitted.
Remove all oxides on an air-powered grinding wheel equipped with aluminum oxide
abrasives. Grind with an overlap pattern to assure 100% coverage.
Assemble journal bearing halves using gasket material and shims of proper length.
Position shim so they are flush with or above the part.
Inspect assembly for alignment.
Apply the following flux composition : 80% zinc chloride –20% ammonium chloride
mixed 50-50 with water to the surface to be tinned.
Immerse in tin bath heated to 610-630°F and soak until the temperature of the part
reaches 580-630°F.
Prepare centrifugal babbitt machine.
3-57
When bearing temperature is within the range of 580-630 °F, raise it from the tin bath,
drain excess tin into bath, and remove all surface contaminates.
Inspect tinned surface and rub surface with babbitt stick. Then install the bearing into the
babbitt machine.
Perform the centrifugal babbitting process.
Remove the bearing from the babbitt machine and allow to cool.
Separate bearing halves and remove shim, gaskets, and excess babbitt.
Prepare joint faces for subsequent machining operation.
Perform final machining.
Inspect the bearing for defects.
TIG Welding
TIG welding is generally used as an alternative to puddling for repairing localized babbitt
damage [8]. In applications where the journal shell is relatively thin it is essential to
minimize the amount of heat put into the material to prevent the shell from warping. The
TIG welding process reduces the amount of heat put into the part compared to puddling
and decreases the amount of distortion that occurs. An overview of the repair process is
provided below.
Procedure [8]:
1. Lightly chuck the bearing in a lathe or boring mill. Remove damaged babbitt material.
3-58
Using a TIG welder, lay in new babbitt in approximately 0.125 inch deep x 2 inches wide
bands. If the bearing becomes hot during this process discontinue welding until the
bearing cools. Restart the process until the babbitt metal has been built up to a size
approximately 0.062 inch radially, smaller than the finish bore size.
Lightly chuck the bearing in a lathe or boring mill, indicating the outside diameter. Finish
boring the bearing to its proper configuration.
Using the proper machine tools, drill or mill any bearing configurations that were altered
during the welding process.
Inspect bearing for defects.
3-59
3-60
4
FAN MAINTENANCE
Introduction to Fan Maintenance
The following section, which describes fan maintenance was found from EPRI’s
“Operation and Maintenance Guidelines for Draft Fans,” report number TR-101698.
Additional and more detailed information can be found in that report, with the purpose of
this section to give a general background for proper fan maintenance. However, it should
not replace any manufacturer recommendations or instructions, it should only supplement
them in order to produce an effective fan maintenance routine.
Fan operation in boiler power plants consumes a significant portion of the energy
associated with power plant operation. Therefore, any inadequate operation of the fan
units can result in lower efficiency of the power plant’s energy production. The lower
efficiency indicates a lower output to input ratio. Therefore, boiler fan units should
develop an effective maintenance program to limit those means and incorporate a more
effective operating process.
A list of checks can be created based upon manufacturer’s recommendations, operational
experience, and the power station’s trained manpower assets. This will enable O&M to
determine what repair mechanisms can be employed by them and those that need to be
contracted out. Fan maintenance routines also prevent structural damage, incorporate
safety, and ultimately save more money. A routine check must be conducted on the
major parts of the fan unit, but not to where it involves unnecessary downtime. However,
ensuring adequate lubrication, clean lubrication, daily visual inspections of the
equipment, and clean equipment should be practiced.
An additional part to any maintenance program is to develop written formatted PM tasks.
This will provide an itemized listing of what is required to accomplish a specific
maintenance action, actual procedures to conduct a specific maintenance action, and can
assist the maintenance crew in reducing the man-hours used in planning a job. In
addition, a database could be developed to provide a ready reference for personnel to
utilize during equipment maintenance periods. The following is a general list that can be
used to avoid unnecessary injury to equipment or personnel [2].
• Keep area around disassembled equipment clean
• Take inventory of tools used for jobs
• Use appropriate tools for the job
• Never take short cuts when safety is involved
• Follow proper tag out procedures
• Keep the shop supervisor informed on the progress and problems encountered
• Verify that the required parts are available before starting the job
4-1
Pre-Examination Techniques - Surface Cleaning & Surface Preparation
Surface Cleaning
Surface cleaning is a prerequisite to any inspection method. In industry, water blasting
and dry blasting are two common techniques used for surface cleaning. Fans are
primarily cleaned using glass beads entrained in a 30,000-psi water stream [2]. Two
benefits of this method include reduced respiratory hazards and easy disposal of the
residual.
Dry blast cleaning is typically used to clean fan internals prior to magnetic particle or
visual inspection techniques. Grit and sand are two frequently used abrasive materials,
which are propelled with sufficient force to remove any buildup that exists on the fan
surfaces. Grit abrasive material is created by crushing and hardening metallic particles
such as in cast steel and displacing them in an angular fashion. In comparison with sand
abrasion the grit abrasive requires less time to clean a fan wheel, provides less frequent
breakdown of the abrasive, less dust particulate, and has a capability to be recycled.
Sand abrasives are nonmetallic and are usually flint quartz, silica, slag, garnet, aluminum
oxide, or silicon carbide. Sand abrasives are susceptible to breakdown and should only
be used once. Sand abrasives can become lodged in the component crevices leading to
further masking of any problem areas. The quality of the surface cleaning is also
dependent on the type of blast nozzle. ASM recommends purchasing a boron carbide
liner encased in a steel jacket to provide the superlative cost to life ratio. The operational
life of this type of blast nozzle far exceeds that of others due to its ability to retain its
internal contour. It is important that a nozzle be replaced when its outlet size is 1.5 times
that of its initial outlet size [2].
Two abrasive blasting techniques primarily utilized by cleaning crews include brush
blasting and strip blasting [2]. Brush blasting is a relatively quick cleaning operation that
should be avoided on any surfaces with protective layers and those having deposit
buildup. It is accomplished by holding the nozzle tip approximately three to four feet
away from the surface. Extreme caution should be taken not to blast away the protective
coating. Strip blasting is accomplished by holding the nozzle tip approximately nine to
ten inches away from the work surface. Increasing the separation distance will reduce the
effect of the abrasive process. Decreasing the separation distance also poses problems
such as impact damage/layer removal of the work surface using metallic abrasives and
increasing the dust burden using the non-metallic abrasives.
Cleaning crews should avoid directing the abrasive stream on suspected crack areas of
hollow airfoil blades when cleaning fans. The blades may fill with the abrasive material
and induced particulate, which further leads to operating rotational imbalance of the fan
unit. To avoid the problem, the suspected areas should be cleaned by hand with a wire
4-2
brush. Caution should be taken with the fan internals when carrying out an abrasive
cleaning process in order to prevent damage that may occur from high-velocity particles
impacting on them. Shaft seals and heat flingers can be protected by securely wrapping
them in rubber or urethane covers.
Surface Preparation
Surface preparation is used to maintain a clean surface once it has been sandblasted and
to eliminate any surface discontinuities such as undercutting, overlap, or lack of fusion
that may mask or give false indications [2]. It is important that the time transition
between surface cleaning and testing be kept to a minimum. High levels of moisture can
exist in the surrounding atmosphere, which acts as a catalyst for corrosion in the fan
internals. Several solutions for reducing the moisture in air content include NDE
inspector and cleaning team coordination, usage of electric space heaters, and the closure
of all doors and dampers.
Inspection Methods
An inspection program is an essential component of any maintenance strategy associated
with boiler fan units. It can be used to establish a database for fan wheel repair and as a
means to identify the cracking or erosion problems before the problem escalates to
catastrophic failure. Four of the most common inspection methods that are typically used
in boiler fan units are listed below [2].
• (Wet/Dry) Magnetic Particle Testing
• Visual Inspection
• Ultrasonic Inspection
• Liquid Penetrant
(Wet/Dry)-Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle testing is a NDE (Non-Destructive Examination) technique that may be
used to identify any cracks that exist on the surface of ferromagnetic materials [2]. This
can be further broken down into the categories of wet fluorescent magnetic particle
testing (WFMT) and dry magnetic particle testing (MT). The WFMT technique has been
used more frequently in industry due to its ability to find finer surface defects relative to
the MT technique. However, the MT technique is more sensitive for the detection of
surface discontinuities.
The best capability of the utilities for examining cracks of fan units is to use a yoke probe
with ac/pulsating dc capability in conjunction with a wet fluorescent magnetic particle
test. The wet fluorescent magnetic particle medium can be found in a prepared or mixed
bath. Prepared baths are contained in aerosol cans and mixed baths must be prepared by
4-3
the utility personnel prior to usage. Mixed baths are also less expensive than prepared
baths. Other requirements for the testing include a pie gage, which checks for magnetic
field strength, a black light, and a black light meter. Below is a list explaining why the
wet fluorescent magnetic particle system and yoke probes should be used during
inspection [2].
• The WFMT method is more sensitive and produces quicker results.
• Yoke probes will not produce arc burns on the working surface.
• A yoke probe has both an ac and pulsing dc option with the dc power being able to
detect cracks below the surface.
Pre-examination
The following is a list of requirements that must be thoroughly read and completed prior
to conducting the magnetic particle testing [2].
• Clean the surface to be examined sufficiently.

• The testing must be performed in a dark environment when using wet fluorescent
particles.
• Personnel must have their eyes adjusted to the dark environment prior to testing. If
not, he/she should remain in the dark for approximately five minutes so that their eyes
can adjust.
• The black light must be warmed up for a minimum of five minutes prior to usage.
• The intensity of the black light surface must be greater than 800 µW/cm2 for the best
experimental results. Check to make sure that the results correspond.
• The black light intensity should be checked at least once every eight hours, or when
shifting to another fan unit.
• The yoke must be calibrated annually to ensure the following results. A lifting power
of 10 lb. at the maximum pole spacing is required for each ac electromagnetic yoke. A
lifting power of at least 40 lb. at the maximum pole spacing is required for each dc
electromagnetic yoke. Also, make sure that any weights that are used for the first time
are checked with an accurate scale.
• Grid spacing should be laid out appropriately to ensure that the entire area is
inspected. The grid size should be smaller than that of the maximum articulated arm
spacing and drawn using chalk or paint markers.
4-4
Examination Process
The following process is dedicated to magnetic particle testing using a yoke with
articulated legs [2]. This allows for flexibility of surface curvature and orientation. The
articulate legs are adjustable and the maximum spacing is eight inches, anything beyond
this value weakens the magnetic field. The area to be inspected should be cleaned and
prepared, and a final check for any residual dust should be conducted before the addition
of the wet fluorescent particle medium to the surface. The strength and direction of the
magnetic field should then be identified. It is important to note that a yoke operating
within its calibration period does not guarantee that sufficient field strength is being
generated.
The magnetic particle indicator will provide the inspector with proper indication of the
magnetic field strength. This should be done once for every fan tested. The magnetic
field strength is indicated by a clearly defined line forming across the face of the copper
indictor when acted upon by a magnetic force. The line direction indicates the direction
of the magnetic field orientation. Field direction plays an important role in the detection
of cracks. It is necessary to perform the test again perpendicular to the previous yoke
setting and the magnetic field line should follow the same 90° rotation. The weld line
can be used as a reference to accomplish this check. Surface cracks that develop parallel
or perpendicular (longitudinal or cross-cracks) to the weld can then be detected by
experienced personnel. The following is a list of additional concerns in using this
technique [2].
• The base of the legs and material surface should be flush.
• Be sure that the centerline of the yoke coincides with the weld when “straddling” the
weld line.
• During each check the yoke should be approximately three inches to either side of the
original position so that sufficient overlap is formed, thus ensuring that 100% of the area
was covered.
Final Examinations
Two additional wet-magnetic particle follow-up examinations are necessary to act as a

quality check on the accomplished maintenance action. [2]. The first follow-up exam
verifies that the entire damaged area has in fact been removed prior to beginning weld
repairs. The second follow-up exam should be done after the completion of weld repairs.
It is most important for individuals to conduct a follow-up examine with the proper
waiting period between the repair and inspection. False results can occur if the
examination is done before or after the correct waiting period. The waiting periods may
differ for each material, which means that all materials should be looked up prior to
conducting any magnetic particle examinations.
4-5
Visual Inspection
Qualified level II equivalent or supervised personnel should conduct the visual
examination on all rotating parts, weld seams, hubs, supports, and blade surfaces [2]. All
surfaces must be examined for visual cracks or discontinuities. Specific surface
discontinuities such as undercut, overlap, and erosion cutting should be removed prior to
conducting any magnetic particle tests to prevent false results. Another operation that
should be taken into consideration if the funding and manpower are available includes
blend or contour grinding of weld joints. Blend grinding removes surface irregularities
using a rotary file. Contour grinding provides a surface free from discontinuities in a
time intensive and costly manner. Contour grinding can be implemented into a fan
maintenance routine in either of the following four ways [2].
• Establish a policy for using contour grinding on all fan unit welds.
• Future weld specifications should include contour grinding on all welds.
• Contour grind welds during an outage.
• Implement contour grinding by requiring a certain number of fans to be reworked
annually.
Both grinding procedures require that the rotary file have a grinding attachment. Cutting
into the base metal, undersizing the welds and the creation of sharp notches that further
lead to heat cracking can result from the improper usage of the tool. Heat cracking can
be avoided by limiting both the amount of pressure applied and the metal removal rate.
As an example, if the blade is a carbide material the surface will turn gleaming red under
the action of excessive pressure. Usage of an emery paper flapper wheel can be used to
limit heat cracking, but its drawback is that it is very time consuming.
After the grinding procedure has been utilized, the surface to be inspected should be
wiped off using a lint-free cloth. This removes the dust particles that were produced via
the grinding operation and should be used prior to magnetic particle testing. This is also
a chance to allow for the inspection of any missed or problem areas.
Another approach involves the use of NDE personnel. Their purpose is to inspect the
area of investigation and determine whether any indications are cracks or surface
discontinuities. If the results indicate a potential crack the area is mapped and
temporarily monitored. If there are no signs of growth during the monitoring period, the
NDE personnel can then downgrade the crack to a surface discontinuity. No other action
takes place with this downgrade unless group tests recommend that the discontinuity be
removed. For the application of this method the following three facts should be taken
into consideration [2].
4-6
• The usage of consistent mapping techniques for effective results

• An acceptance standard is developed for element subjectivity
• Cracks can initiate from surface discontinuities
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a technique that can be used to detect any cracks or voids
below the surface of a material [2]. Magnetic particle and visual examination have no
real capability of detection in this area. This technique can be used to determine the
thickness of a fan surface or housing which is subjected to an erosive environment. It
also can be used to inspect for voids in fan hubs, which are manufactured from cast iron
and cast steel.
Ultrasonic testing is the fastest developing NDE technique for pressure components. A
piezoelectric transducer is placed in contact with the surface to be tested. Disturbances
are caused in the interatomic spacings, which induces an elastic sound wave that moves
through the material. The ultrasonic wave is then reflected back during the encounter of
any discontinuity of the material. The reflected wave is transmitted to the transducer and
is displayed on an oscilloscope screen.
To determine the degree of material damage a longitudinal wave is passed through the
surface and part of the signal is not reflected back to the receiver if damage is
encountered. The damage mechanisms only reflect a portion of the waves at various
angles, which backscatter the reflected signal to the transducer. The result is a wave
amplitude reduction displayed on the oscilloscope, which indicates the degree of damage
encountered.
Liquid Penetrant
The liquid penetrant (PT) testing method is used to detect surface cracking of materials.
It is not dependent on magnetic properties or component geometry [2]. The PT method is
typically used in tight spaces and is only effective where the discontinuity is open to the
component surface. It is utilized to detect surface flaws by the capillary action of the
liquid dye penetrant. The surface is cleaned sufficiently and the liquid dye is applied to
the component surface. It then should be allowed to penetrate the discontinuity for
approximately ten minutes. A cleaner is used to remove excess liquid penetrant and the
surface should be allowed to dry. A developer is then sprayed onto the surface to create
reverse capillary action of the cracks, which creates the highly visible areas of damage.
4-7
Vibration and Balancing
Vibration Parameters
Fans can be reasonably analyzed via the following five operating parameters [2]. Each
will be briefly identified to examine their correspondence to vibration monitoring.
• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase Angle
• Vibration Form
• Vibration Mode Shape
Amplitude
The amplitude of vibration corresponding to fan unit operation can be expressed in terms
of acceleration, velocity, or displacement, and serves as an indicator for severity of
vibration by measuring how rough or smooth the system is operating [2]. Stable
amplitude within the manufacturer’s recommended limits results from a stable operating
system. If this amplitude changes to a new value or continuously fluctuates, the machine
would need to be investigated.
Frequency
The frequency of a system can be expressed in terms of multiples of rpm, cycles-per-

second (Hz), or cycles-per-minute [2]. Harmonic vibrations occur in direct multiples or
integral fractions of the machine rpm. Nonsynchronous vibrations are those which are
not direct multiples of the machine rpm. Vibrations with frequencies typically less than
four times the machine rpm are the most likely manifestation of problems. Frequency
should not be a measure of severity unless roller ball bearings are involved. Vibrations in
a fan unit can lead to unbalance and misalignment, but there is no direct relation between
these problems and the frequency of vibration.
4-8
Phase Angle
The phase angle provides a reference measure of movement of a specific point on the
shaft or rotor [2]. A high spot located on a shaft or a concentration of uneven weight that
may have collected on the fan rotor can be used for identification of the point. The phase
angle measurement can be conducted relative to a fixed point such as a transducer or to a
rotating point. The measurement of the phase angle, which is expressed in degrees, can
be used in the balancing of fan rotors and analyzing the mode shape of vibration
Vibration Form
The vibration form is the actual representation of the vibration via wave patterns [2].
This wave pattern represents shaft motion. Vibration form can be analyzed through an
oscilloscope as well as certain wave form characteristics such as shape, amplitude, and
pattern. This allows the operating engineers to examine what the fan unit is doing at a
particular instant of time. Vibration can be displayed in either time-base or orbital
modes. The time-base presentation utilizes input from a displacement transducer, which
is displayed on the oscilloscope monitor in the time-base mode. The orbital presentation
utilizes two probes spaced 90° apart from each other in the X-Y mode of an oscilloscope.
This method allows for operating engineers to observe centerline shaft motion, but it is
important to note that the results are relative to either a fixed or rotating point.
Vibration Mode Shape
The vibration mode shape is found by recording the phase and vibration values at
equivalent distance points along a plane passing through the draft fan drive train [2].
This will provide information about resonance conditions, locating nodal points, and
identifying points of weakness. If conducting measurements along a drive train of the
casing, problems such as pipe resonance, structural resonance, or loose/cracked
foundations can be identified.
Vibration Analysis
The following is a list of different techniques used to obtain and display vibration data
[2].
• Amplitude vs. Frequency
4-9
• Real-Time Spectrum Analysis

• Time Wave Form
Amplitude vs. Frequency Analysis
This vibration analysis method is considered the most useful analysis technique and it can
be used to identify over 85% of the mechanical problems occurring on rotating
equipment [2]. It has uses in continuous monitoring/machine protection and equipment
diagnostic checks. A vibration pickup probe and vibration analyzer are the primary
equipment needed, with additional usage of an X-Y recorder providing the feature of
automatic plotting of frequency vs. vibration amplitude. Another option is to use an
automatic frequency tuner, which eliminates the need for operators to manually tune
through the frequency spectrum. This reduces human error by eliminating the chance of
missing significant vibration frequencies and it reduces the actual analysis time by
eliminating time spent on fine-tuning to each significant frequency. A list of additional
recommendations to follow when using this method is found below [2].
• Vibration readings are to be taken at the horizontal, vertical, and axial directions of
each bearing.
• Select the appropriate amplitude range setting on the vibration analyzer sufficient for
the maximum vibration signature in order to obtain data that is plotted on the same range.
• Select a single amplitude range setting sufficient for the entire analysis.
• Obtain an overall “filter out” amplitude and frequency reading (in each of the three
positions) at each bearing.
Real-Time Spectrum Analysis (the most commonly used method today)
This method is most effective when vibrations are not steady state, nor when the
vibrations are transient in nature [2]. The use of a real-time spectrum analyzer allows
operating and maintenance personnel to “capture” and analyze vibration signatures. Two
features available with real time analyzers are the HOLD and PEAK HOLD. The HOLD
control is operator-initiated when the transient frequency reaches it maximum amplitude.
This action stores the transient signal into the analyzer’s memory for future analysis. The
feature provides a means to “manually capture” the transient signal. This method will
work if the operator is fully aware of when the transient signal will occur and if the
transient signal occurs slow enough for the operator to depress the HOLD button. PEAK
HOLD is a feature that provides a method to capture and store a transient signal in
4-10
situations that do not meet those conditions required for the HOLD feature. For usage of
this feature, the operator must set the trigger level, which specifies the percentage of the
signal’s amplitude prior to the beginning of the process. The detection circuits will find
this criteria and automatically capture an incoming transient signal.
Time Wave Form Analysis
This analysis utilizes an oscilloscope to provide a time display of vibration amplitude [2].
The oscilloscope can be set up to receive signals from either the transducer or a real-time
spectrum analyzer. Either method is sufficient for the quick and easy vibrational
analysis. The data is not filtered, which provides a true measure of the maximum
amplitude present. Using an oscilloscope can also provide an excellent means for
observing and evaluating transient behavior of vibrational signals resulting from fan
pulsation or control problems.
Vibration Causes
Vibration is a common damage mechanism associated with fossil power plant fan units
and therefore must be addressed in any maintenance routine. Possible causes of vibration
are listed below so that extreme caution and proper preparation are taken into
consideration to help cease vibrational damage mechanisms [2].
• Improper balancing
• Insufficient blade shape similarity
• Resonance
• Loose components
• Too little / too much rotational part clearance
• Structural damage / Unsuitable Foundation
• Erosion, Corrosion, High/Low Cycle Fatigue, deposit buildup
• Damper Freezing
• Unsuitable ductwork design
• Improper operation of surrounding components, which creates an out-of-phase
harmonic excitation of the fan unit’s rotation
4-11
Balancing
Proper Balance is an important goal in fan units to prevent vibration damage mechanisms
that could possibly harm other power plant components [2]. Static and dynamic
balancing should be achieved during maintenance shutdown by running the fan at full
speed first with no flow and then at full flow. During operation, rotor imbalance often
causes vibration. The imbalance can result from fly-ash accumulation in eroded blades,
water, blade erosion, or uneven thermal growth of the wheel. The possibility of changes
in alignment or shifting foundations can not be discounted either. Diagnostic field testing
and on-line monitoring techniques should be utilized to make sure that proper balance is
maintained.
Cleanup
Two of the most important elements of any fan repair service are fan balancing and
proper cleanup. Although rotating equipment provides normal dangers, fans present an
additional hazard due to their ability to suck in not only air and gas, but also any loose
material that exists within the fan housing. The loose material is drawn in through the
fan unit, which poses the threat of structural damage. The structural damage may further
lead to catastrophic failure. Fan units also have the ability to discharge debris through
projectile motion, thus leading to environmental concern. To avoid these serious and
costly regimens it is important to conduct a full visual inspection in all ductwork so that
foreign material is removed prior to fan unit startup.
Dust Collection Devices

There are three primary types of dust collection devices that are used for the ash removal
from the flue gas prior to entering the stack [5]. These include mechanical collectors,
electrostatic precipitators, and bag filterhouses. Dust collection devices limit the
particulate buildup on fan units due to their ability to remove large percentages of fly ash
from the flue gases. They are important for the proper operation of fan units and must be
included in any maintenance routine.
Mechanical Collectors
Mechanical collectors use centrifugal, gravitational, and inertial forces to remove fly ash
from the circulating flue gas [5]. In industry, they are typically used to remove material
containing carbon, which is then readmitted into the boiler. This improves boiler
emissions as well as boiler efficiency.
Mechanical collectors utilize multi-tube units through the removal of fly ash via
centrifugal action. The gases spin through vanes between the inner and outer tubes and
then reverse their direction up through the inner tube and are released from the collector.
Centrifugal and gravitational force separates the dust particles, which fall through the
4-12
bottom of the collector and into the hopper. These collectors typically remove 92% of
the fly ash from the flue gases.
Electrostatic Precipitators
Approximately 80% of the ash that precipitates through a boiler is fly ash, of which
approximately 50% are less than 10 microns in size [5]. This requires the use of
electrostatic precipitators who can reliably remove 99.9% of the fly ash from the flue
gases.
Flue gas is distributed uniformly between the rows of grounded collecting plates and
discharge electrodes. Then a high-voltage dc current is introduced to ionize the dust
particles, which are then attracted to the grounded collecting plate. Periodically a
vibrational mechanism is induced to cause the collected dust particles to fall into the
hoppers.
Bag Filterhouses
Bag filterhouses are used to remove fly ash from flue gases and typically have
efficiencies slightly greater than 99.9% [5]. Baghouses are characterized by their means
of removing fly ash from the flue gas. For example, in reverse-air collectors air is forced
through the bags in the direction opposite to that of filtration following the removal of the
compartment containing the bags from service. Often, a mechanical shaker or pulse-jet
baghouses are used to remove the dust and dislodge fly ash into the hopper.
Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Equipment

Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) equipment was introduced in the utility industry in the
1970’s for the reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions [5]. As the emissions requirements
become less tolerant, FGD systems become an integral part of power plant operation.
Sulfur dioxide is a gas formed through the combustion process of air and fuel. The
majority of the sulfur is converted to SO2 and the remainder becoming SO3. The primary
ways to reduce pollutant discharge into the atmosphere are listed below [5].
• Wet scrubbers using lime or limestone
• Dry scrubbers
• Coal gasification
• Fluidized-bed combustion
• Reduction of the sulfur content in the fuel
4-13
Noise Control
Two principal sources of sound produced within a fan include blade passage tone, which
is generated by the impeller blades, and turbulence created by the fan while adding
energy to the air stream [3]. The intensity of the blade passage tone is dependent upon
the size (width of impeller) and the cutoff or stator vanes. The tone primarily radiates
from the inlet, outlet, or casing of a fan unit. The inlet and outlet sounds are
approximately on the same order of power, but that of the housing is quite lower. It is
important to note the sound paths and the corresponding power from each in an attempt
to produce noise reduction. One way to abate noise is to isolate it by enclosures, barriers,
etc. if no modification can be performed. Another way to abate noise is to find the source
and replace it with a less noisy one. Sometimes it is convenient for utilities to utilize both
methods.
Most common noises are at fairly high frequencies and are best contained with double
structures (porous glass fiber between inner steel and outer lead linings). The structure
must be leak tight further emphasizing that small leaks between panels and around
openings for supply pipes must be avoided. The sound-source must be isolated from the
wall to prevent vibration. Since the wall has a larger area, the noise may be worse than
the initial source. It is also important to realize that vibration mechanism and
maintenance checks are performed during all fan operational modes to limit the noise
amplitude.
Basic Maintenance
Maintenance checks associated with boiler fan units during the pre-start, operating, and
shutdown periods will be identified to retain standard power plant efficiencies as well as
safety precautions. A maintenance routine should be developed for each of the major
components that comprise the total fan unit in order to track reoccurring damage
mechanisms as well as to prevent them. Each utility plant should make a schedule of
repair for inspection, data acquisition, and repair of fan units on a regular basis. The cost
of replacing fan unit parts and downtime far exceeds that of a regular repair routine.
Therefore, it should be of extreme importance to incorporate this in power plant operating
procedures.
Pre-startup Checks
Summary of all parts [2]:
• Verify oil levels / sample oil

• Verify supporting system alignments
4-14
• Conduct equipment visual inspection walkdown / wipedown
Operational Checks
Major Components [2]:
Bearings
• Monitor / sample oil
• Monitor bearing temperature / vibration
• Verify operation of oil rings
• Conduct visual inspection of fasteners / peripheral equipment
• Wipe down bearing housing
• Relubricate moving parts
Couplings
• Unusual noise / vibration monitoring
• Check for seepage-grease / rubber-like dust
Dampers
• Inspect linkage assembly
• Verify correct operation
• Unusual noise / vibration monitoring
Water Cooling System

• Verify flow / adjust to maintain correct bearing operating temperature
• Check for water leakage / heat tracing
• Inspect hoses for wear indications
4-15
• Conduct visual inspection of fasteners / peripheral equipment
Fluid Drives
• Inspect for leaks / unusual noise / vibration / foundation fasteners
• Monitor hydraulic oil pressure / temperature
• Sample hydraulic oil
• Wipe down equipment
Actuators
• Monitor for unusual noise / vibration
• Verify that actuator position is tracking correctly with damper position indicator
• Check air connections / air piping for leaks
• Wipe down dirt / dust / grease buildup
• Monitor linkages for correct operation
• Inspect electrical conduit connections
Circulating Oil System

• Verify proper oil pressure / temperature / oil level in sump
• Check for alarm conditions
• Check for oil leakage
• Conduct inspection of fasteners / peripheral equipment
• Monitor for unusual noise / vibration
• Inspect lube oil quality
• Monitor differential pressure across filter elements
Instrumentation
• Inspect sensors for looseness / improper installation
4-16
• Verify that all electrical connections are in good working order

• Investigate all alarm conditions
Expansion Joints
• Inspect for cracks
• Check for fly-ash buildup / uneven expansion or contraction
Turning Gears
• Observe for unusual noise / vibration
• Inspect electric conduit connections
• Inspect worm gear reducer / clutch / flexible coupling for indications of leaking
lubricant
Structural Support System

• Inspect for cracks / foundation bolts for proper torque setting
• Wipe up excess dirt / oil
• Record corrosion development
Housing / Ducting
• Inspect housing / ducting / slide plates / foundations
Electric Motor
• Inspect lubrication / connections / bearing temperature
• Monitor for unusual noise / vibration / arcing / blue smoke
• Check prefilter for cleanliness
Hydraulic Blade Adjustment Regulating System
4-17
• Inspect for leakage / hoses for wear indications / hydraulic oil quality
• Verify proper hydraulic oil pressure / temperature
• Check for proper oil level
• Verify operation of indicator lights / respective equipment / pump / clean filter status
Out-of-Service Checks
Major Components [2]:
Bearings
• Sample / inspect lube oil
• If a satisfactory sample is obtained: Replenish oil to bearing sump
• If a satisfactory sample is not obtained:
Open and inspect bearing
Inspect babbitt surface for scoring
Check for babbitt tightness
Check sleeve bore inner diameter
Check shaft journal for ridges and grooves
Inspect thrust collars
Check clearance
Alignment checks
Clean and inspect journal to bearing surfaces
Inspect water and oil cavities for dirt, corrosion, etc.
Inspect oil rings
Inspect bearing housing / fasteners
Inspect sensor cavities
Replenish oil bearing sump
Develop material history file
4-18
• If indications of wear or damage are present:

Disassemble bearing
Inspect for damage / worn races, rollers, balls, etc.
Repair and repack with grease
• If indications of wear or damage are not present: Re-install bearing
Couplings
• Disassemble coupling
• Clean / inspect all internal components
• Check for cleanliness and any nicks / burs on the shafts
• Sample / test grease
• Ensure fasteners have the proper torque value
• Reassemble
• Lubricate
• Conduct alignment checks
Dampers
• Remove old grease
• Clean blades
• Visual inspection
• Disassemble damper bearings
• Inspect blade shafts
• Reassemble
• Test operate dampers
Water Cooling System

• Secure / isolate cooling water from bearing
• Inspect flexible hose / valve / piping
4-19
• Check heat tracing
Fluid Drives
• Overhaul fluid drive
• Check condition of foundation / alignment
• Inspect / clean flexible couplings
• Calibrate vibration / temperature sensors
• Inspect / overhaul oil supply pump
• Flush oil lines with clean hydraulic oil
Actuators
• Clean / paint actuator housing
• Open and inspect internal components of gear drive box
• Check continuity of drive motor / ground conductor for proper installation / material
condition
• Inspect limit switches / foundation / mounting base for cracking and looseness /
electric conduit connections for wear and damage
• Clean slide wire / positioner integral shutoff / equalizing valve assembly
• Calibrate
• Service rotary vane / positioner output valves
• Lubricate grease fittings
Circulating Oil System

• Calibrate / inspect instrumentation sensors
• Inspect water-cooled heat exchanger / pumps / electric components / fan and air-
cooled heat exchanger / filters / strainers
• Open / inspect sumps
• Inspect / clean exterior surfaces
• Prime / vent system components and lines
4-20
Instrumentation
• Calibrate / replace
• Sensor cavities
• Inspect all lines / cables
Expansion Joints
• Inspect expansion joints / fly-ash buildup
• Conduct cold checks
Turning Gears
• Inspect oil quality from worm gear reducer
• If turning gear is not idle for extended time: Overhaul worm gear / flexible coupling /
clutch assembly.
• If turning gear is idle for extended time: Conduct lay-up maintenance
Structural Support System

• Inspect for cracks / corrosion / anchor bolts
• Clean surface
Housing / Ducting
• Inspect and repair housing / ducting / foundations / slide plates
• Refurbish ductwork exterior
Electric Motor
• Drain / flush / relubricate bearings
• Inspect motor internals for oil leakage / electrical connections / all internal fasteners /
brushes / motor accessories / main power connections
• Open access doors and coverings
4-21
• Measure stator winding insulation resistance
Hydraulic Blade Adjustment Regulating System

• Inspect servo / regulating lever assembly
• Service hydraulic supply system
Centrifugal Fan Wheel

• Blade / centerplate / sideplate / shaft / hub inspections
• Clearance of rotating parts
• Conduct NDE techniques – examples: VT / PT / WFMT / MT / UT
• Fan wheel balancing
• Location and size of balancing weight
• Correct welding procedure
• Fly-ash buildup
• Damage mechanisms
Maintenance Actions to Conserve Energy

Table 4-1: General Maintenance Actions for Energy Conservation [2]
Maintenance Actions To Conserve Energy
Item Problem Comment

Couplings Out of alignment; Keep couplings properly aligned and lubricated to
lack of lubrication avoid friction losses
Seals Excessive wear; Seals that have excessive wear permit air/gas
improper installation stream leakage. Improper installation can cause
frictional losses.
Air/gas distribution Leakage System leaks increase the horsepower required.

ducts
fan housing
expansion joints
Dampers/vanes Improper setting or Improper setting or synchronization causes pressure

synchronization drop losses.
4-22
Variable speed drives Improper operation Verify that the variable speed drive has been "tuned"
to deliver the ordered output.
Sensors/instrumentation Incorrect readings An out-of-calibrated sensor may give erroneous

readings.
Electric motor Alignment; All problems listed increase horsepower required.

dirty filters; inadequate
lubrication of bearings
Lube oil Contaminated Clean lube oil means less friction losses.
Fan Wheel Excessive clearance Excessive clearance will cause recirculation to

between the rim of the develop; thereby increasing the HP requirements to
fan impeller and the deliver the required flow.
housing inlet code.
4-23
4-24
5
REFERENCES
1. Avelon, Eugene, Theodore Baumeister III, Marks’ Standard Handbook for

Mechanical Engineer’s, 10th Edition, McGraw Hill, Boston Massachusetts, 1996.
2. Operation and Maintenance Guidelines for Draft Fans. Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, CA: January 1993. TR-101698.
3. Singer, Joseph G., Combustion Fossil Power, Combustion Engineering, Inc,

Windsor, Connecticut, 1991.
4. Stultz, S.C, and J.B. Kitto, Steam and its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox,
Barberton, Ohio, 1992.
5. Woodruff, Everett B, et. al, Steam-Plant Operation, McGraw-Hill, Inc, New York,
1992.
6. ASTM V1.04 1995
7. Igor J. Karassick, William C. Krutzsch, Warren H. Fraser, and Joseph P. Messina,

Pump Handbook. Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, NY, 1986.
8. Manual of Bearing Failures and Repair in Power Plant Rotating Equipment. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: July 1991. GS-7352.
9. Bearing Technology Topics, Volume 2. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: February 2000. TR-
113059-V2.
10. Mechanical Draft and other Heavy Duty Fans. Buffalo Forge Company, Buffalo,
NY. Bulletin FD 906.
11. Industrial Radial Tip Fans. Chicago Fans, Chicago, IL. Bulletin IRT 102.
5-1
5-2
A APPENDIX
A-1
A-2
Company Name: American Electric Power
Material Type: High yield strength quenched and tempered alloy steel fan blades ASTM
A 514 Types A and G, M-11B
Process: SMAW
Filler Metal: 9018-M
Joint Design: Groove welds, pad welds and fillet welds
Position: Flat
Progression: Uphill
Preheat: 200 °F
Interpass Temperature: 400 °F (Max)
Post Heat: Not required
Weld Data:
* For Interpass Temperature: 400 °F
Filler Metal Electrical Data
Pass Process Size Class Type Amperage Volts Travel IPM

Root SMAW 1/8" E9018M DC 90-110 25 6 to 8
Rev.
Fill SMAW 1/8" E9018M DC 110-115 25 6 to 8
Rev.


Root SMAW 1/8" E9018M DC 90-100 25 4 to 8
Rev.
Fill SMAW 1/8" E9018M DC 110-120 25 4 to 8
Rev.
Technique: Stringer Bead, multipass, and single electrode

Base Metal: 1/16 to 2” Weld Max: 2”
Supporting Qualification (PQR): 247 & 248

Weld Procedure Number: Fan.1
A-3
Material Type: High strength alloy steel fan blades ASTM A 542 Classes 1 and 2, M-
11A, M-11B
Process: SMAW
Filler Metal: 9018-M
Position: Flat
Progression: Uphill
Preheat: 250 °F
Weld Data:

Root SMAW 1/8" E9018M DC 90-100 25 4 to 8
Rev.
Fill SMAW 1/8" E9018M DC 110-120 25 4 to 8
Rev.

Supporting Qualification (PQR): 248 & 251

A-4
Material Type: High strength-low alloy steel fan blade liners and centerplates ASTM A
441, M-1
Process: SMAW
Filler Metal: E7018
Position: Flat
Progression: Uphill
Preheat: 70 °F
150 °F for thickness over 3/4”
Weld Data:

Root SMAW 1/8" E7018 DC 90-100 25 4 to 8
Rev.
Fill SMAW 1/8" E7018 DC 110-120 25 4 to 8
Rev.

Supporting Qualification (PQR): 252

A-5
Company Name: Howden Fan
Material Type: ASTM A514 to 8620 Base Materials
Process: FCAW
Filler Metal: E90T5-K2
Gas: Shield: 75% Ar / 25% CO2 Trade Name: Praxair C25

Purge: None Flow Rate: 25 CFH
Cleaning (initial and interpass): Wire brush and grind before next bead deposition
Joint Preparation: All surfaces are to be free of oil, scale, paint, and other foreign
material for a minimum of 1” in all directions.
Joint Design: 60° Double Bevel – open butt
Position: Flat 1G
Progression: Backhand
Preheat: 150 °F
Interpass Temperature: 150 °F - 400 °F
Post Heat: 1075 °F for 2 hours
Weld Data:
Pass Process Size Class Type Amperage Volts Travel IPM Max. Bead Width
1-16 FCAW .045" E90T5-K2 DCEP 200-220 30-31 5 to 13 3/8"
Technique:
Single Arc – Multiple Pass
All fillet thicknesses
Stringer Bead
Supporting Qualification (PQR): FC-40

Weld Procedure Number: 00-11-FC-40 (1)
A-6

Material Type: ASTM A514 (P-11B)
Process: FCAW
Gas: Shield: 75% Ar / 25% CO2 Trade Name: C-25

Purge: None Flow Rate: 28 CFH
Joint Preparation: All surfaces are to be free of oil, rust, scale, paint, and other foreign
Joint Design: 45° Double Bevel
Position: Flat 1G
Preheat: 150 °F
Interpass Temperature: 250 °F - 300 °F
Post Heat: 950 °F for 1 hour
Weld Data:
1-8 FCAW 1/16 " E90T5-K2 DCEP 290-320 30-31 11 to 22.2 3/8"
Technique:
Stringer Bead
Supporting Qualification (PQR): 2K-18

A-7

Material Type: 8620 Base Material to ASTM A514
Process: FCAW
Gas: Shield: 75% Ar / 25% CO2 Trade Name: Praxair C25

Purge: None Flow Rate: 25 - 40 CFH
Joint Design: 60° Single Bevel – open butt
Position: Flat 1G
Preheat: See Additional Information

Interpass Temperature: 400 °F Max.
Post Heat: 1075 +/- 25°F (1 hour per inch)
Weld Data:
Root FCAW .045" E90T5-K2 DCEP 180-280 25-31 5 to 16 1/2"
Fill FCAW 1/16" E90T5-K2 DCEP 240-320 26-32 8 to 17 1/2"
Technique:
Stringer Bead
Additional Information:
Base Metal Thickness Minimum
(Thickest part only) Preheat Temperature
3/16" to 5/8” 150 F
5/8" to 1-1/4" 200 F
1-1/4" to 2” 250 F
Supporting Qualification (PQR): FC-40

A-8

Material Type: ASTM A514 (P-11B)
Process: FCAW
Gas: Shield: 75% Ar / 25% CO2 Trade Name: C-25

Purge: None Flow Rate: 25 - 40 CFH
Joint Preparation: All surfaces are to be free of oil, rust, scale, paint, and other foreign
Joint Design: 45° Single Bevel
Position: Flat 1G

Post Heat: 950 °F (1 hour minimum / inch of thickness)
Weld Data:
Root FCAW .045" E90T5-K2 DCRP 180-280 21-31 10 to 25 3/8"
Fill FCAW 1/16" E90T5-K2 DCRP 240-320 26-32 12 to 27 3/8"
Technique:
Stringer Bead
3/16" to 5/8” 150 F
5/8" to 1-1/2" 200 F
Supporting Qualification (PQR): 2K-18

A-9
Company Name: Howden Buffalo
Material Type: Welding of ASTM A514 Grade A to Grade A
Process: FCAW (Root) / SAW (Fill)
Filler Metal: E110T5-K2 (Root) / F11A4-EF5-F5 (Fill)
Gas: Shield: 75% Ar / 25% CO2 (Root) / N/A (Fill)

Trade Name: C-25 (Root) / Linde 709-5 (Fill)
Purge: None (Root) / N/A (Fill) Flow Rate: 35 CFH (Root) / N/A (Fill)
Joint Preparation: All surfaces are to be free of oil, moisture, scale, paint, and other
foreign material for a minimum of 1” in all directions.
Joint Design: Double Vee Groove
Position: Flat 1G
Progression: Flat
Preheat:150 °F Min.
Post Heat: 1075 for 4 hours
Weld Data:
Root FCAW .045" E110T5-K2 DCEP 200 30 14 3/8”
Fill SAW 5/32" F11A4-EF5-F5 DCEP 470 33 13 to 18 1"
Technique:
Stringer Bead

Weld Procedure Number: 11-11-SA-5 (1)
A-10
Company Name: Howden Buffalo

Material Type: Welding of ASTM A514 Grade A & E
Process: SAW
Filler Metal: F11A4-EF5-F5
Gas: Shield: N/A Trade Name: Linde 709-5

Purge: N/A Flow Rate: N/A
Joint Preparation: All surfaces are to be free of oil, moisture, scale, paint, and other
foreign material for a minimum of 1” in all directions.
Joint Design: Single Vee Groove
Position: Flat 1G
Progression: Head-Stationary

Interpass Temperature: 400 °F Max for base metal thickness of ½” and above.
350 °F Max for base metal thickness of ½” and below.
Post Heat: 1075 +/- 25°F (1 hour per inch thickness)
Weld Data:
3/16” to 1/2” SAW 5/32" F11A4-EF5-F5 DCEP 425-525 29-33 16 to 20 1-1/4"
1/2” to Max. SAW 5/32" F11A4-EF5-F5 DCEP 425-575 29-37 17 to 24 1-1/2"
1/2” to Max. SAW 1/8" F11A4-EF5-F5 DCEP 275-500 26-38 16 to 22 1-1/8"
Technique:
Single Arc – Multiple Pass, Stringer Bead
3/16" to 5/8” 150 F
5/8" to 1-1/4" 200 F
1-1/4" and above 250 F

Weld Procedure Number: 11-11-SA-5 (2)
A-11

Material Type: Welding of ASTM A514 Grade E
Process: SMAW
Filler Metal: E9018-M
Gas: Shield: N/A Trade Name: N/A

Cleaning (initial and interpass): Each pass of deposited metal thoroughly cleaned using
slag hammer grinding wheels, rotary burrs.
Joint Preparation: Surface and edges smooth, uniform, free from moisture, loose or
thick scale, slag, rust or grease within ½”.
Joint Design: Single Vee Groove – Open butt
Position: Flat 1G
Preheat: 150 °F Min.

Post Heat: 1075 +/- 25°F per 9.3
Weld Data:
1 thru Fill SMAW 1/8" E-9018-M DCRP 130 24 6 2X wire diameter
Technique:
Stringer Bead

Weld Procedure Number: 11-11-SM-18 (1)
Special Instructions: Gouge root to sound metal before welding second side.
A-12

Material Type: Welding of ASTM A514 Grade E
Process: SMAW
Filler Metal: E9018-M

Cleaning (initial and interpass): Each pass of deposited metal thoroughly cleaned using
slag hammer grinding wheels, rotary burrs.
Joint Preparation: Surface and edges smooth, uniform, free from moisture, loose or
thick scale, slag, rust or grease within ½”.
Joint Design: Single Vee Groove – Open butt
Position: Flat 1G - All fillets

Preheat: 150 °F Min.

Post Heat: 1075 +/- 25°F per 9.3 (1 hour per inch thickness)
Weld Data:
1 thru Fill SMAW 5/32" E-9018-M DCRP 120-190 20-28 6-12 2X wire diameter
Technique:
Multiple Arc – Single Pass
Stringer Bead

Weld Procedure Number: 11-11-SM-18 (2)
Special Instructions: Gouge root to sound metal before welding second side.
All tacks are to be preheated to specified temperature.
A-13
Company Name: Howden Sirocco

Material Type: Welding of ASTM A514 to itself or to ASTM A441
Process: SMAW (1st Layer - Half Bead and Buttered)
Filler Metal: E90-18M or E110-18M
For A514 or 517 steels, electrodes of any classification lower than E110XX shall be
baked at least one hour at a temperature 700-800 °F before being used. Electrode type
E110-18-M furnished in a hermetically sealed container without evidence of damage
shall not require baking. Electrodes must be placed in an oven maintained at 250-300 °F.
Remove from oven only when needed for welding applications. They must be used
within 30 minutes of their removal. Electrodes can not be placed back into the oven once
taken out and they must be either discarded or used.

Cleaning (initial and interpass): Wire brush and grind before next bead deposition.
Weld Area: Defects where the excavation does not extend more than 1/32” into base
material and the full fillet is still intact, should not be performed. Others
should be done by air-arc gouging and/or grinding and require welding.
Position: Flat 1G
Preheat: 200 °F Min.- should extend for at least 6” in all directions pass the repair area
Post Heat: 200-250 °F for 4 hours
Weld Data:

1 SMAW 3/32" E90-18M or 80-100 Maintain a short arc >6
E110-18M
2 - Fill SMAW 1/8" E90-18M or 110-140 Length to limit voltage >6
E110-18M
Technique:
Stringer Bead
Weld Procedure Number: H.S.R.-1
A-14
Company Name: Howden Sirocco

Material Type: Welding of ASTM A441 to itself or to any lower strength base material.
Process: SMAW
Filler Metal: E-7018, E-7028, E-7016, or E-7015
Electrodes must be placed in an oven maintained at 250-300 °F. Remove from oven only
when needed for welding applications. They must be used within 30 minutes of their
removal. Electrodes can not be placed back into the oven once they have been taken out
and they must be either discarded or used.

Position: Flat 1G
Preheat: 150 °F Min.- should extend for at least 6” in all directions pass the repair area
Post Heat: 150-200 °F for 4 hours
Weld Data:

1 SMAW 3/32" E90-18M or 70-100 Maintain a short arc >6
E110-18M
2 - Fill SMAW 1/8" E90-18M or 105-140 Length to limit voltage >6
E110-18M
Technique:
Stringer Bead
Weld Procedure Number: H.S.R.-2
A-15

Material Type: Welding of ASTM A514 to itself or to ASTM A588
Process: SMAW (1st Layer - Half Bead and Buttered)
Filler Metal: E7018M
Electrodes must be placed in an oven maintained at 250-300 °F. Remove from oven only
when needed for welding applications. They must be used within 30 minutes of their
removal. Electrodes can not be placed back into the oven once taken out and they must
be either discarded or used.

Position: Flat 1G
Preheat: 200-250 °F and should extend for at least 6” in all directions pass the repair.
Post Heat: Control the cooling of the weld repair when the ambient temperature is below
50 °F to avoid a quenching condition.
Weld Data:
Pass Process Size Class Type Amperage Volts Travel

IPM
1 SMAW 3/32" E7018M 80-100 Maintain a short arc > 7
2 - Fill SMAW 1/8" E7018M 110-140 Length to limit >7
voltage
Technique:
Stringer Bead
Weld Procedure Number: HCS-2a
A-16
Company Name: Louisiana Power & Light

Material Type: Materials with carbon equivalent less than 0.4
Process: SMAW
Filler Metal: E 7018 only
Cleaning (initial and interpass): Wire brush and grind as required
Joint Design: Single V, U, Double V, U: grooves and fillets
Position: Flat and Horizontal

Progression: N/A

Post Heat: None
Weld Data:
Filler Metal Gas/Flux Electrical Data
Pass Process Size Class Classification Type Amperage Volts Travel IPM Max. Bead Width
Root SMAW 3/32" E7018 Low Hydrogen DC 90-110 24-26 4 to 8 1/8"
Rev.
Balance SMAW 1/8" E7018 Low Hydrogen DC 90-110 24-26 4 to 8 1/8"
Rev.
Technique: Thickness range: 3/16” to 3/4”

Single Arc – Multiple Pass Diameter range: All fillet thicknesses
Supporting Qualification (PQR): F.D-3-Q and F.D-4-Q

Weld Procedure Number: F.D-1
Up to 1/4" 100 F
1/4" to 3/4" 150 F
3/4" to 1-1/4" 200 F
1-1/4" to 1-3/4" 250 F
Special Instructions: Use temperbead and butterbead techniques
A-17

Material Type: Materials with carbon equivalent 0.4 to 0.5
Process: SMAW

Progression: N/A

Post Heat: None
Weld Data:
Rev.
Rev.

Supporting Qualification (PQR): F.D-1-Q, F.D-2-Q, F.D-5-Q, and F.D-6-Q

Up to 1/4" 150 F
1/4" to 3/4" 200 F
3/4" to 1-1/4" 250 F
1-1/4" to 1-3/4" 300 F
A-18

Material Type: Materials with carbon equivalent 0.5 to 0.6
Process: SMAW

Progression: N/A

Post Heat: None
Weld Data:
Rev.
Rev.

Supporting Qualification (PQR): F.D-1Q, F.D-2Q, F.D-5Q, and F.D-6Q

Up to 1/4" 200 F
1/4" to 3/4" 250 F
3/4" to 1-1/4" 300 F
1-1/4" to 1-3/4" 350 F
A-19
Company Name: Nipsco

Base Material: P11B Quenched & Tempered High Strength, Low Alloy Steel
Thickness: 1-1/2” Max.
Process: SMAW - Temperbead

Electrodes: E11018-M, Max. diameter 3/32”
Cleaning: Needle guns, air-chipping hammers, wire brush
Joint Preparation: Carbide burr grinder
Position: Flat or Horizontal
Preheat: Min. 200 °F

Interpass Temperature: Max. 400 °F
Weld Data: Heat input shall be limited to 60,000 Joules per inch of weld
Minimum draft-free ambient temperature for welding shall be 50 °F
Technique: Stringer beads only
Weld Procedure Number: CA-WR-2000-001 Rev.0
A-20
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Fan Repair Guideline

EPRI Project Manager

NOTICE: THIS REPORT CONTAINS PROPRIETARY INFORMATION THAT IS THE

1 FAN UNIT BACKGROUND...................................................................................... 1-1

Types of Shafts ............................................................................................... 3-26

Cleanup ................................................................................................................ 4-12

Fig. 1-1: Airfoil-blade centrifugal fan with inlet-vane control [3]...................................1-2

Fig. 1-1: Airfoil-blade centrifugal fan with inlet-vane control [3]

Fig. 1-3: Centrifugal (radial) fan blade types [3]

Fig. 1-4: Close-up of adjustable airfoil blading of an axial-flow fan [3]

Fig. 1-6: Louver Damper [4]

Types of Power Plant Fans

• Fly ash mass flow rate / Ash load

In a more detailed description of erosion, an examination of how the damage mechanism

• Steam coil heaters

Low / High Cycle Fatigue

• Welding Procedures and Guidelines

Field Welding Procedures and Guidelines

Code Required Inspections

Damage Analysis and Repair Option Evaluation

Surface and Weld Preparation Issues

Essential Welding Variables

A283 A - (a)(b)(c) 1 1 .37 A A A A A A

A514 H - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D H T-1 type B

A514 J - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D J RQ100A

A514 K - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D K Algoma (CHT)

A514 M - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D M RQ100B

A514 R - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D ______

A514 S - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D ______

A514 T - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D RQ 100b

A517 C - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D Jalloy100*

A517 F - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D T-1(1204)

A517 H - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D T-1 type B

A517 J - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D RQ100A

A517 K - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D Algoma (CHT)

A517 M - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D RQ100B

A517 S - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D ______

A517 T - (a)(b)(c) 11B 11B D D D D D RQ 100b

Fan Blade Repair

Table 3-3: Typical Industrial Applications for Heavy-Duty Fan Blades

Fig. 3-3: Fan rotor blades with heavy erosion [3]

Table 3-3: Typical Blade Materials [6]

* Similar to A514 but with specified impact testing

Note: A588 & A242 are essentially the same steel.

Fig. 3-4: Blade Alloys

Fig. 3-5: Blade Repair Flow Chart

Centerplate / Sideplate Repair

Types of Centerplates / Sideplates

Fig. 3-6: Centerplate / Sideplate Locations [10]

Centerplate / Sideplate Damage

Typical damage mechanisms are listed below:

warping, cracking, or costly structural damage. An inspection routine encompassing both

Table 3-4: Centerplate and Sideplate Materials [6]

Centerplate / Sideplate Repairs

• Excavate base material where cracks or other discontinuities exist until

• Perform a WFMT examination on the excavated area to be repaired to

• For repairs of cavities, a buttering layer of weld filler metal should be

• After welding and removal of the additional temperbead layer, perform a

welding procedure specification for either a 3xx or 4xx alloys is used

Stainless Steel Sideplates and Centerplates

• Austenitic stainless steel base materials should be excavated, inspected,

Fig. 3-7: Hub location in a fan unit [10]

The following is a list of common hub failures experienced in fan units.