Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889
DOI 10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Environmental effects of river sand mining: a case from the river
catchments of Vembanad lake, Southwest coast of India
D. Padmalal Æ K. Maya Æ S. Sreebha Æ R. Sreeja
Received: 26 December 2006 / Revised: 30 May 2007 / Accepted: 11 June 2007 / Published online: 30 June 2007

Springer-Verlag 2007
Abstract Rivers in the southwest coast of India are under
immense pressure due to various kinds of human activities
among which indiscriminate extraction of construction
grade sand is the most disastrous one. The situation is ra-
ther alarming in the rivers draining the Vembanad lake
catchments as the area hosts one of the fast developing
urban-cum-industrial centre, the Kochi city, otherwise
called the Queen of Arabian Sea. The Vembanad lake
catchments are drained by seven rivers whose length varies
between 78 and 244 km and catchment area between 847
and 5,398 km2. On an average, 11.73 million ty–1 of sand
and gravel are being extracted from the active channels and
0.414 million ty–1 of sand from the river floodplains. The
quantity of instream mining is about 40 times the higher
than the sand input estimated in the gauging stations. As a
result of indiscriminate sand mining, the riverbed in the
storage zone is getting lowered at a rate of 7–15 cm y–1
over the past two decades. This, in turn, imposes severe
damages to the physical and biological environments of
these river systems. The present paper deals with the
environmental effects of indiscriminate sand mining from
the small catchment rivers in the southwest coast of India,
taking the case of the rivers draining the Vembanad lake
catchments as an example.
Keywords River sand mining
Riverbed lowering

Vembanad lake catchments
Southwest India
D. Padmalal (&)
K. Maya
S. Sreebha
R. Sreeja
Environmental Sciences Division,
Centre for Earth Science Studies,
Thiruvananthapuram 695031, Kerala, India
e-mail: drpadmalal@yahoo.com
Introduction
Rivers are the most important life supporting systems of
nature. For centuries, humans have been enjoying the
natural benefits provided by rivers without understanding
much on how the river ecosystem functions and maintains
its vitality (Naiman 1992; Naiman and Bilby 1998). Man
has changed the nature of many of the world’s rivers by
controlling their floods, constructing large impoundments
(Ittekkot and Lanne 1991), overexploitation of living and
non-living resources (Macfarlane and Mitchell 2003; Ki-
tetu and Rowan 1997) and using rivers for disposal of
wastes (Haslam 1990). Among these, indiscriminate
extraction of non-living resources like sand and gravel
from riverbed is the most disastrous as this activity
threatens the very existence of the river ecosystem (Kon-
dolf 1994; Poulin et al. 1994). A review of literature re-
veals that indiscriminate extraction of river sand and gravel
many folds higher than natural replenishments can impart
serious offsite and onsite impacts. This ultimately leads to
changes in channel form, physical habitats and food webs
(Starnes 1983; Rivier and Seguier 1985; Thomas 1985;
Sandecki 1989; Kitetu and Rowan 1997), engineering
structures associated with river channels (Bull and Scott
1974; Harvey and Smith 1998) and inland sediment supply
to coastal and nearshore environments (Jenkins et al. 1988;
Gaillot and Piegay 1999). As these adverse effects become
increasingly recognised and understood, instream sand
mining/aggregate extraction has recognised increasing
scientific scrutiny (Bates 1992; Collins 1995; Norman et al.
1998; Kondolf et al. 2002). Although more focussed re-
searches leading to restoration of river environments are
progressing in many developed countries (Tompkins and
Kondolf 2003; Kondolf 2006; Kondolf et al. 2006), much
attention has not been made in the rest of the world.
123
880
Here we report the environmental effects of river
sand mining from the small rivers (catchment area
< 10,000 km2; Milliman and Syvitski 1992) debouching
into the largest marginal lagoon, in the southwest coast of
India, the Vembanad lake. These rivers are being subjected
to indiscriminate sand extraction over the past 3–4 decades
consequent to economic development, rise in foreign
remittance and liberalised housing schemes from banking
sector for building constructions since early 1970s. Studies
(Padmalal and Arun 1998; Padmalal et al. 2006) reveal that
sand mining is taking place many folds higher than natural
replenishments, which, in turn, led to severe environmental
degradation and ecological disorders. Reduction in sedi-
ment supply from upstream reaches and erosion of its own
channel during high flow regimes of monsoon season are
common in many rivers in the southwest coast. This has led
to channel incision and undermining of engineering struc-
tures like bridges, side protection walls, water intake
structures constructed for rural water supplies, etc. Lack of
sufficient information regarding the negative effects of
sand mining is a major set back for laying strategies for the
conservation and management of the small catchment
rivers of the region. Considering the importance of scien-
tific assessments on the extent of environmental degrada-
tion consequent to indiscriminate sand mining, an attempt
has been made in this paper to address a few aspects about
the impacts of sand mining on the physical and biological
environments of Kerala rivers in the southwest coast of
India, taking the river catchments of Vembanad lake as an
example.
Geology and environmental setting
The Vembanad lake, the largest coastal lagoon (~250 km2)
in the west coast of India, and its catchments cover an area
of about 14,500 km2. The entire area lies between North
latitudes 90¢–1035¢ and East longitudes 7605¢–7725¢
(Fig. 1). The lake catchment is drained by seven small
rivers (i.e. rivers with catchment area <10,000 km2; Mil-
liman and Syvitski 1992) viz., Chalakudy, Periyar, Mu-
vattupuzha, Meenachil, Manimala, Pamba and Achankovil
rivers. These rivers originate from the Western Ghat
mountains and flow generally westwards before debou-
ching into the Vembanad lake.
Physiographically, the study area can be divided into 3
distinct zones—the highlands (>75 m above msl), mid-
lands (8–75 m) and the lowlands (<8 m); (CESS 1984).
The total population of the area as per 2001 census is about
10 million and population density about 690 inh km–2. The
major rock types in the area are: (1) Precambrian crystal-
lines, (2) Tertiary sedimentaries and (3) Recent to Sub-
123
Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889
Recent sediments. The Precambrian crystallines cover
about 85% of the study area and composed mainly of
charnockites, khondalites, garnet-biotite gneisses and
hornblende gneisses (GSI 1995). The Tertiary sedimen-
taries are represented by Quilon and Warkalli Formations.
While the former (i.e. the Quilon Formation) is composed
of limestones, sandstones and claystones, the latter is
formed of sandstones and claystones with intercalations of
lignite seams. The Precambrian crystallines and the Ter-
tiary sedimentaries are lateritised at many places in the
midlands. Recent to Sub-Recent sediments of Late Qua-
ternary age, represented by coastal sands and alluvium, are
confined to the lowlands and parts of midlands (Padmalal
et al. 1997). The area experiences a tropical humid climate
with an average annual rainfall of about 3,300 mm. Of the
total rainfall, southwest monsoon (June–September) con-
tributes about 75% and the remaining by northeast mon-
soon (October–December) and summer showers. The
temperature varies from 20 to 39C. Humidity is high
(>80%) during monsoon period.
Rivers in the Vembanad lake catchments
Table 1 shows the characteristic features of the Ach-
ankovil, Pamba, Manimala, Meenachil, Muvattupuzha,
Periyar and Chalakudy rivers draining the Vembanad lake
catchments. The headwater elevation of these rivers var-
ies between 700 and 1,830 m with respect to mean sea
level. These small, mountainous rivers (Milliman and
Syvitski 1992), except the Achankovil, which is an up-
land river, enfold alluvial deposits rich in construction
grade sand and gravel in its lowlands and midlands. The
highlands, which act as the main production zone for
sediments, are generally under dense forests and/or forest
plantations. A substantial proportion of the sediments
derived from the uplands is being trapped in the reser-
voirs constructed for irrigation and hydroelectric power
generation. The channel width of the mainstream that
holds thick sand beds in the active channel ranges from
100 to 500 m. These rivers generally exhibit higher
meandering index in the midlands than the other two
physiographic zones. The alluvial reaches exhibit a vari-
ety of roughness configurations that vary with slope and
position within the channel network. The entire alluvial
reaches of these rivers can be categorised into three dis-
tinct morphological classes towards downstream—plane
bed reach, pool riffle reach and dune ripple reach. The
content of gravel and sand exhibits marked changes over
these morphological classes—the former (i.e. gravel) de-
creases in percent contents, while the latter exhibits a
marked increase downstream.
Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889
Fig. 1 Study area showing
Vembanad lake and river
catchments
Methodology
The study includes extensive field survey in the entire
channel networks of the Vembanad lake catchments for:
(1) mapping locations of river sand mining and storing
centres, reaches of river degradation, locations of damaged
engineering structures like side walls, bridges, spillways
and water intake structures, etc., and (2) collection of pri-
mary and secondary data on mining operations, quantity of
sand and gravel extracted from each locations and infor-
mation on biological resources of the respective rivers. The
current extraction of sand from the river stretches falling
within each river basin was estimated from number counts
and select weighing of the loaded vehicles moving out the
mining locations during the period of sand extraction,
interviews with local people and labourers, secondary
information available with the district and local adminis-
tration etc using standard formats (Gilpin 1995). The
information on the discharge of sand and riverbed lowering
was collected from the river gauging stations of the Central
Water Commission (CWC), Government of India. The data
collected through the major ongoing research programmes
of Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS) and Centre
for Water Resource Development and Management
(CWRDM), Department of Mining and Geology, Govern-
ment of Kerala, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
like Pampa Parirakhshana Samithi (PPS), All Kerala River
881
Protection Council (AKRPC), etc., were the other sources
of information for the present study. The data analysis and
interpretations were done following the published works of
Kondolf et al. (2002), Kitetu and Rowan (1997) and Weeks
et al. (2003).
River sand mining
River sediments comprise a spectrum of particle sizes such
as boulders, cobbles, pebbles, granules, sand, silt and clay.
In general, coarser particles concentrate in the low order,
high gradient streams and finer particles progressively de-
posit towards the downstream because of reduction in shear
stress and improved sediment sorting (Kondolf 1994).
Three sediment delivery processes are recognised, (1) mass
wasting on hill slope, (2) hill slope erosion and (3) erosion
of channel bed and banks (Collins and Dunne 1990). Mass
wasting includes landslides and soil creep, and occurs
when gravity alone moves soil to the river channels. Hill
slope erosion occurs when precipitation intensity exceeds
the absorption capacity of soil and generates overland flow.
In relatively undisturbed river systems at its mature phase,
gradual erosion of outside bends of meanders and deposi-
tion of eroded materials on inside bends cause an imper-
ceptible shifting of channel within its floodplain. This form
of stability is called dynamic equilibrium (Heede 1986).
123
 882

123
Table 1 Salient features of the rivers draining the Vembanad lake catchments
River River length (km)/ Headwater elevation Features of alluvial reach Remarks
Basin area (km2) (m)/River typea
Length (km)/ Sinuosity
Width (m) index

Achankovil 128/1,484 700/upland 108/100 1.50 Major tributaries of the river are Kallar, Chittar, Pallikondan Ar and Tuval thodu. The
river hosts a 16 m waterfalls in the Tuval thodu at Palakappara
Pamba 176/2,235 1,650/mountainous 140 /150 1.44 Kakki Ar and Kakkad Ar are the major tributaries. The two reservoirs in the basin are
the Kakki and Pamba reservoirs. The basin hosts many water falls and the important
one being falls at Perunthenaruvi. The sandy riverbed at Cherukol and Maramon are
used for holding annual religious congregations
Manimala 90/847 1,156/mountainous 77/100 1.51 Kokkayar, Para thodu, Kanjirapally thodu, Pullaga Ar, Chemban thodu, Elakkal thodu,
Papan thodu and Kuvani thodu are the major tributaries. River hosts a 60 m and 8 m
waterfalls in its tributaries. The riverbed at several places is used for holding annual
religious congregations
Meenachil 78/1,272 1,097/mountainous 49/110 1.38 Important tributaries are Kalathukadavu Ar, Tikovil Ar, Chittar Ar and Kala Ar. The
river hosts three waterfalls in its tributaries
Muvattupuzha 121/1,554 1,094/mountainous 46/165 1.71 Thodupuzha Ar, Kothamangalam Ar and Kaliyar are the major tributaries of the river.
The river hosts a reservoir at Malankara. The tail race water of the Idukki hydro-
electric project of Periyar river is diverted through the Thodupuzha tributary
Periyar 244/5,398 1,830/mountainous 148/500 1.47 Major tributaries of Periyar river are Pooyamkutty Ar, Idamala Ar, Muthirapuzha Ar,
Perinjankutty Ar and Mangalapuzha Ar. The basin hosts ten reservoirs in its
upstream. Important waterfall is at Kokkaranipara. The river bed at Kalady and
Aluva are used for holding annual religious congregations
Chalakudy 130/1,704 1,250/mountainous 78/140 1.47 Parambikulam Ar, Sholayar, Kuriarkutty Ar, Karappara Ar and Anakkayam Ar are the
tributaries. The river basin hosts 5 reservoirs. Several waterfalls are in the upstream
area of the river of which Athirapalli falls of 45 m is a major attraction
a
Headwater elevation is measured from mean sea level; River type is identified following the scheme of Milliman and Syvitsky (1992)
Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889
Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889
Although river flows and sediment loads are variable
within and among years, sediment balance and channel
stability occur over long term. Instabilities introduced by
human activities like deforestation, sand and gravel mining
and other activities, and by natural processes like extreme
precipitation, forest fires and other events can cause
channel bed and banks to become net sources of sediment.
River sand and gravel are mined extensively from the
drainage networks of the Vembanad lake catchments,
irrespective of the physiographic zones, river orders and
ecological significance. However, the intensity of mining is
high in the alluvial reaches of the main channels. In
addition to mining of sand and gravel from active channels
(instream mining), a substantial amount of sand is also
being extracted from the overbank areas (floodplain min-
ing) of the river as well. Generally, two types of instream
mining are in practice in the area—pit excavation and bar
skimming. Pit excavation is extraction of sand and gravel
from the riverbed or floodplain areas by uncontrolled dig-
ging. In some cases, diesel powered suction pumps are
used to extract sand rich sediments from wet pits in the
active channels and floodplains. Bar skimming, on the
other hand, is the controlled extraction of sand from
the exposed sand bars (instream bars and point bars) in the
channel environment. Usually, bar skimming would be
done above the water table and within a minimum width
buffer that separates the excavation site from the low flow
channel and the adjacent active channel bank. Of the two
types, pit excavation is the widespread sand mining method
adopted in the alluvial reaches of the rivers in the Vem-
banad lake catchments.
Table 2 shows the estimated quantity of sand extraction
from various rivers of the study area. It is revealed that an
amount of 11.73 million tonnes of sand and gravel are
being extracted annually from the active channels of these
rivers. Out of the total quantity of sand extraction, nearly
half the amount (i.e. 5.64 million tonnes) is from the
Periyar river, which flows through the most urbanized and
industrialized areas of the Vembanad lake basin, the Kochi
city. Although small in river length and catchment area
compared to Periyar river (244 km/5,398 km2), the river
Muvattupuzha (121 km/1,554 km2) is also affected se-
verely by sand extraction (2.00 million ty–1), owing to its
proximity to the development centre, the Kochi city and its
satellite townships. The sand extraction in the other rivers
are of the order Manimala > Achankovil > Chal-
akudy > Pamba > Meenachil (see Table 2). Spatial analy-
sis reveals that about 75% of the extracted sand is from the
midlands, which cover only 30% of the entire study area.
The highlands and lowlands account for almost equal
amount of sand extraction (Table 2), although the former
covers a greater portion of the study area (60%) than the
latter (10%). The sand harvesting (mining) centres are also
883
higher in numbers in midlands (523) than highlands (309)
and lowlands (171). A total of about 22,300 registered
labourers are employed in instream mining sector and the
number of indirect workers depending on the quarried
sand, especially in the construction sector, would be over a
lakh. In some places, sand mining is even clubbed with
extraction of subfossil logs embedded within alluvial sand
deposits (Fig. 2). These subfossil logs that are segregated
in the Early Holocene higher sea levels (Kumaran and Nair
2005) are used as firewood in the brick kilns of the nearby
areas. An apparent assessment of the quantity of sand
extraction with respect to the available sand input data
reveals that sand mining in the river reaches down to the
gauging stations is of the order of 40 times higher than the
sand input recorded at the gauging stations of the respec-
tive rivers (Table 3). The natural replenishment is very
meagre as the river catchments are occupied mainly by
Precambrian crystallines. Further, a substantial part of sand
originated from natural crustal weathering will be detained
within the reservoirs constructed in the uplands for irriga-
tion and hydropower generation (see Fig. 1). According to
Nair and Padmalal (2006) whatever sand reaches in the
alluvial zones are derived from erosion/slumping of early–
middle Holocene sand layers interbedded within the river
banks of the midlands and lowlands.
River degradation, damage to agricultural lands close to
river channel, etc., led to agitation among the local people
who directly depend on rivers for various purposes. Peo-
ple’s opposition and strict regulation of instream sand
mining often lead to mining of sand from floodplains and/
or river terraces. Floodplain mining is severe in the low-
lands of Muvattupuzha river basin compared to the others.
It is estimated that an amount of 0.414 million ty–1 of sand
and gravel is being mined annually from the floodplain
areas of the seven rivers subjected to the present study
(Table 4). The number of pits and labour force in the
floodplain-mining sector are 137 and 600, respectively.
Effects of instream sand mining
River basins have long been exploited as sources of fine
aggregates for building constructions. Depending on the
geologic and geomorphic setting, river sand mining can
impose serious environmental consequences in the long run
(UNEP 1990). The cumulative effects of uncontrolled sand
mining have substantially altered the physical, chemical
and biological environments of the small southwest Indian
rivers. Table 5 shows some of the general impacts of river
sand mining noticed in the river catchments of Vembanad
lake. Degradation of rivers is severe in the alluvial reaches
of the midlands and lowlands compared to the production
zones in the highlands. In some cases, the riverbank itself is
123
884 Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889

Table 2 Sand mining and other relevant details of the rivers draining the Vembanad lake catchments with respect to different physiographic
zones
Physiographic Rivers/River Sand extraction No. of sand No. of local bodies Labour
zone/unit total (·106 ty–1) mining locations engaged in sand mining force

Lowland (<8 m amsl) Chalakudy 0.15 7 2 300

Periyar 0.49 45 6 1,510
Muvattupuzha 0.44 69 4 1,323
Meenachil 0.03 6 1 80
Manimala 0.11 14 4 332
Pamba 0.15 23 4 505
Achankovil 0.09 7 2 410
Total 1.46 171 23 4,460
Midland (8–75 m amsl) Chalakudy 0.79 40 8 1,263
Periyar 4.45 85 10 5,035
Muvattupuzha 1.46 168 26 3,367
Meenachil 0.15 35 8 699
Manimala 0.91 127 11 1,652
Pamba 0.38 18 8 746
Achankovil 0.69 50 12 1,212
Total 8.83 523 83 13,974
Highland (>75 m amsl) Chalakudy – – – –
Periyar 0.70 195 21 1,970
Muvattupuzha 0.10 24 5 275
Meenachil 0.04 23 3 120
Manimala 0.08 32 5 374
Pamba 0.33 25 10 725
Achankovil 0.19 10 3 409
Total 1.44 309 47 3,873
River basins Chalakudy 0.94 47 10 1,563
Periyar 5.64 325 37 8,515
Muvattupuzha 2.00 261 35 4,965
Meenachil 0.22 64 12 899
Manimala 1.10 173 20 2,358
Pamba 0.86 66 22 1,976
Achankovil 0.97 67 17 2,031
Total 11.73 1,003 153 22,307

being scooped out first for brick earths and then the
intervening sand layers for fine aggregates.
It is now well understood that indiscriminate sand
mining well above the natural replenishments could lead to
serious environmental problems in the river basins. Of the
two types of sand mining from the active channels de-
scribed earlier, pit excavation is the most dangerous than
bar skimming. Excavation of mining pits in the active
channel of the alluvial reaches lowers the streambed, cre-
ating knick points. The knick point could locally steepen
the channel slope, which in turn increases the flow energy.
During high flows of the monsoon season, knick point
becomes a location of bed erosion and gradually moves
upstream through head cutting (Garde and Raju 1985;
Collins and Dunne 1989; Kondolf 1994). This process
could mobilize a substantial quantity of streambed sedi-
ments that are then transported downstream and ultimately
deposited in the excavated area. In some cases, the head-
cuts moves long distances upstream and often spreads into
even the tributary channels (Hartfield 1993; Kondolf 1997).
Merging of the adjacent pits during monsoon season could
lower the streambed faster imposing instability to the riv-
erbanks and riparian vegetation. The sediment-laden water
passing downstream leaves coarser sediments like gravel
and sand in these pits and thereby carries only sediments
much less than its capacity. Thus, the hungry water leaving
the pit may erode the downstream reaches with aggression,
ultimately ending up in the degradation of the entire river

123
Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889 885

Water Commission located in the storage zones of these

Fig. 2 Combined mining of subfossil logs and river sand: a scene
from the Muvattupuzha river
channels. A similar kind of process in the Cheny creek in
USA, degraded the river stretch, ultimately lowering the
stream bed as much as 4.9 m from the original bed level
(Lane 1955). It is reported that pit excavation in the active
channel of a Russian river near Healdsburg, California in
1950s and 1960s caused channel incision in excess of 3 m
over a 11 km length of river, with a maximum incision of
6 m (Collins and Dunne 1990; Kondolf 1997). A similar
effect occurs below dams, which trap sediment and release
hungry water downstream where channel incision usually
ensues; instream sand excavation below dams compounds
this problem (Kondolf and Swanson 1993; Kondolf and
Larson 1995).
All the seven rivers draining the Vembanad lake
catchments are degrading severely since 1980 consequent
to indiscriminate mining of construction grade sand from
instream and floodplain areas. As a result, the channel beds
in the storage zones of these rivers are lowering fast posing
instability problems to riverbanks and associated engi-
neering structures. Table 6 shows the rate of channel bed
lowering recorded by the gauging stations of the Central
rivers. Among the seven rivers, the Periyar river draining
the most industrialised and urbanised area of Kerala state,
the Kochi city, records the highest bed lowering value of
19 cm year–1. Furthermore, the rate of bed lowering
exhibits a marked increase in the last 2–3 decades (Table 6;
Fig. 3). Contrary to Periyar, the Achankovil river draining
the southern part of the study area exhibits a reverse trend
with a marked decrease in bed lowering during 1985–2000
period. This is because, the channel bed at the gauging
station of Achankovil river can no longer respond to sand
mining as the channel here has already touched the crys-
talline basement rocks. The rate of channel bed lowering in
the other rivers exhibits wide fluctuation during the mon-
itoring periods because of interventions of Honourable
Court and Government from time to time. Although such
interventions could yield positive results for short-term
periods (which in turn reflected well in the slow pace of
channel bed lowering at certain periods) the efforts could
not sustain long due to the ever increasing demands of river
sand for construction works. The riverbed lowering and
channel degradation have damaged many bridges, rural
water supply schemes and side protection structures in
addition to imposing habitat changes through riparian and
instream vegetation (Fig. 4). Many perennial wells in the
floodplain areas became dried up in summer season due to
lowering of water table in the nearby areas of the river
channel.
Apart from the above changes in the physical environ-
ment and damages to engineering structures, indiscriminate
sand mining could also impose drastic changes in the
biodiversity of aquatic fauna and flora. According to Kurup
et al. (2005), the physical habitat variables play a leading
role in the distribution of many fish species of Pamba,
Periyar and Chalakudy rivers. The study revealed that the
habitat alteration consequent to indiscriminate sand mining
contribute significantly to the endangerment of fishes like
Labeo dussumieri, Puntius denisonii, Batasio travancoria,
Horabagrus nigricollaris and Lepidopygopsis typus. In

Table 3 Quantity of river sand mining with respect to the sand discharge estimate of the gauging station
River Location of River length down the Total sediment Total sand discharge Sand mining below the
gauging station gauging station (km) discharge (·106ty–1) (·106ty–1) gauging station (·106ty–1)

Chalakudy Arangali 27 0.05 0.01 0.56

Periyar Neeleeswaram 50 0.37 0.08 4.00
Muvattupuzha Ramamangalam 35 0.17 0.02 1.09
Meenachil Kidangoor 24 0.03 0.01 0.08
Manimala Kallooppara 20 0.09 0.02 0.17
Pamba Malakkara 27 0.10 0.03 0.18
Achankovil Thumpamon 38 0.09 0.01 0.49
Sources CWC, Kochi and CESS, Thiruvananthapuram

123
886 Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889

Table 4 Estimated quantity of

Sl. no. River basin No. of mines/ Quantity of sand No. of
floodplain mining in the rivers
wet pits mining (·106 ty–1) labourers
joining the Vembanad lake
1. Achankovil, Pamba and Manimala 9 0.048 40
2. Meenachil 7 0.024 30
3. Muvattupuzha 116 0.320 500
4. Periyar 2 0.006 12
5. Chalakudy 3 0.016 18
Total 137 0.414 600

Table 5 Impact of river sand and gravel mining on various environmental components of rivers draining the Vembanad lake
Sl. no. System/components Impact(s) of mining

1. River channel Erosion of river banks; river bank slumping; lowering of river channels; changes in river bed
configuration; undermining of engineering structures like bridges, water intake structures, side
protection walls, spillways, etc.; loss of placer mineral resources associated with alluvial sand and
gravel
2. Surface water Rise in suspended particulate level, turbidity and other pollutants like oil, grease, etc., from vehicles used
for the removal of sands; ponding of water and reduction in natural cleansing capacity of river water;
aggravated salt water ingression
3. Ground water Lowering of ground water table in areas adjacent to mining sites; damage to the fresh water aquifer
system in areas close to the river mouth zones
4. Flora and fauna Dwindling of floral and faunal diversity within river basin; decline in terrestrial insects like mayfly,
dragon fly, stone fly etc., whose larval stages are in the shallow water sandy fluvial systems; habitat
damage/loss and changes in breeding and spawning grounds; reduction in inland fishery resources
5. Culture Damage to culturally significant places; places of annual religious congregations, etc
6. Coast/near shore Lack of replenishment of coastal beaches leading to coastal erosion and reduction in the supply of
nutrient elements from terrestrial source

Table 6 Riverbed lowering

Sl. no. Rivers 1980–1985 1985–1990 1990–1995 1995–2000 Bed lowering
(cm year–1) consequent to
over the years
indiscriminate extraction of
sand from the rivers draining the 1 Chalakudy NA 12.00 17.00 6.70 13.00
Vembanad lake
2 Periyar 4.00 9.60 21.00 40.00 19.00
3 Muvattupuzha NA 13.50 3.60 NA 8.00
4 Meenachil NA 19.75 3.80 23.60 15.00
5 Manimala NA NA 14.00 10.00 12.00
Data source: Central Water 6 Pamba NA NA 14.40 8.60 12.00
Commission, Kochi
Achankovil 4.60 13.00 8.60 1.00 7.00
NA Not available

another study in the Achankovil river, Sunilkumar (2002)
reveals that the benthic fauna in the river has severely af-
fected by indiscriminate river sand mining. Number counts
of benthic animals were very low or even absent in some
cases, in the sampling stations affected severely by sand
mining (Fig. 5). Scooping of sand along with the larval
forms of many insects like mayfly, dragonfly, caddisfly and
other insects of the order Diptera has imposed marked
decrease in population of these beneficial insects which
form food to other higher order animals like fishes and
amphibians. Loss of riparian habitats due to caving of river
banks (Fig. 6), river bed lowering and also clearing of
vegetation for brick earth and sand mining for the devel-
opment of roads (Fig. 7), sand harvesting centres, etc. ad-
versely affected the ecosystem functioning of the river
reaches in midlands and lowlands. Loss of instream vege-
tation, sand and gravel in the river bed, etc., not only affect
the feeding and hiding grounds of fishes and other fresh-
water animals but also induce spawning disorders to
phytophilic and psammophilic fishes in the aquatic envi-
ronment (FAO 1998). This may, of course, end up in the
decline of inland fishery resources, which ultimately affect

123
Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889
Fig. 3 Riverbed lowering of Periyar river during the period 1980–
2000 (Data source: CWC, Kochi)
the protein and energy flow to fish feeding animals in the
aquatic and terrestrial environments.
Conclusions and recommendations
In the past 3–4 decades, rivers in the densely populated
areas of the world are subjected to immense pressures due
to various kinds of human interventions, among which
indiscriminate mining for construction grade sand from
alluvial reaches is the most disastrous one. This is mainly
because of the fact that uncontrolled scooping of sand
aggravates river degradation and threatens its trophic
structure. The situation is rather alarming in the small
rivers of Kerala in the southwest coast of India, which
support the life and greenery of the region. Loss of riparian
and instream vegetation, changes in the feeding, breeding
and spawning grounds of aquatic organisms including
fishes not only impose stress in the river ecology but also
create damages in the terrestrial and nearshore marine
environments as well. All these points to the immediate
887
Fig. 4 A water intake structure constructed in Manimala river is
found exposed due to river bed lowering, which is an after effect of
sand mining
need for multidisciplinary studies in the riverine environ-
ments of the Vembanad lake for assessing the extent of
degradation consequent to indiscriminate sand and gravel
mining. This is very much important for laying down
strategies for regulating the mining activities on environ-
ment friendly basis and also for creating awareness on the
impact of river sand mining on the physical and biological
environment of these life support systems.
Given below are some of the recommendations sug-
gested to improve the overall environmental quality of the
river systems of southwest coast of India, in general and
Vembanad lake catchments, in particular.
• An integrated environmental assessment, management
and monitoring program should form part of the sand
extraction processes. Also, there is an urgent need for
integrating the studies on various disciplines on the
human induced degradation of the small catchment
rivers of southwest coast of India.
• Evaluate physical, chemical and biological effects of
instream mining on a river basin scale, so that
cumulative effects of extraction on the aquatic and
riparian resources can be recognised and addressed at
various levels for proper remedial measures.
• Examine and encourage alternatives to river sand for
construction purposes. Immediate steps are to be taken
to intensify research activities leading to the finding of
a suitable, low cost and easily available alternative to
river sand.
• Evaluate control measures such as bank stabilisation,
revegetation of buffer strips, influences of connected
floodplain pits etc. Restoration efforts should concen-
123
888 Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889

Fig. 5 Average abundance

(0.1 m2 area) of benthic
organisms in the Achankovil
river (Data source: Sunilkumar
2002)

trate on techniques that will optimise fish production,

promote aquatic diversity and restore biotic integrity.
• Awareness campaign should be conducted at various
levels about river sand mining, present state of
environment of rivers and immediate need for control
measures.

Acknowledgments We thank Director, Centre for Earth Science

Fig. 6 Slumped/exposed bank of Pamba river due to unrestricted
mining activities
Studies (CESS), Thiruvananthapuram for encouragement and support.
Mr. Arun P.R. and Smt. Mini S.R. helped the authors in the field and
also in statistical processing of field data. We are indebted to Mr. N.K.
Sukumaran Nair (PPS), Mr. Gopinathan Nair and Professor Sithar-
aman (AKRPC) for fruitful discussions and help in various ways
during collection of secondary data. Thanks are also due to Dr.
K.M.Nair, Director, Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, Thiruva-
nanthapuram and former Director, CESS for guidance and encour-
agement. We thank the Central Water Commission, Kochi for
sediment discharge and riverbed lowering data. The financial assis-
tances from Government of Kerala and various Panchayat Raj Insti-
tutions of State are also greatly acknowledged.

References

Bates K (1992) Floodplain gravel mining: potential fishery impacts,

suggested mitigation. State Department of Fisheries, Habitat
Management Division
Bull WB, Scott KM (1974) Impact of mining gravel from urban
stream beds in the Southwestern United States. Geology 2:171–
174
CESS (1984) Resource Atlas of Kerala. Centre for Earth Science
Studies, Thiruvananthapuram
Collins B (1995) Riverine gravel mining in Washington state,
overview of effects on salmonid habitat, and a summary of
government regulations. Unpublished report to the US EPA,
Seattle
Collins B, Dunne T (1989) Gravel transport, gravel harvesting, and
Fig. 7 Unplanned roads for transportation of vehicles into the river channel bed degradation in rivers draining the Southern Olympic
bed for easy loading of the mined sand along the river channels of Mountains, Washington, USA. Environ Geol Water Sci 13:213–
Kerala is a common scene during past several years 224

123
Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889
Collins B, Dunne T (1990) Fluvial geomorphology and river gravel
mining: a guide for planners. California Division of Mines and
Geology, Special Publication 98, Sacramento, California
FAO (1998) Rehabilitation of rivers for fish. Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations, Finishing News Books,
London
Gaillot S, Piegay H (1999) Impact of gravel mining on stream channel
and coastal sediment supply, example of the Calvi Bay in
Corsica (France). J Coastal Res 15:774–788
Garde RJ, Raju KGR (1985) Mechanics of sediment transportation
and alluvial stream problems. Wiley, New York
Gilpin A (1995) Environmental impact assessment (EIA): cutting edge
for the 21st century. Cambridge University press, Cambridge
GSI (1995) Geological and mineralogical map of Kerala. Geological
Survey of India, Calcutta
Hartfield P (1993) Headcuts and their effects on freshwater mussels.
Paper presented at the UMRCC symposium on conservation and
management of freshwater mussels, Rock Island, Illinois, pp
131–141
Harvey MD, Smith TW (1998) Gravel mining impacts on San Benito
River, California. In: Proceedings of 1998 International Water
Resources Engineering Conference, Hydraulics Division, ASCE,
Memphis
Haslam SM (1990) River pollution: an ecological perspective. Wiley,
New York
Heede BH (1986) Designing for dynamic equilibrium in streams.
Water Resources Bull 22:351–357
Ittekkot V, Lanne RWPM (1991) Fate of riverine particulate organic
matter. In: Degens ET, Kempe S, Richey JE (eds) Biogeochem-
istry of major world rivers. SCOPE, Wiley, New York, pp 233–
243
Jenkins SA, Inman DL, Skelly DW (1988) Impact of dam building on
the California coastal zone. California Waterfront Age
Kitetu J, Rowan J (1997) Integrated environmental assessment
applied to river sand harvesting in Kenya. In: Patric CK, Lee
N (eds) Sustainable development in a developing world—inte-
grated socio-economic appraisal and environmental assessment.
Edward Elgar, Cheltenham (U.K.), pp 189–199
Kondolf GM (1994) Geomorphic and environmental effects of
instream gravel mining. Landsc Urban Plan 28:225–243
Kondolf GM (1997) Hungry water: effects of dams and gravel mining
on river channels. Environ Manage 21:533–551
Kondolf GM (2006) River restoration and meanders. Ecol Soc
11(2):42. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/art42/
Kondolf GM, Larson M (1995) Historical channel analysis and its
application to riparian and aquatic habitat restoration. Aquat
conserv 5:109–126
Kondolf GM, Swanson ML (1993) Channel adjustments to reservoir
construction and instream gravel mining, Stony Creek, Califor-
nia. Environ Geol Water Sci 21:256–269
Kondolf GM, Smeltzer M, Kimball L (2002) Freshwater gravel
mining and dredging issues. Center for Environmental Design
and Research, University of California, Berkeley
Kondolf GM, Boulton AJ, O’Daniel S, Poole GC, Rahel FJ, Stanley
EH, Wohl E, Bang A, Carlstrom J, Cristoni C, Huber H,
Koljonen S, Louhi P, Nakamura K (2006) Process-based
ecological river restoration: Visualizing three dimensional
connectivity and dynamic vectors to recover lost linkages. Ecol
Soc 11(2):5. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/art5/
Kumaran KP, Nair KM (2005) Tracing palaeoclimatic signatures in
fossil woods and subfossil logs of Kerala, Southwestern India.
Pages News 13:15–17
889
Kurup BM, Radhakrishnan KV, Manojkumar TG (2005) Biodiversity
status of fishes inhabiting rivers of Kerala (S. India) with special
reference to endemism, threats and conservation measures.
Biodiversity Status 2:163–182. http://www.lars2.org/Proc
Lane EW (1955) Importance of fluvial morphology in hydraulic
engineering. In: Proc. ASCE, paper 745
Macfarlane M, Mitchell P (2003) Scoping and assessment of the
environmental and social impacts of river mining in Jamaica.
Warwick Business School, University of Warwick
Milliman JD, Syvitski JPM (1992) Geomorphic/Tectonic control of
sediment discharge to the ocean: the importance of small
mountainous rivers. J Geol 100:525–544
Naiman RJ (1992) Watershed management. Springer, New York
Naiman RJ, Bilby RE (1998) River ecology and management in the
Pacific coastal ecoregion. In: Naiman RJ, Bilby RE (eds) River
ecology and management: lessons from the Pacific Coastal
Ecoregion. Springer, New York, pp 1–22
Nair KM, Padmalal D (2006) Sand deposit and extraction in the rivers
of Kerala: an assessment based on river conservation. XVI
Swadeshi Science Congress Abstracts 41
Norman DK, Cederholm CF, Lingley WS (1998) Floodplains, salmon
habitat, and sand and gravel mining. Wash Geol 26:3–20
Padmalal D, Arun PR (1998) Sand mining from Periyar river. Report
submitted to the State Committee on Science, Technology and
Environment, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram
Padmalal D, Maya K, Seralathan P (1997) Geochemistry of Cu, Co,
Ni, Zn Cd and Cr in the surficial sediments of a tropical estuary,
southwest coast of India: a granulometric approach. Environ
Geol 31:85–93
Padmalal D, Maya K, Sreebha S, Sandhya V (2006) River sand
mining and management. Report submitted to the Kerala State
Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Centre for
Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram
Poulin R, Pakalnis RC, Sinding K (1994) Aggregate resources:
production and environmental constraints. Environ Geol 23:221–
227
Rivier B, Seguier J (1985) Physical and biological effects of gravel
extraction in river beds. In: Alabaster JS (ed) Habitat modifica-
tion and freshwater fisheries. Food and Agric. Organ. U.N.,
Rome, pp 131–146
Sandecki M (1989) Aggregate mining in river systems. Calif Geol
42:88–94
Starnes LB (1983) Effects of surface mining on aquatic resources in
North America. Fisheries 8:2–4
Sunilkumar R (2002) Impact of sand mining on benthic fauna: A case
study from Achankovil river in Kerala. Report submitted to
Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram
Thomas RB (1985) Estimating total suspended sediment yield with
probability sampling. Water Resources Res 21:1381–1388
Tompkins MR, Kondolf GM (2003) Integrating geomorphic process
approach in riparian and stream restoration: past experience and
future opportunities. In: Faber PM (ed) California riparian
systems: processes and floodplain management, ecology and
restoration. Proceedings of the Riparian Habitat and Floodplains
Conference (Sacramento, 2001), Sacramento, California, pp
230–238
UNEP (1990) Environmental guidelines for sand and gravel extrac-
tion projects. Environmental guidelines, No.20, United Nations
Environment Programme, Nairobi
Weeks JM, Sims I, Lawson C, Harrison DJ (2003) River mining:
Assessment of ecological effects of river mining in the Rio
Minho and Yallahs rivers, Jamaica
123