AF ReviewofEssentialSkillsandKnowledge

08-036_25_AFTR_APPR.
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Review of Essential Skills and

Knowledge
R–1 Exponent Laws...................................................................................540
R–2 Expanding and Simplifying Polynomial Expressions...........................542
R–3 Factoring Polynomial Expressions.......................................................544
R–4 Working with Rational Expressions ....................................................545
R–5 Slope and Rate of Change of a Linear Function..................................549
R–6 The Zeros of Linear and Quadratic Functions ....................................551
R–7 Exponential Functions....................................................................... 553
R–8 Transformations of Functions .............................................................554
R–9 Families of Functions..........................................................................557
R–10 Trigonometric Ratios and Special Angles ............................................559
R–11 Graphing y ⫽ sin x and y ⫽ cos x ......................................................562
R–12 Transformations of Trigonometric Functions ......................................564
R–13 Solving Trigonometric Equations in Degrees ......................................567
R–14 Proving Trigonometric Identities ........................................................570
Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.
Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 539

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R–1 Exponent Laws
Rule Word Description Algebraic Description Example
Multiplication If the bases are the same, am ⫻ an ⫽ am⫹n 107 ⫻ 105 ⫽ 1012
add the exponents.
Division If the bases are the same, am 10100 ⫼ 1095 ⫽ 105
⫽ am⫺n, a ⫽ 0
subtract the exponents. an
Power of a Keep the base, and (am ) n ⫽ amn (2x ) 2 ⫽ 22x
Power multiply the exponents.
Power of a Raise each factor to the (ab) n ⫽ anbn (2x 5 ) 3 ⫽ 23 (x 5 ) 3
Product exponent. ⫽ 8x 15
a n an x 2 x2
a b ⫽ n, b ⫽ 0 a b ⫽
Power of a Raise the numerator and
Quotient the denominator to the b b 3 9
exponent separately.
Zero Exponent A power with zero as a0 ⫽ 1, if a ⫽ 0 170 ⫽ 1
the exponent equals 1, Exception: 00 is undefined.
except when zero is also
the base.
Negative A power with a negative 1 n 1 1
a⫺n ⫽ a b ⫽ n , a ⫽ 0
1 10⫺4 ⫽ ⫽
Exponents exponent equals the a a 10 4 10 000
power with the reciprocal a ⫺n b n
base and a positive a b ⫽ a b , a, b ⫽ 0 x ⫺4 2 4 16
a b ⫽ a b ⫽ 4, x ⫽ 0
b a x
exponent. 2 x
1 n 3
Rational The denominator an ⫽ 兹a
1 1
10003 ⫹ 252 ⫽ 兹1000 ⫹ 兹25
Exponents determines the root. ⫽ 10 ⫹ 5
with ⫽ 15
Numerator 1

a n ⫽ Q兹aRm or 325 ⫽ Q兹32R
Rational The denominator m n 6 5 6
Exponents determines the root and

with the numerator indicates m n ⫽ 26
a n ⫽ 兹a m ⫽ 64
Numerator the exponent applied to
not 1 the root.
EXAMPLE
Simplify. Express your answers using positive exponents.

Ax 2y 3B 2
a) A2 3x⫹y
BA2 ⫺x⫹4y
B ⫺23
Axy 2B ⫺4
b) 64 c)
540 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

Ax 2y 3B 2
Solution
a) A2 BA2 3x⫹y
B ⫺x⫹4y ⫺23
Axy 2B ⫺4
b) 64 c)
⫽2 3x⫹y⫺x⫹4y
⫽
1
⫽ 22x⫹5y 643
2
x 4y 6
⫽
⫽
1 x ⫺4y ⫺8
Q兹64R 2 ⫽ x 8y 14
3
1
⫽
42
1
⫽
16
Practising
1. Simplify. Express your answers using positive exponents.
m) Aa 3bc 0B ⫺2
y4
a) x 2y 7 e) i) 4⫺1
y7
Ax 2yB 2 x 2y ⫺5
b) A y B
⫺4
3 5
j) ⫺4⫺5 n) a b
Axy 3B 4
f)
x ⫺2y ⫺3
1 ⫺1 ( y ⫹ 1) 3 ( y ⫹ 2) 4
c) (x ⫹ 2) 4 (x ⫹ 2) g) 80 k) a b o)
10 ( y ⫹ 1) 5 ( y ⫹ 2)
h) A20 ⫹ 2B 0
a9 4 ⫺2
d) l) a b
a3 3
2. Evaluate. Express your answers in fraction form.

a) 27 ⫺3
1 3 1 3
b) 2252 c) ⫺1000.5 d) 64 3 ⫻ 16 2
R-1 Exponent Laws: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 541

R–2 Expanding and Simplifying Polynomial

Expressions
To convert a polynomial expression from factored form to expanded form, use the
distributive property:
a(b ⫹ c) ⫽ ab ⫹ ac
Some patterns occur frequently and are worth memorizing.
Square of a Sum Square of a Difference Difference of Squares
(a ⫹ b) 2 (a ⫺ b) 2 (a ⫹ b)(a ⫺ b)
⫽ (a ⫹ b)(a ⫹ b) ⫽ (a ⫺ b)(a ⫺ b) ⫽ a 2 ⫺ ab ⫹ ab ⫺ b 2
⫽ a 2 ⫹ 2ab ⫹ b 2 ⫽ a 2 ⫺ 2ab ⫹ b 2 ⫽ a2 ⫺ b2
EXAMPLE 1
Expand and simplify (x ⫹ 5)(3x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 5).
Solution
Use the distributive property to
(x ⫹ 5)(3x2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 5)
multiply each term in the binomial
by each term in the trinomial.
There are 2 ⫻ 3 ⫽ 6 terms in the
⫽ 3x 3 ⫺ 4x 2 ⫹ 5x ⫹ 15x 2 ⫺ 20x ⫹ 25 expanded form, before it is
simplified.
Collect like terms to simplify the
⫽ 3x 3 ⫹ 11x 2 ⫺ 15x ⫹ 25 expanded form.
EXAMPLE 2
Expand and simplify 2(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 1)(x ⫺ 3) .

Solution
2(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 1)(x ⫺ 3)

Since multiplication is
⫽ 32(x ⫹ 2) 4 ⫻ 3 (x ⫺ 1)(x ⫺ 3) 4 associative, you can multiply the
expressions in any order you like.
⫽ (2x ⫹ 4)(x 2 ⫺ 3x ⫺ x ⫹ 3)
Use the distributive property to
⫽ (2x ⫹ 4)(x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 3) multiply. Drawing arrows will
help you to keep track of the
⫽ 2x 3 ⫺ 8x 2 ⫹ 6x ⫹ 4x 2 ⫺ 16x ⫹ 12 multiplications.
⫽ 2x 3 ⫺ 4x 2 ⫺ 10x ⫹ 12

EXAMPLE 3
Expand and simplify (2x ⫺ 3) 2 ⫺ (3x ⫹ 2)(3x ⫺ 2).
Solution
(2x ⫺ 3) 2 ⫺ (3x ⫹ 2)(3x ⫺ 2) Use the patterns for (a ⫺ b) 2 and (a ⫹ b)(a ⫺ b).
⫽ (2x) 2 ⫺ 2(2x)(3) ⫹ (3) 2 ⫺ 3 (3x) 2 ⫺ (2) 2 4
⫽ 4x 2 ⫺ 12x ⫹ 9 ⫺ 9x 2 ⫹ 4
⫽ ⫺5x 2 ⫺ 12x ⫹ 13
Practising
1. Expand and simplify. 2. Write in simplified expanded form.
a) 3x A5x 2 ⫹ 3x ⫺ 4B a) 5(x ⫺ 1)(x ⫹ 1)(x ⫹ 2)
b) (2x ⫹ 7) 2 b) 2(x 2 ⫺ x ⫹ 3)(x ⫺ 7)
c) 3(x ⫺ 4) 2 ⫺ (2 ⫺ x)(2 ⫹ x) c) 4(x ⫺ 2) 3
d) (x ⫺ 5)(x ⫺ 2)(x ⫹ 5)(x ⫹ 2)
d) 6ax ⫺ b ax ⫹ b
1 1
3 2 e) (3x ⫺ 4) 2 (2x ⫹ 3)
e) 5x(2x ⫺ 4) 2 f) (x ⫺ 3) 4
f ) 32x(x ⫺ 1) 4 2
R–2 Expanding and Simplifying Polynomial Expressions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 543
R–3 Factoring Polynomial Expressions
Type Example Comment
Common Factoring 10x4 ⫺ 8x3 ⫹ 6x5 Each term has a common

ab ⫹ ac ⫽ a(b ⫹ c) ⫽ 2x 3 (5x ⫺ 4 ⫹ 3x 2 ) factor of 2x 3.
Factor out the largest common
factor of each term.
Factoring Trinomials x 2 ⫹ 4x ⫺ 21 (⫺21) ⫽ 7(⫺3) and
ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c, when a ⫽ 1 ⫽ (x ⫹ 7)(x ⫺ 3) 4 ⫽ 7 ⫹ (⫺3)
Write the trinomial as the
product of two binomials.
Determine two numbers
whose sum is b and whose
product is c.
Factoring Trinomials 3x2 ⫹ 4x ⫺ 4 Multiply 3(⫺4) ⫽ ⫺12.
ax2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c, when a ⫽ 1 ⫽ 3x 2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 6x ⫺ 4 Find two numbers whose
Look for a common factor. If ⫽ (3x 2 ⫺ 2x) ⫹ (6x ⫺ 4) product is ⫺12 and
none exists, use decomposition ⫽ x(3x ⫺ 2) ⫹ 2(3x ⫺ 2) whose sum is 4. In this
and write the trinomial as the ⫽ (3x ⫺ 2)(x ⫹ 2) case, the numbers are 6
product of two binomials. Check: and ⫺2. Using these
Check by expanding and (3x)(x) ⫹ (3x)(2) ⫹ (⫺2)(x) numbers, decompose the
simplifying. ⫹ (⫺2)(2) x-term. Group the terms,
⫽ 3x 2 ⫹ 6x ⫺ 2x ⫺ 4 and factor out the
⫽ 3x 2 ⫹ 4x ⫺ 4 common factors.
Factoring a Difference of 2x2 ⫺ 18 Common factor first,

Squares ⫽ 2(x 2 ⫺ 9) when possible.
x2 ⫺ y2 ⫽ (x ⫹ y)(x ⫺ y) ⫽ 2(x ⫹ 3)(x ⫺ 3)
This is a special case of

factoring trinomials, when
b 5 0.
Practising
1. Factor. 2. Factor.
a) 6x ⫺ 5x
2
a) 6y 2 ⫺ y ⫺ 2
b) 28x ⫺ 14xy b) 12x 2 ⫹ x ⫺ 1
c) x2 ⫺ x ⫺ 6 c) 5a 2 ⫹ 7a ⫺ 6
d) 3y 2 ⫹ 18y ⫹ 24 d) 12x 2 ⫺ 18x ⫺ 12
e) x 2 ⫺ 64
3. Expand to show that (x ⫺ y)(x 2 ⫹ xy ⫹ y 2 )
f) x 4 ⫺ 81
is the factored form of x 3 ⫺ y 3.

R–4 Working with Rational Expressions

A rational expression is an algebraic expression that can be written as the quotient
of two polynomials. A rational expression is undefined if the denominator is zero,
so we write restrictions on the variables to avoid this.
Simplifying Rational Expressions

A rational expression can be simplified by factoring the numerator and the
denominator, and then dividing out the common factors.
EXAMPLE 1
Simplify and state restrictions.
21m 3n 2 x2 ⫺ 1 4x ⫺ 6
a) b) c)
6mn 4 x 2 ⫹ 4x ⫹ 3 9 ⫺ 6x
Solution
21m 3n 2 x2 ⫺ 1 Factor the numerator

a) b) and the denominator
6mn 4 x 2 ⫹ 4x ⫹ 3
1 (x ⫹ 1)(x ⫺ 1) to find the largest
3mn2 (7m2 ) ⫽ possible common factor
⫽ (x ⫹ 1)(x ⫹ 3)
3mn2 (2n 2 ) 1 to divide out.
1 (x ⫹ 1) (x ⫺ 1)
7m 2 ⫽
⫽ (x ⫹ 1) (x ⫹ 3)
2n 2 1
x⫺1 Write restrictions on
m ⫽ 0, n ⫽ 0 ⫽ the variables to prevent
x⫹3
the denominator from
x ⫽ ⫺ 1,⫺3
equalling zero.
4x ⫺ 6
c)
9 ⫺ 6x
opposites
2(2x ⫺ 3)
⫽
3(3 ⫺ 2x) When factors are opposites, factor out
⫺1 from one of the factors to make the
⫺2(3 ⫺ 2x) 1 factors identical.
⫽
3(3 ⫺ 2x) 1
2
⫽⫺
3
3
x⫽
2
R–4 Working with Rational Expressions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 545
Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

To multiply or divide rational expressions, factor the numerators and the denominators
(where possible), and then look for common factors that can be divided out.
EXAMPLE 2
x2 ⫺ 9 4x ⫹ 20
Simplify ⫻ 2 .
2x ⫺ 6 x ⫹ 6x ⫹ 9
Solution
x2 ⫺ 9 4x ⫹ 20 Factor each polynomial.
⫻ 2
2x ⫺ 6 x ⫹ 6x ⫹ 9
(x ⫹ 3)(x ⫺ 3) 4(x ⫹ 5)
⫽ ⫻
2(x ⫺ 3) (x ⫹ 3)(x ⫹ 3)
1 1 2
(x ⫹ 3) (x ⫺ 3) 4 (x ⫹ 5) Divide out the common
⫽ ⫻
2 (x ⫺ 3) (x ⫹ 3) (x ⫹ 3) factors to reduce the
1 1 1
expression to lowest terms.
2(x ⫹ 5)
⫽ Write restrictions to
x⫹3
prevent the denominator
x ⫽ ⫺3, 3 from equalling zero, which
would result in undefined
values.
EXAMPLE 3
4x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 1 2x 2 ⫹ 9x ⫺ 5
Simplify ⫼ .
x⫹3 x⫹5
Solution
4x2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 1 2x2 ⫹ 9x ⫺ 5
⫼

x⫹3 x⫹5 Change the division into
4x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 1 x⫹5 multiplication by the
⫽ ⫻ 2 reciprocal.
x⫹3 2x ⫹ 9x ⫺ 5
(2x ⫺ 1)(2x ⫺ 1) x⫹5 Factor.
⫽ ⫻
x⫹3 (2x ⫺ 1)(x ⫹ 5)
1 1
Divide out the identical
(2x ⫺ 1)(2x ⫺ 1) x⫹5
⫽ ⫻ factors.
x⫹3 (2x ⫺ 1) (x ⫹ 5)
1 1
2x ⫺ 1
⫽
x⫹3
1 Write restrictions to avoid
x ⫽ ⫺3, ⫺5, undefined values.
2

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

To add or subtract rational expressions, you must have a common denominator.
To ensure that you will use the lowest common denominator, factor the numerators
and the denominators first. This will keep the expressions as simple as possible.
EXAMPLE 4
3x ⫹ 6 x 2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 15
Simplify ⫺ .
x2 ⫺ 4 7x ⫺ 21
Solution
3x ⫹ 6 x2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 15
⫺
x2 ⫺ 4 7x ⫺ 21
Factor the numerators and
3(x ⫹ 2) (x ⫺ 3)(x ⫺ 5) the denominators.
⫽ ⫺
(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 2) 7(x ⫺ 3)
1 1 If possible, divide out like
3(x ⫹ 2) (x ⫺ 3) (x ⫺ 5) factors (but only within
⫽ ⫺
(x ⫹ 2) (x ⫺ 2) 7(x ⫺ 3) each rational expression).
1 1
3 x⫺5 The lowest common

⫽ ⫺ denominator is 7(x ⫺ 2).
x⫺2 7
x⫺5 x⫺2
⫽a ba b ⫺ a ba b
3 7 Multiply the numerator
x⫺2 7 7 x⫺2 and denominator of each
21 x 2 ⫺ 7x ⫹ 10 rational expression to create
⫽ ⫺ an equivalent expression
7(x ⫺ 2) 7(x ⫺ 2)
with the desired common
21 ⫺ (x 2 ⫺ 7x ⫹ 10) denominator.
⫽
7(x ⫺ 2)
21 ⫺ x2 ⫹ 7x ⫺ 10 Simplify the numerator.
⫽
7(x ⫺ 2)
⫺x 2 ⫹ 7x ⫹ 11
⫽
7(x ⫺ 2)
x ⫽ ⫺2, 2, 3 Write restrictions to avoid

undefined values.
R–4 Working with Rational Expressions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 547
Practising
1. State the restrictions (if any) on each rational expression.
5 x 17 3x
a) b) c) d)
x 5 x⫺2 x ⫺ 36
2
2. Simplify, and state restrictions. Write your answers using positive exponents.
2ab 3h 2 ⫹ 6h x 2 ⫹ 3x ⫹ 2
a) c) e)
4b h 2 ⫹ 4h ⫹ 4 x 2 ⫹ 5x ⫹ 6
x 2 ⫹ 5x b 3 ⫺ a 2b t3 ⫹ t2
b) d) f)
x ⫹ 4x ⫺ 5
2
b ⫺ 2ab ⫹ a 2
2
t ⫺ t3
3. Simplify, and state restrictions.

6x 2y 2
a) ⫻
8y 3x
2ab 6ac
b) ⫼
5bc 10b
(x ⫹ 1) 2 x 2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 1
c) ⫻ 2
x ⫹ 2x ⫺ 3
2
x ⫹ 4x ⫹ 3
x⫺7 2x ⫺ 14
d) ⫼
10 25
x ⫺ 5x ⫹ 6
2
x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫺ 5 x⫺5
e) ⫻ ⫼ 2
x ⫺1
2
x ⫺4
2
x ⫹ 3x ⫹ 2
3m 2 ⫺ 7m ⫺ 6 9m ⫺ 6 9m 2 ⫺ 4
f) ⫻ ⫼
6m 2 ⫹ 3m 2m 2 ⫺ 5m ⫺ 3 4m 2 ⫹ 4m ⫹ 1
4. Simplify, and state restrictions.

4 2
a) ⫹
5x 3x
5 2
b) ⫺

x⫺1 x⫹1
2x ⫹ 1 5
c) ⫹
3 x⫺2
6x 3x
d) 2 ⫺ 2
x ⫺ 5x ⫹ 6 x ⫹ x ⫺ 12
x⫹3 x⫺1
e) ⫺
x⫺4 x⫹2
x⫹1 x⫹2
f) ⫺ 2
x ⫹ 2x ⫺ 3
2
x ⫹ 4x ⫺ 5
2 4x 2 ⫺ 11x ⫺ 1
5. Show that 4x ⫹ 1 ⫹ x ⫺ 3 ⫽ x⫺3 , x ⫽ 3.

R–5 Slope and Rate of Change of a Linear Function

The slope of a line is a ratio that compares the change in the dependent variable, y,
with the change in the independent variable, x.
rise change in y 䉭y y2 ⫺ y1
Slope ⫽ m ⫽ ⫽ ⫽ ⫽
run change in x 䉭x x2 ⫺ x1
The equation of a linear relation can be written in the form y ⫽ mx ⫹ b, where m is
the slope and b is the y-intercept.
Values of the Slope
• The slope of a line that rises to the right is positive.
• The slope of a line that drops to the right is negative.
• The slope of a horizontal line is zero. The equation of the line can be written in
the form y ⫽ b.
• The slope of a vertical line is undefined. The equation of the line can be written in
the form x ⫽ a.
Equations of Straight Lines
• point-slope equation of a line: y ⫺ y1 ⫽ m(x ⫺ x1 )
• general form of the equation of a line: Ax ⫹ By ⫹ C ⫽ 0
• slope-intercept equation of a line: y ⫽ mx ⫹ b
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Two lines, with slopes m1 and m2, are
• parallel if and only if m1 ⫽ m2
• perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 ⫽ ⫺1; that is, if their slopes are negative
1
reciprocals: m2 ⫽ ⫺m1
EXAMPLE
Find the slope and equation of a line that passes through points (5, 6) and (15, 2).
Explain how the slope is a rate of change.
Solution
y ⫺y 2⫺6 4 2
The slope is m ⫽ x2 ⫺ x1 ⫽ 15 ⫺ 5 ⫽ ⫺10 ⫽ ⫺5.
2 1
Substituting m ⫽ ⫺25 and (x1, y1 ) ⫽ (5, 6) into y ⫺ y1 ⫽ m(x ⫺ x1 ),

2
y ⫺ 6 ⫽ ⫺ (x ⫺ 5)
5
2
y⫽⫺ x⫹2⫹6
5
2
y⫽⫺ x⫹8
5
The slope of the line is ⫺25, and the equation is y ⫽ ⫺25 x ⫹ 8.
R–5 Slope and Rate of Change of a Linear Function: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 549
The slope is a rate of change because y will decrease by 2 units for each 5 unit
increase in x.
y
10
8
run = 5
6
rise = –2
4
2
x
0 5 10
Practising
1. Determine the slope of a line that passes through 3. Suppose that you buy a plant. The height of the
each pair of points. plant t weeks after you buy it is h(t) ⫽ 26 ⫹ 1.2t,
a) (1, ⫺5) and (⫺4, ⫺9) where h is the height in centimetres. What is the
b) (⫺1, 4) and (7, 4) slope of the height function, and what does the
c) (5, ⫺2) and (5,⫺4) slope mean in the context of this situation?
d) (⫺3, 5) and (⫺2, 9)
4. Determine the slope and y-intercept of each line.
2. Describe the graph of a) 3x ⫹ 5y ⫹ 10 ⫽ 0 b) Ax ⫹ By ⫹ C ⫽ 0
a) x ⫽ ⫺3 b) y ⫽ 6

R–6 The Zeros of Linear and Quadratic Functions

The Zero of a Linear Function
A linear function of the form y ⫽ mx ⫹ b has one zero (x-intercept), unless the
line is horizontal. (A horizontal line has no x-intercepts, unless it lies on the x-axis.
Then every point on the line is an x-intercept.)
Factoring out the slope will give the x-intercept.
EXAMPLE 1
What is the x-intercept of y ⫽ 2x ⫺ 6?
Solution
y ⫽ 2x ⫺ 6 Factor out the slope.

y ⫽ 2(x ⫺ 3)
Solving for the zero, let y ⫽ 0. The x-intercept is 3, since substituting

0 ⫽ 2(x ⫺ 3) x ⫽ 3 results in a y value of zero.
3⫽x (Hence the name “zero of the function”
for an x-intercept.)
y
2
x
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
–2
–4
–6
–8
The Zeros of a Quadratic Function

A quadratic function can have two zeros, one zero, or no zeros.
The zeros of a quadratic function are also found by factoring the equation. When
factoring is not possible, the quadratic formula can be used. The discriminant can
be used to determine the number of zeros.
Quadratic Formula Discriminant
The zeros of the function If b2 ⫺ 4ac ⬎ 0, there are two zeros.

y ⫽ ax2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c are If b 2 ⫺ 4ac ⫽ 0, there is one zero.
⫺b ⫾ 兹b2 ⫺ 4ac If b 2 ⫺ 4ac ⬍ 0, there are no zeros.
x⫽ 2a .
R–6 The Zeros of Linear and Quadratic Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 551
EXAMPLE 2
Determine the zeros of each function.
a) f (x) ⫽ 2x 2 ⫺ x ⫺ 6 b) g(x) ⫽ x 2 ⫺ x ⫹ 2
Solution
a) Factoring gives y
f (x) ⫽ 2x 2 ⫺ x ⫺ 6 6
f (x) ⫽ (2x ⫹ 3)(x ⫺ 2) 4
Solving for the zeros, let f (x) ⫽ 0. 2
x
0 ⫽ (2x ⫹ 3)(x ⫺ 2) –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
0 ⫽ 2x ⫹ 3 or 0 ⫽ x ⫺ 2 –2
3 –4
x ⫽ ⫺ or x ⫽ 2 –6
2
b) To solve for the zeros, let g(x) ⫽ 0. y

0 ⫽ x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 2 8
Using the quadratic formula gives 6
4
⫺b ⫾ 兹b 2 ⫺ 4ac
x⫽ 2
2a x
⫺(⫺1) ⫾ 兹(⫺1) 2 ⫺ 4(1)(2) –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
x⫽ –2
2(1) –4
1 ⫾ 兹⫺7
x⫽
2 The graph of g is entirely above
Since the square root of ⫺7 is not a real the x-axis. Therefore, the function
number, the function g has no zeros. has no zeros.

Practising
1. What are the zeros of each function? 3. Determine the zeros of each quadratic function.
a) y ⫽ ⫺3(x ⫹ 4) a) f (x) ⫽ x 2 ⫹ x ⫺ 42 c) g(x) ⫽ x 2 ⫺ 3x ⫹ 1
b) y ⫽ ⫺2(x ⫹ 3)(x ⫺ 7) b) y ⫽ 16x 2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 1 d) y ⫽ 3x 2 ⫹ 5x ⫹ 4
c) y ⫽ 4(x ⫹ 9) 2 4. The zeros of a quadratic function are ⫺2 and 2, and
d) y ⫽ 2x 2 ⫹ x ⫺ 15 the y-intercept is 8. Write the equation of the function.
2. Determine the zero of each linear function. 5. Use the discriminant to determine the number of
1 zeros for each quadratic function.
a) y ⫽ x ⫺ 2
3 a) y ⫽ 16x 2 ⫺ 40x ⫹ 25
b) line with y-intercept 3 and slope 12 b) y ⫽ 16x 2 ⫺ 40x ⫹ 23

R–7 Exponential Functions

The exponential function f (x) ⫽ b x has the following characteristics:
• The base is restricted to 0 ⬍ b ⬍ 1 or b ⬎ 1.
• The domain is {x苸R}, and the range is { y苸R 冷 y ⬎ 0}.
• The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
• The y-intercept is 1.
• If b ⬎ 1, the graph increases (is a growth function).
• If 0 ⬍ b ⬍ 1, the graph decreases (is a decay function).
EXAMPLE
Sketch the graph of each exponential function.

1 x
a) y ⫽ 2x b) f (x) ⫽ a b
3
Solution
a) x y ⫽ 2x y b) 1 x
y
10 x y⫽a b 10
1 3
23 8 8
8 22 9
6 6
1 21 3
22 4 4
0 1
4 2 2
x 1 x
1 1
21 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 3 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
2 –2 –2
1
0 1 2
9
1 2
2 4
Note that y ⫽ 2x is a growth curve and y ⫽ A13B is a decay curve.
x
3 8
Practising
1. Sketch the graph of each exponential function.
4. The function T ⫽ 20 ⫹ 76(0.92) t models the
1 x
a) f (x) ⫽ 3x c) f (x) ⫽ a b temperature, in °C, of a cup of coffee t minutes
2 after it is poured.
b) f (x) ⫽ 10x d) f (x) ⫽ (1.5) x a) What is the initial temperature of the coffee?
2. Compare the graphs of y ⫽ A13B x and y ⫽ 3x. How are b) What is the temperature after 10 min?
they related? c) What is the temperature after 60 min?
d) Determine the equation of the horizontal
3. For the function f (x) ⫽ 4x, state the domain, range,
asymptote. What does it represent?
intercepts, and equation of the asymptote. e) What is the significance of the number 76
in the equation?
R–7 Exponential Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 553

R–8 Transformations of Functions

You can graph functions of the form y ⫽ af (k(x ⫺ d )) ⫹ c by applying the
appropriate transformations to key points on the parent function y ⫽ f (x).
Stretches/compressions and reflections (based on a and k) must be applied before
translations (based on c and d ).
The value of a determines whether there is a vertical stretch or compression and
whether there is a reflection in the x-axis. The y-coordinate of each point is
multiplied by a.
• If 冟a冟 ⬎ 1, the graph of y ⫽ f (x) is stretched vertically by the factor ZaZ.
• If 0 ⬍ 冟a冟 ⬍ 1, the graph is compressed vertically by the factor 冟a冟.
• If a is negative, the graph is also reflected in the x-axis.
The value of k determines whether there is a horizontal stretch or compression and
whether there is a reflection in the y-axis. The x-coordinate of each point is
1
multiplied by k .
1
• If 冟k冟 ⬎ 1, the graph of y ⫽ f (x) is compressed horizontally by the factor 冟k 冟.
1
• If 0 ⬍ 冟k冟 ⬍ 1, the graph is stretched horizontally by the factor 冟k 冟.
• If k is negative, the graph is also reflected in the y-axis.
The value of c determines the vertical translation. This value is added to the
y-coordinate of each point.
• If c ⬎ 0, the graph is translated c units up.
• If c ⬍ 0, the graph is translated c units down.
The value of d determines the horizontal translation. This value is added to the
x-coordinate of each point.
• If d ⬎ 0, the graph is translated d units to the right.
• If d ⬍ 0, the graph is translated d units to the left.

EXAMPLE 1
What transformations to the parent function y ⫽ f (x) would you perform to
create the graph of y ⫽ ⫺2f (3(x ⫺ 4)) ⫺ 5? What happens to the coordinates
of each point on the parent function?
Solution
Comparing the transformed function with the general form
y ⫽ af (k(x ⫺ d)) ⫹ c, we have a ⫽ ⫺2, k ⫽ 3, d ⫽ 4, and c ⫽ ⫺5.

• Since a ⫽ ⫺2, there is a vertical stretch by a factor of 2 and also a reflection in

the x-axis. The y-coordinate of each point is multiplied by ⫺2.
• Since k ⫽ 3, there is a horizontal compression by a factor of 13. The
x-coordinate of each point is multiplied by 13.
• Since c ⫽ ⫺5, there is a vertical translation 5 units down. The value ⫺5 is
added to the y-coordinate of each point.
• Since d ⫽ 4, there is a horizontal translation 4 units to the right. The value 4 is
added to the x-coordinate of each point.
EXAMPLE 2
Graph the function y ⫽ 32 ⫻ 2⫺2 (x⫺3) ⫹ 1 by applying of the appropriate

1
transformations to the parent function y ⫽ 2x.
Solution
Table of values for y ⫽ 2x Graph of y ⫽ 2x We start with points on the parent

x y y function y ⫽ 2x.
6
1
22 4
4
2
1 x
21
2 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
–2
0 1
1 2
2 4
Table of values for y ⫽ 32 ⫻ 2⫺2x Graph of y ⫽ 32 ⫻ 2⫺2x

1 1
Apply any stretches/compressions
and reflections next.

y
x y
6 Since a ⫽ 32, there is a vertical
3 4 stretch. Each y-coordinate is
4
8 multiplied by 32.
2
3 x
2 Since k ⫽ ⫺12 there is a horizontal
4 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
–2 stretch and also a reflection in the
3
0 y-axis. Each x-coordinate is
2
multiplied by ⫺2.
⫺2 3
⫺4 6
R–8 Transformations of Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 555

Table of values for 3 Apply any translations last.

Graph of y ⫽ 2 ⫻ 2⫺2 (x⫺3) ⫹ 1
1
3 Since c ⫽ 1, there is a translation

y ⫽ 2 ⫻ 2⫺2 (x⫺3) ⫹ 1
1
y up. The value 1 is added to each

x y 6 y-coordinate.
4 Since d ⫽ 3, there is a translation to
3
7 1 2 the right. The value 3 is added to
8
each x-coordinate.
3 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
5 1 –2
4 Notice that the horizontal asymptote
1 is shifted up to y ⫽ 1.
3 2
2
1 4
⫺1 7
Practising
1. Describe the transformations that you would apply 3. Given the function f (x) ⫽ x 2, state the equation of
to the graph of y ⫽ f (x) to graph each of the the transformed function under a vertical stretch of
following functions. factor 3, a reflection in the x-axis, a horizontal
a) y ⫽ 3f (x) ⫺ 2 translation 3 units to the right, and a vertical
b) y ⫽ f a (x ⫹ 3)b
1 translation 2 units up.
2 4. Consider the function f (x) ⫽ x 3.
c) y ⫽ f (2x) ⫹ 7 a) Make a table of values for f using
d) y ⫽ ⫺3f (2(x ⫺ 1)) ⫺ 2 x 苸{⫺2, ⫺1, 0, 1, 2 }.
b) Describe the transformations to f that result in
e) y ⫽ ⫺f (⫺x) ⫹ 4
the function g(x) ⫽ 12 (x ⫺ 4) 3 ⫹ 5.
1
f ) y ⫽ ⫺ f (⫺x) ⫺ 3 c) Determine the five points on the graph of g that
5
are the images of the five points in your table of

2. The point (2, 5) is on the graph of y ⫽ f (x). State values for f in part a).
the coordinates of the image of this point under each
5. Consider the functions Y1 ⫽ 兹x and Y2 ⫽ 兹4 ⫺ x.
of the following transformations.
What transformations to Y1 result in Y2?
a) y ⫽ f (3x) c) y ⫽ f (x ⫺ 4)
b) y ⫽ ⫺2f (x) d) y ⫽ f (x) ⫹ 7

R–9 Families of Functions

Families of Linear Functions y
6
Consider the equation y ⫽ mx ⫹ 3. It represents a straight line with y-intercept
4
3 and slope m. Different values of the parameter m will result in lines with different
2
slopes. Together, these lines make up a family of lines with the same y-intercept.
–4 –2 0 2 4
–2
Families of Quadratic Functions y

6
The equation y ⫽ a(x ⫺ 1)(x ⫺ 3) represents a family of quadratic functions. 4
Each member of the family has zeros at 1 and 3. Their differences are determined 2
by the value of the vertical stretch factor a. x
–2 0 2 4 6
–2
–4
–6
EXAMPLE 1
What member of the family of quadratic functions with the vertex (3, ⫺1) passes
through point (5, 5)?
Solution
The graph shows several members of the family of y
quadratic functions with the vertex (3, ⫺1). 6
4
This family has an equation of the form
f (x) ⫽ a(x ⫺ 3) 2 ⫺ 1. 2
x
Substitute point (5, 5) into the equation, and solve for a. –2 0 2 4 6

–2
5 ⫽ a(5 ⫺ 3) 2 ⫺ 1
–4
5 ⫽ a(2) 2 ⫺ 1
–6
6 ⫽ 4a
6 3
a⫽ ⫽
4 2
The equation is f (x) ⫽ 32 (x ⫺ 3) 2 ⫺ 1.
R–9 Families of Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 557

Practising
1. a) Determine the general equation of the family b) Why does the parameter k vary in the graphs
of straight lines with slope 3, but varying of this family?
y-intercepts. c) Show that k ⫽ 34 results in a curve that passes
b) Find the equation of the member of this family through point (4, 8).
that passes through point (4, 7).
4. Determine the equation of the quadratic function
2. a) Determine the equation of the family of that has vertex (⫺2, 5) and passes through (1, 8).
quadratic functions with zeros at 2 and 4.
b) What is the equation of the member of this 5. Determine the equation of the quadratic function
family with y-intercept ⫺4? that has x-intercepts 5 and ⫺1, and passes through
(7, ⫺40).
3. A family of exponential functions has equation
y ⫽ 2(kx). 6. Determine the equation of the quadratic function
a) At what point do all the members of this family f (x) ⫽ ax 2 ⫺ 6x ⫺ 7 if f (2) ⫽ 3.
meet?

R–10 Trigonometric Ratios and Special Angles

Right-Triangle Definitions of Trigonometric Ratios
The trigonometric ratios for an acute angle can be defined using a right triangle, as
shown below.
opposite hypotenuse
sin u ⫽ csc u ⫽
hypotenuse opposite hypotenuse
opposite
adjacent hypotenuse u
cos u ⫽ sec u ⫽
hypotenuse opposite adjacent
opposite adjacent
tan u ⫽ cot u ⫽
adjacent opposite
The Pythagorean theorem is often useful for solving problems that involve right
triangles:
(adjacent) 2 ⫹ (opposite) 2 ⫽ (hypotenuse) 2
The right-triangle definitions given above cannot be used for an angle that is not
acute, so we need to broaden the definitions.
Definitions of Trigonometric Ratios for Any Angle

An angle in standard position has its vertex at the origin and rotates counterclockwise
from the positive x-axis to its terminal arm. If point (x, y) is on the terminal arm of
angle u, at a distance r units from the origin, we define the trigonometric ratios of
u as follows:
y r
sin u ⫽ csc u ⫽ y
r y (x, y)
x r y r
cos u ⫽ sec u ⫽ b u x
r x x
y x
tan u ⫽ cot u ⫽
x y
In the diagram above, b is the acute angle related to u. The related acute angle
always has one arm on the x-axis. The trigonometric ratios for angle b are equal in
magnitude to those for angle u, but they are always positive. 2 y 1
The CAST rule is an easy way to remember which trigonometric ratios are positive
in each quadrant. Since r is always positive, the sign of each ratio depends on the
signs of the coordinates of the point.
• In quadrant 1, all (A) ratios are positive because both x and y are positive.
S A x
• In quadrant 2, only sine (S) and its reciprocal cosecant are positive, since x is 0
negative and y is positive.
• In quadrant 3, only tangent (T) and its reciprocal cotangent are positive,
T C
because both x and y are negative.
• In quadrant 4, only cosine (C) and its reciprocal secant are positive, since x is
3 4
positive and y is negative.
R–10 Trigonometric Ratios and Special Angles: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 559
The exact values of the primary trigonometric ratios for 30°, 45°, and 60° angles
can be found by using an isosceles right triangle and half of an equilateral triangle,
as shown below. These triangles are often referred to as special triangles.
45˚
30˚
2 1
2 3
45˚
1
60˚
1
u sin u cos u tan u

1 兹3 1 兹3
30° ⫽ 0.5 ⬟ 0.8660 ⫽ ⬟ 0.5774
2 2 兹3 3
45° 兹2 兹2 1
⬟ 0.7071 ⬟ 0.7071
2 2
兹3 1
60° ⬟ 0.8660 ⫽ 0.5 兹3 ⬟ 1.7321
2 2
EXAMPLE 1

Determine the exact value of sin 240⬚.
Solution
The following diagram shows that a 240° angle is related to a 60° acute angle.
y
240˚ x
60˚

To determine the sign of

兹3
冷sin 240⬚ 冷 ⫽ sin 60⬚ ⫽ sin 240°, consider
y that sine
2 is the ratio x.
兹3
sin 240⬚ ⫽ ⫺
2 Since 240° is in quadrant III,
y is negative. Therefore, sine
is negative.
EXAMPLE 2
If tan u ⫽ ⫺2, find an exact value for sin u. Confirm the value with a calculator.
Solution
There are two possible terminal arms, as Since tan u ⫽ ⫺2, we know
shown in the following diagram. that any point on the
y terminal arm of the angle
y
(–1, 2)
2 must satisfy x ⫽ ⫺2.
1 A point on the terminal arm

5 u1 in quadrant II is (⫺1, 2).
x A point on the terminal arm
0
–2 –1
u2
1 2 in quadrant IV is (1, ⫺2).
–1
5 (1, –2)
–2
Using r 2 ⫽ x 2 ⫹ y 2 gives r ⫽ 兹5.

y ⫾2
Therefore, sin u ⫽ r ⫽ .
兹5
Practising
1. Using exact values, show that sin2 u ⫹ cos2 u ⫽ 1 3. Determine the angle(s) u between 0° and 360° if
for each angle. a) cos u ⫽ sin u
a) u ⫽ 60⬚ b) sin u ⫽ ⫺1
b) u ⫽ 45⬚
4. Determine an exact value for
2. Determine the acute angle that each line makes with a) sin 135⬚
the x-axis. b) cos 210⬚
a) y 5 x c) tan 225⬚
b) y 5 23x d) csc 300⬚
R–10 Trigonometric Ratios and Special Angles: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 561
R–11 Graphing y = sin x and y = cos x

The functions y ⫽ sin x and y ⫽ cos x are periodic functions since their graphs
consist of a regularly repeating shape. The period of both of these functions is 360°.
The minimum value of these functions is ⫺1, and the maximum value is 1.
The amplitude of a function is defined as, maximum ⫺ minimum, so the amplitude

2
of these functions is 1 ⫺ 2(⫺1) ⫽ 22 ⫽ 1.
The axis (or midline) of a function is the horizontal line halfway between the
maximum value and the minimum value. For both of these functions, the equation
maximum ⫹ minimum 1 ⫹ (⫺1)
of the axis is y ⫽ 2 ⫽ 2 ⫽ 0.
y y = sin x y = cos x
1
x
–180° 0 180° 360°
–1
EXAMPLE
At what values of x, in the interval ⫺360⬚ to 360°, does sin x ⫽ 12?
Solution
Draw the sine function from ⫺360⬚ to 360° along with the line y ⫽ 12.
y
1

–360° –180° 0 180° 360°
–1
We can read the intersection points directly from the graph. The values of x in the
interval 3⫺360⬚, 360⬚4 are ⫺330⬚, ⫺210⬚, 30⬚, and 150⬚.

EXAMPLE
At what values of x does the function y ⫽ cos x have a minimum value?
Solution
Examine the graph.
y
2
1
x
–360° –180° 0 180° 360° 540° 720°
–1
–2
We can see that the minimum values occur at x ⫽ ⫺180⬚, 180°, 540°, and so on.
There are an infinite number of values of x, so we cannot list all of them. (This
would take forever!) Notice, however, that they occur at regular intervals due to
the periodic nature of the function. Each minimum value is a multiple of 360°
that is either less than or more than 180°. Therefore, we can write all the values of
x as follows:
x ⫽ ⫺180⬚ ⫹ k(360⬚), where k苸I
Practising
1. At what values of x does the function y ⫽ sin x have
a maximum value?
2. At what values of x do the functions y ⫽ sin x and
y ⫽ cos x meet?
3. Consider the graph of y ⫽ sin x from 0° to 360°.
y
2
1
x
0 90° 180° 270° 360°
–1
–2
a) Determine the values of x that correspond to an

angle in
i) quadrant I
ii) quadrant II
iii) quadrant III
iv) quadrant IV
b) Describe the behaviour of the sin x function in
each quadrant.
R–11 Graphing y = sin x and y = cos x: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 563
R–12 Transformations of Trigonometric Functions

We can transform the sine and cosine functions in the same way that we transform
other functions.
The general forms of the transformed functions are y ⫽ a sin(k(x ⫺ d)) ⫹ c and
y ⫽ a cos(k(x ⫺ d)) ⫹ c.
Transformation Characteristics of the Transformed Function
The value of a determines whether there is a vertical Since the vertical stretch/compression factor is 冟a冟, the
stretch/compression and whether there is a reflection in amplitude of the transformed function is 冟a冟.
the x-axis.
The value of k determines whether there is horizontal 1

Since the horizontal stretch/compression factor is 冟k 冟,
stretch/compression and whether there is a reflection in 360⬚
the y-axis. the period of the transformed function is 冟k 冟 .
The value of c determines the vertical translation. The axis of the transformed function is y ⫽ c.
The value of d determines the horizontal translation. The horizontal shift of the transformed function is d.
EXAMPLE
Describe the transformations that have been applied to a parent function to get
each of the following transformed functions. State the amplitude, period, and axis
of the transformed function, and determine whether there is a horizontal shift.
Then sketch the graph of the transformed function.
2 1
a) y ⫽ ⫺2 cos 2x ⫺ 1 b) g(x) ⫽ sina x ⫺ 15⬚b
3 2
Solution
a) To obtain the transformed function y ⫽ ⫺2 cos 2x ⫺ 1, the parent function

y ⫽ cos x undergoes a vertical stretch of factor 2, a reflection in the x-axis, a
horizontal compression of factor 12, and a vertical translation 1 unit down.
2 ⫽ 180⬚, and the

The amplitude of the transformed function is 2, the period is 360⬚
axis is y ⫽ ⫺1. There is no horizontal shift.
y Start with the parent function y ⫽ cos x.

2 The amplitude is 1.
1 The period is 360°.
x
–90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° 450°
–1
–2
–3

Apply the stretch, compression, and reflection.

y
2
y ⫽ ⫺2 cos 2x
1
x
The function is reflected in the x-axis.
–90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° 450°
–1 The amplitude is 2.
–2 The period is 180°.
–3
Apply the translation.

y
2
y ⫽ ⫺2 cos 2x ⫺ 1
1
x
–90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° The function is reflected in x-axis.
–1 The amplitude is 2.
–2 The period is 180°.
–3 The axis is y ⫽ ⫺1.
There is no horizontal shift.
b) The transformed function g(x) ⫽ 23 sin A12 x ⫺ 15⬚B is not in the general
The argument of a function is the
form we work with, so we must factor the argument of the function.
input to the function. For the function
g(x) ⫽ sin a x ⫺ 15⬚b g(x) ⫽ 23 sin A12 x ⫺ 15⬚B , the argument
2 1
3 2 is A12x ⫺ 15⬚B .
g(x) ⫽ sin a (x ⫺ 30⬚)b
2 1
3 2
The parent function f (x) ⫽ sin x undergoes a vertical compression of factor 23, a
1
horizontal stretch of factor 1 ⫽ 2, and a horizontal translation 30° to the right.
2
360⬚
The amplitude of the curve is 23, the period is ⫽ 720⬚, and the axis of the
1
2
curve is y ⫽ 0. There is a horizontal shift 30° to the right.
y Start with the parent function

2 f (x) ⫽ sin x.
1
x
The amplitude is 1.
–180° 0 180° 360 540° 720° The period is 360°.
–1
–2
R–12 Transformations of Trigonometric Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 565
y Apply the compression and

2 stretch.
1 There is no reflection.
x
y ⫽ sin a x b
0 2 1
–180° 180° 360 540° 720°
–1 3 2
–2
The amplitude is 23.
The period is 360°.
Apply the translation.

y
g(x) ⫽ sin a (x ⫺ 30⬚)b
2 1
2
3 2
1
x The amplitude is 23.
–180° 0 180° 360 540° 720°
–1
The period is 360°.
–2
The axis is y ⫽ 0.
There is a horizontal shift of 30°
to the right.
Practising
1. For each of the following transformed functions, identify the parent function. Describe the transformations
that have been applied to create the transformed function. State the amplitude, period, and axis, and
determine whether there is a horizontal shift. Then sketch a graph of the transformed function.
a) f (x) ⫽ 4 sin(2x) ⫹ 4
b) f (x) ⫽ ⫺cos(3x ⫺ 90⬚) ⫺ 2
sin c⫺ (x ⫺ 60⬚)d
1 2
c) y ⫽
2 3

R–13 Solving Trigonometric Equations in Degrees

Trigonometric functions can have many solutions, due to their periodic nature.
The number of solutions for a function depends on the domain of the function.
The solutions can be found using various approaches, as shown in the following
examples.
EXAMPLE 1 USING SPECIAL TRIANGLES AND THE CAST RULE

Solve sin u ⫽ 0.5 where u苸30⬚, 360⬚4 .
Solution
y opposite The value of 0.5 is recognizable as a
Since sin u ⫽ r ⫽ hypotenuse, we can see
special value from the special
that u ⫽ 30⬚ is a solution. The 30⬚⫺60⬚⫺90⬚ triangle.
terminal arm for 30⬚ is in quadrant I.
S y A
The CAST rule states that sine values
are positive for first quadrant and
(– 3, 1) ( 3, 1) second quadrant angles. The terminal
2 150˚ 2 arms of these angles are mirror images
1 1 x
30˚ in the y-axis.
– 3 3
T C
The angle in quadrant II is

180⬚ ⫺ 30⬚ ⫽ 150⬚.
There are no other values of u in the
domain 3 0⬚, 360⬚4.
Therefore, the solutions are u ⫽ 30⬚ or
150⬚.
R–13 Solving Trigonometric Equations in Degrees: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 567
EXAMPLE 2 USING A CALCULATOR AND THE CAST RULE

Solve cos u ⫽ ⫺0.8 for u, to the nearest degree, where u苸30⬚, 360⬚4.
Solution
The cosine ratio is negative in
quadrants II and III. Since 20.8 is not
from a special triangle, we use a
calculator to determine the related
acute angle.
The related acute angle is about 37⬚.
S y A
143˚
x
T C
The angle u in quadrant II is

180⬚ ⫺ 37⬚ ⫽ 143⬚.
The angle u in quadrant III is

180⬚ ⫹ 37⬚ ⫽ 217⬚.
Therefore, the two solutions in the

required domain are 143⬚ and 217°.

EXAMPLE 3 USING THE x-y-r DEFINITIONS AND A CALCULATOR
Solve tan u ⫽ ⫺2 for u, to the nearest degree, where u苸30⬚, 360⬚4
Solution
y ⫺2
y
x ⫽ ⫺2 ⫽ ⫽ ⫺1 By definition, tan u ⫽ x.
2
1 , so we can use
(x, y) ⫽ (1,⫺2) and (⫺1, 2) as the
points on the terminal arm.

y Determine the inverse cosine of 2 to

S A
(–1, 2) find the related acute angle.
117˚
x
297˚ –63˚
(1, –2)
T C
The related acute angle is about 63⬚.

The diagram shows that the angles in
the required domain are
u ⫽ 360⬚ ⫺ 63⬚ ⫽ 297⬚
and u ⫽ 180⬚ ⫺ 63⬚ ⫽ 117⬚
Therefore, the two solutions in the
required domain are 117⬚ and 297⬚.
Practising
1. Solve each trigonometric function, to the nearest degree, where 0 ⱕ u ⱕ 3600.
兹3
a) cos u ⫽ c) tan u ⫽ 1 d) sin u ⫽ ⫺0.554
2
2
b) tan u ⫽ d) sin u ⫽ ⫺1 f) cos u 5 1.5
5
2. Solve, where 0 ⱕ u ⱕ 3600.
a) 2 cos u ⫺ 1 ⫽ 0 c) ⫺4 sin u ⫽ 1
b) 3 tan u ⫽ ⫺兹3 d) 3 cos u ⫺ 2 ⫽ 1
R–13 Solving Trigonometric Equations in Degrees: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 569
R–14 Proving Trigonometric Identities

An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of its variable.
To disprove an identity (in other words, to prove that an equation is not an
identity), we need to find only one value of the variable that does not satisfy the
equation.
To prove that an equation is an identity, we need to show that the two sides of the
equation are equal for all possible values of the variable. To do this, we need to
rewrite one or both sides of the equation by substituting known identities and/or
using algebraic techniques.
Algebraic Reciprocal Quotient Pythagorean
Techniques Identities Identities Identities
• factoring
csc u ⫽
1 sin u cos 2u ⫹ sin 2u ⫽ 1
, tan u ⫽ ,
sin u cos u
sin u ⫽ 0 cos u ⫽ 0
• expanding and
sec u ⫽
1 cos u 1 ⫹ tan 2u ⫽ sec 2u
simplifying
, cot u ⫽ ,
cos u sin u
cos u ⫽ 0 sin u ⫽ 0
• adding or
cot u ⫽
1
, cot2 u ⫹ 1 ⫽ sec 2 u
subtracting tan u
rational tan u ⫽ 0
expressions
using a
common
denominator

EXAMPLE
Show that cos u ⫹ sin u ⫽ 1 is not an identity.
Solution
To prove that this equation is not an identity, we need to find a value of u that
does not satisfy the equation.
Try u ⫽ 45⬚.
Left side ⫽ cos 45⬚ ⫹ sin 45⬚ Right side ⫽ 1
1 1
⫽ ⫹
兹2 兹2
2
⫽
兹2
⫽ 兹2
For u ⫽ 45⬚, the equation is not satisfied. Therefore, the equation
cos u ⫹ sin u ⫽ 1 is not an identity.

EXAMPLE 2
Prove each identity.
tan u sin u 1 1
a) ⫽ b) tan u ⫹ ⫽
cos u 1 ⫺ sin 2 u tan u sin u cos u
Solution
a) To prove the identity, we must work with each side independently.

tan u sin u
LS ⫽ RS ⫽
cos u 1 ⫺ sin 2 u
sin u
cos u sin u
⫽ ⫽
cos u cos 2u
sin u
⫽
cos 2 u
Since we have shown that the left side and right side are equal, the equation is an
identity—every possible value of u will satisfy the equation. There are values of u that
will result in each side being undefined, however, so a restriction is needed: cos u 2 0.
b) Work with each side independently.
1 1
LS ⫽ tan u ⫹ RS ⫽
tan u sin u cos u
sin u cos u
⫽ ⫹
cos u sin u
sin 2u cos 2u
⫽ ⫹
sin u cos u sin u cos u
1
⫽
sin u cos u
Since the left side and right side are equal, the equation is an identity.
Again, restrictions are needed to avoid undefined values: sin u ⫽ 0, cos u ⫽ 0.
Practising
1. Prove each of the following identities.
1 1 ⫹ sin u
a) ⫹ tan u ⫽ c) 1 ⫺ cos2 u ⫽ sin u cos u tan u
cos u cos u
tan2 u
b) sin 4u 2 cos 4u 5 sin 3u 2 cos 2u d) ⫽ sin2 u
1 ⫹ tan2 u
2. Prove that sin2 x a1 ⫹ b ⫽ 1, where sin x ⫽ 0.
1
tan2 x
3. Prove that (1 ⫺ cos2 x)(1 ⫹ cos2 x) ⫽ 2 sin2 x ⫺ sin4 x.
A–14 Proving Trigonometric Identities: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 571

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qxd 9/15/08 12:25 PM Page 539

Review of Essential Skills and

Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 539

R–1 Exponent Laws

Rule Word Description Algebraic Description Example

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

Exponents determines the root and

Simplify. Express your answers using positive exponents.

540 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

2. Evaluate. Express your answers in fraction form.

R-1 Exponent Laws: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 541

R–2 Expanding and Simplifying Polynomial

Square of a Sum Square of a Difference Difference of Squares

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

2(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 1)(x ⫺ 3)

542 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R–3 Factoring Polynomial Expressions

Type Example Comment

Common Factoring 10x4 ⫺ 8x3 ⫹ 6x5 Each term has a common

Factoring a Difference of 2x2 ⫺ 18 Common factor first,

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

544 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R–4 Working with Rational Expressions

Simplifying Rational Expressions

21m 3n 2 x2 ⫺ 1 Factor the numerator

Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

546 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

3 x⫺5 The lowest common

x ⫽ ⫺2, 2, 3 Write restrictions to avoid

3. Simplify, and state restrictions.

4. Simplify, and state restrictions.

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

548 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R–5 Slope and Rate of Change of a Linear Function

Substituting m ⫽ ⫺25 and (x1, y1 ) ⫽ (5, 6) into y ⫺ y1 ⫽ m(x ⫺ x1 ),

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

550 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R–6 The Zeros of Linear and Quadratic Functions

y ⫽ 2x ⫺ 6 Factor out the slope.

Solving for the zero, let y ⫽ 0. The x-intercept is 3, since substituting

The Zeros of a Quadratic Function

Quadratic Formula Discriminant

The zeros of the function If b2 ⫺ 4ac ⬎ 0, there are two zeros.

b) To solve for the zeros, let g(x) ⫽ 0. y

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

552 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

R–7 Exponential Functions

Sketch the graph of each exponential function.

R–7 Exponential Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 553

R–8 Transformations of Functions

Copyright © 2009 by Nelson Education Ltd.

554 Advanced Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge

• Since a ⫽ ⫺2, there is a vertical stretch by a factor of 2 and also a reflection in

Graph the function y ⫽ 32 ⫻ 2⫺2 (x⫺3) ⫹ 1 by applying of the appropriate

transformations to the parent function y ⫽ 2x.

Table of values for y ⫽ 2x Graph of y ⫽ 2x We start with points on the parent

Table of values for y ⫽ 32 ⫻ 2⫺2x Graph of y ⫽ 32 ⫻ 2⫺2x

and reflections next.

R–8 Transformations of Functions: Review of Essential Skills and Knowledge 555