1 INTELLIGENCE
THIS CHAPTER COVERS
Ä Nature of intelligence and approaches to
its understanding
Ä Culture and conceptualisation of
intelligence
Ä Methods of assessing intelligence
Ä Range and variations in intelligence
Ä Nature and measurement of aptitude
BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD
BE ABLE TO
Ä describe the concept of intelligence,
Ä explain the multiple facets of
intelligence,
Ä discuss cultural differences in
conceptualising intelligence,
Ä acquaint yourself with different methods
of assessing intelligence,
Ä explain the nature of intellectual
deficiency and giftedness,
Ä understand some emerging notions of
intelligence, and
Ä describe the concept of aptitude and its
measurement procedure.
CONTENTS
Introduction
What is Intelligence?
Beginnings of Intelligence Testing (Box 1.1)
Definitions of Intelligence
Intelligence: The Interplay of Nature and Nurture
Intelligence: Some Classical Approaches (Box1.2)
Contemporary Approaches to Intelligence
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
PASS Model of Intelligence
Samples of PASS Measures (Box 1.3)
Creativity and Intelligence
Culture and Intelligence
Intelligence in Non-Western Traditions
Intelligence in the Indian Context
Assessment of Intelligence
Distribution of IQ Scores
Types of Intelligence Test
Alternatives to IQ Testing (Box 1.4)
Intelligence Testing in India
Variations in the Level of Intelligence
Giftedness: Nature and Identification
Identification of Talent in the Indian Context
(Box 1.5)
Intellectual Deficiency: Nature and Types
New Directions: Emotional, Practical, and
Spiritual Intelligences (BOX 1.6)
Special Abilities or Aptitudes: Nature and
Measurement
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Answers to Learning Checks
2 Introduction to Psychology

INTRODUCTION

Intelligence is probably one of the most popular psychological terms used in

everyday life. And it is rightly so, because it is due to the intellectual development
that humans have been able to transcend the physical frailties and gain dominance
over the more powerful and numerous animals. Every parent wishes his/her
child to be intelligent. However, you must have noticed individual differences in
this highly valued trait. People differ from each other in their ability to understand
complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environment, to learn from experience, to
engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. We often make
judgements about the intellectual competence of people on the basis of these and
related characteristics and label them as being more intelligent or less intelligent.
You too must have encountered people showing different levels of intelligence.

The expression of intelligence is not limited to any particular activity, domain,

or context; rather, it is manifested in every human activity, may it be in school,
during social interaction, at work, and so on. You must have heard about tests
that are used to measure intelligence in different settings including school,
industry, defence organisations, bureaucratic set-ups and so on. These tests are
useful in selection, training, placement, and providing educational and vocational
guidance and counselling to the students.

For long, the study of intelligence was confined to the cognitive domain. In
recent years, however, understanding about the nature of intelligence has changed
drastically. It is now believed that intelligence is not a single entity or
unidimensional, rather has multiple dimensions or facets. The notion of intelligence
has expanded to encompass affective, and social domains also. The emphasis
on one or the other aspects of intelligence varies across cultures. In this chapter
you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural
differences in its conceptualisation, its assessment, range and variations in the
intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or aptitudes.
Intelligence
WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?
The term ‘intelligence’ has not only been used
more popularly in daily life, it has also
received maximum attention of the
researchers in the fields of psychology,
education, and child development. A perusal
of dictionaries will reveal that the term
intelligence has been taken in a broad sense.
For example, the following terms have been
listed as the meaning of intelligence: ability
to understand, reason, and perceive;
quickness in learning; mental alertness;
ability to grasp relationships etc. The
words such as capacity, shrewdness,
acumen, discrimination, talent, aptitude,
etc. are used as synonyms of intelligence. In
the Indian context, words such as Buddhi
Pratibha, Prajna, Medha, Dhi, Chaturya,
etc., are used for intelligence.
BOX 1.1 BEGINNINGS OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING
The development of the concept of intelligence
in modern psychology is closely related to the
efforts in the direction of assessing
intelligence. Historically, the work of a
Frenchman, J. Esquirol, in 1838, on
mental disorders is considered to
be the beginning of modern mental
testing. However, Sir Francis
Galton, an Englishman, is
considered to be the father of
mental tests. In 1884, Galton
attempted to measure intelligence
by administering a battery of
tests which measured such
characteristics as head size,
strength of hand grip, breathing
capacity, reaction time, visual acuity,
and memory for visual forms. Galton Alfred
believed that simple sensory, perceptual,
and motor responses were key aspects of
intelligence. J.M. Cattell is credited with
introducing the term mental test. The works of
Galton and Cattell together paved the way for
further studies on intelligence.
3
ACTIVITY 1.1
Understanding the Concept of
Intelligence
Find out the synonyms of intelligence and
analyse the similarities and differences
among them.
On the basis of the analysis of synonyms
make three or four statements about the
nature of intelligence.
Discuss your observations with your
classmates and teacher.
DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
Broadly speaking, intelligence is a capacity
to profit from experience and to go beyond
the given. Psychologists have proposed a
number of definitions of intelligence.
Binet and Simon in 1905 defined
intelligence as “the ability to judge well, to
The first systematic attempt to develop a
test of intelligence was made by Alfred
Binet, a Frenchman. At the request
of the French Ministry of
Education, in 1904, Binet
attempted to devise a method to
identify children who did not
benefit from regular classroom
teaching and needed to be
placed in special schools. Binet
with his student T. Simon
developed the first test of
intelligence in 1905. The test
consisted of 30 items ranging
from the ability to touch one’s
nose or ear when asked, to the
ability to draw designs from
Binet memory and define abstract
concepts. Unlike Galton who reduced
intelligence to sensory, perceptual, and
motor processes, Binet argued that the core of
intelligence consists of more complex mental
processes such as memory, imagery,
comprehension, and judgement.
 4 Introduction to Psychology
understand well, and to reason well”.
There were four elements that were believed
to be important for intelligence: (1) Direction
or ability to set up a goal and work towards
it, (2) Adaptability or ability to make the
necessary adjustments to solve a problem,
(3) Comprehension or ability to have a basic
understanding of exactly what the problem
is, and (4) Self evaluation or person’s idea of
whether he or she has been able to solve the
problem correctly.
The definition proposed by Wechsler in
1939 has been very popular. He defined it as
“the aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with the
environment”. According to Howard Gardner
(1986), intelligence is “the ability or skill
to solve problems or to fashion products
which are valued within one or more
cultural settings”.
An analysis of the above and other
definitions indicates that intelligence consists
of three general classes of skills or abilities:
l Adapting to new situations and
changing task demands.
l Learning or profiting optimally from
experience or training.
l Thinking abstractly using symbols and
concepts.
More recently Robert Sternberg (1997),
a pioneer in the field of intelligence research,
has defined intelligence as follows:
Intelligence comprises the mental abilities
necessary for adaptation to, as well as
shaping and selection of, any
environmental context.
This definition goes beyond the adaptive
nature of intelligence. Thus, intelligence is not
just reacting (in the form of adaptation) to the
demands of the environment, but also
involves actively shaping and selecting the
environment. When a person is not able to
adapt to an environment, he/she may try to
bring changes in the environmental context
(shaping) according to his or her own likings.
For example, when you visit a relative on
holidays, first of all you try to behave
according to their expectations. Slowly, you
begin to suggest them changes according to
your taste. However, bringing out change in
the environmental context may not always be
possible due to various reasons. In that case
an intelligent person tries to find another
suitable environment (selection). For
example, when you find it difficult to adapt
or bring about changes in the relative’s house,
you may go to another relative’s house or go
back to your home. It should be noted that
intelligence does not simply mean possessing
certain abilities per se; rather the use of these
abilities in real life situations is important.
The second important point, according to
Sternberg, is that the landscape of an
environmental context changes over time.
Thus, adequate adaptation, shaping, and
selection involve a process of life-long
learning, one that starts during infancy and
continues throughout the life span.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Processes Involved in Intelligence
Find two examples each from everyday
activities that relate to shaping, selection,
and adaptation.
Discuss these examples with classmates
and teacher.
INTELLIGENCE: THE INTERPLAY OF
NATURE AND NURTURE
There is no end to the debate as to whether
intelligence is innate or acquired. The
controversy has aroused fierce passions,
become politicised, and is notable for the
dogmatic nature of the opinions. The evidence
for the innateness comes from studies on
twins. As you know monozygotic twins result
from the fertilisation of a single ovum by a
single sperm and they are genetically
identical. Therefore, it may be assumed that
their intelligence (genetic) level should be
similar and any difference would be due to
non-genetic (environmental) factors. On rare
occasions, such as death or illness of the
mother, some of these monozygotic
(identical) twins were reared apart. Studies
have shown high level of similarity between
the intelligence levels of such monozygotic
twins. It has also been reported in some
studies that identical twins separated very
early in life share considerable degree of
Intelligence
similarity in intelligence, personality, and
mannerisms when they were identified
later. The limitation of these studies is that
the samples have been generally very small.
Adoption studies lend support to the
nurture side of the debate. In these studies
children’s intelligence levels were compared
with their biological and adopting mothers.
Some studies have reported that IQ of the
adopted children tends to move toward that
of their adopting parents. Other studies have
shown greater closeness with the IQ of
biological mothers. Generally, the presence
of adoptive parents of higher IQ level raises a
disadvantaged child’s IQ. There is evidence
to show that deprived environments may
result in lowering of IQ scores. A range of
environmental factors, such as nutrition,
family background, and quality of schooling,
are found to be related to IQ scores.
The most accepted view today is that
intelligence is a product of a complex
BOX 1.2 INTELLIGENCE: SOME CLASSICAL APPROACHES
l Charles Spearman (1927) proposed a
“Two Factor theory” of intelligence.
According to him, intelligence consists of
General (‘g’) and Specific (‘s’) factors. This
theory maintained that all intellectual
activities share a single common factor,
called ‘g’. Characterised as mental energy,
‘g’ is considered responsible for
relationships between different human
activities. Positive correlations between any
two factors were attributed to ‘g’ factor. In
addition to ‘g’, this theory also postulates a
number of specific factors ‘s’, each being
strictly specific to a single activity Fig 1.1
shows this pattern.
l Louis Thurstone (1938) advanced the
“Theory of Primary Mental Abilities”
which states that intelligence consists of
seven major factors, each of which is rela-
tively independent of the others. These fac-
tors are: Verbal Comprehension, Verbal
Fluency, Inductive Reasoning, Spatial
Visualisation, Number, Memory, and
Perceptual Speed.
5
interaction of genetic factors and environmental
conditions. Probably, the maximum limit is
drawn by the genetic factors, within which the
actual development depends upon the support
from environmental conditions.
Recapitulation
The systematic attempt to define and assess
intelligence in modern period began with
the work of Binet in 1904. Since then many
definitions of intelligence have been
proposed. In all these definitions,
intelligence is defined in terms of
adaptation to new situations, learning from
past experiences, and abstract thinking.
However, contemporary view of intelligence
goes beyond adaptation skills—where
adaptation is not possible, an intelligent
person either attempts to shape and
bring changes in the environment, or
carve out another environment of
his/her liking.
l Raymond Cattell (1971) proposed that
there are two ‘g’ factors, ‘gf’ (for fluid
g
SI
S2
S3
Fig. 1.1 Relationship between ‘g’ and ‘s’
conceptualised by Spearman
contd...
6 Introduction to Psychology

intelligence) and ‘gc’ (for crystallised stimulus input prior to the outcome or
intelligence). Fluid intelligence includes the response. Level II refers to a general class
ability to think creatively, to reason of abilities involving effective transformation
abstractly, to make inferences from data, or manipulation of stimuli, as evinced in
and to understand relationships. It can be higher order learning, such as reasoning
measured by analogy and classification and problem-solving.
problems. It is strongly influenced by l On the basis of more than two decades of
heredity. In contrast, crystallised intelligence factor analytic research, J. P. Guilford
includes what a person learns and retains proposed a box-like model, which is known
from experience; so, it is strongly influenced as Structure-of-Intellect Model. This
by environment. Tests of vocabulary and theory organises intellectual traits along
general information can be used to measure three dimensions: Operations—what the
crystallised intelligence. It has been found respondent does, Contents—the nature of
that fluid intelligence tends to decline at an the materials or information on which
early age than crystallised intelligence operations are performed, and Products—
though both show rapid decline starting in the form in which information is processed
the late seventies. by the respondents. Guilford’s classification
l Arthur Jensen has advanced a theory of includes 6 x 5 x 5 categories, resulting
two levels of intelligence: Level I and Level into 150 cells in the model. In each cell at
II. Level I denotes associative learning (e.g. least one factor or ability is expected; some
rote learning and memory). These activities cells may contain more than one factor. The
involve minimal mental transformation of the model is shown in Fig.1.2.

Operations
Co
nv
Di er
ve ge Ev
rg nt alu
en pr
o at l Contents
tp du ion ua
ro ct Vis ory
du ion dit lic
Me ct
ion Au bo
Co m
or Sym nti
c
l
gn y ma ura
itio Se io
n h av
Be
Units

Classes

Products
Relations

Systems

Transformation

Implications

Fig. 1.2 Guilford’s Structure of Intellect

Intelligence
LEARNING CHECKS I
1. The speed with which one
accomplishes a task refers to one’s
intellectual capacity. T/F
2. Binet developed a test of intelligence
to discriminate amongst normal
students of a class. T/F
3. Learning from past experiences is a
characteristic of an intelligent
person. T/F
4. Selection strictly refers to leaving a
task, which cannot be accomplished,
and selecting a task, which is easy
to perform. T/F
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES
TO INTELLIGENCE
The classical notion of intelligence, which
defined it in terms of a single index of
cognitive abilities, has undergone major
changes. It is now believed that intelligence
is not one or unitary ability, rather there
are many intelligences, which people
display while solving problems in everyday
life. In this section you will study about
three such theories.
THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner (1983) proposed this theory.
It is based on three principles. First,
intelligence is not a single
entity; rather, there exist
multiple intelligences, each
distinct from others.
Second, these intelligences
are independent of each
other. In other words, if a
person is good in one type
of intelligence, it does not give
any indication about how good
or bad the person may be on Howard Gardner
other types of intelligences.
Third, different types of intelligences interact.
That is, different intelligences work together
to provide a solution of a problem.
Gardner has so far proposed eight
intelligences. However, all the individuals do
not possess them in equal proportion. The
particular situation or the context decides the
7
prominence of one type of intelligence over the
others. The eight intelligences are as follows:
l Linguistic : This is related to reading,
writing, listening, talking, understanding,
etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than
others.
l Logical-mathematical : This type of
intelligence deals with abstract reasoning
and manipulation of symbols involved in
numerical problems. It is exhibited in
scientific work.
l Spatial : Intelligence of this kind is used
while navigating in space, forming,
transforming, and using mental images.
Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, car
drivers, sculptors, and painters have
highly developed spatial intelligence.
l Musical :Persons with musical intelligence
show sensitivity to pitch and tone required
for singing, playing an instrument,
composing and appreciating music, etc.
l Bodily-kinesthetic : It requires the skills
and dexterity for fine coordinated motor
movements, such as those required for
dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making,
and the like.
l Interpersonal : It requires understanding
motives, feelings, and behaviours of other
people. Sales people, politicians, teachers,
clinicians, and religious leaders have high
degree of interpersonal intelligence.
l Intrapersonal : It is related to understand-
ing one’s self and developing a sense of
identity.
l Naturalistic : It is related to recognising
the flora and fauna and making a
distinction in the natural world. It is more
possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists,
students of biological sciences, and the like.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Application of the View of Multiple
Intelligences
Prepare a list of about 20 vocations. Analyse
these vocations in terms of the type of
intelligence required for success in those
vocations.
Discuss the results of your analysis with
your teacher.
 8 Introduction to Psychology

different experiences in uniquely original

TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
Robert J. Sternberg (1985)
proposed this theory. It
attempts to understand
the cognitive processes
involved in solving prob-
lems. According to this
theory, there are three
subtheories of intelli-
gence: Componential,
Experiential, and Con-
textual as shown in
Fig. 1.3.
Robert J. Sternberg
l Componential Sub
theory: It consists of
internal mental mechanisms that are
responsible for intelligent behaviour. The
components of intelligence serve three
different functions. Metacomponents are the
executive processes that are involved in
planning strategies, monitoring progress, and
allocating internal and external resources to
problem solving. Performance components
are the processes that are used to perform a
task or solve a problem. This component
is the one that is measured best by
existing intelligence tests. Knowledge
acquisition components are the processes
used in learning.
l Experiential Subtheory : It focuses on
the relationship between the person’s
inner, mental world and the outer,
external world. This aspect is concerned
with the effect of intelligence on
one’s experiences as
well as the effect of
person’s interaction
with the environment
on intelligence. This
view adds creativity
ways. A second aspect of experiential
intelligence is the ability to automatise
or “make routine” tasks that are
encountered repeatedly. An example of
automatising is reading, which is carried
out largely without conscious thought.
Playing music is another example of this
type of activity.
l Contextual Subtheory : It deals with the
ways people effectively shape their
environments, adapt to different contexts,
and make the most of their available
resources. Contextual intelligence refers
to “street smarts” or “situationally smart”.
It is the effective management of self and
the practical management of the business
of everyday life. People high on contextual
remain practical or down-to-earth in life.
Such people remain involved in activities
such as implementing, using, applying,
and seeking relevance.
ACTIVITY 1.4
Application of Triarchic Theory
Read the following problem statements and
identify the type of intelligence that would be
required to solve those problems:
l You see a novel word embedded in a
paragraph and have to infer its meaning
from the context.
l You have to solve everyday problems
faced by an adolescent.
(For answers see Learning Checks on p.11)
Contextual
Subtheory
Specifies the Metacomponents
behaviours Control, monitor, and evaluate
considered intelligent cognitive processing

(or novelty and in a particular

originality) to the
overall conception
of intelligence. A
creat-ively intelligent
person may not
particularly perform
well on a test of
intelligence but is
able to combine
culture Performance Components
Execute strategies assembled
Experiential by metacomponents
Componential
Subtheory
Subtheory
Specifies how
Specifies the Knowledge-acquisition
experiences affect
cognitive processes Components
intelligence and how that underlie all Encode, combine, and
intelligence affects a intelligent behavior compare information
person’s experiences
Fig. 1.3 Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Intelligence 9

PASS MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE Serial Concurrent Serial Concurrent

Extending the information processing

approach, J.P. Das, Naglieri, and Kirby
KNOWLEDGE BASE
(1994) proposed this theory. The basic
statement of the model is that intelligence can First Third
be understood as a result of interdependent Functional Unit Functional Unit
functioning of three neurological systems:
AROUSAL/ PLANNING
those responsible for arousal (and attention), ATTENTION
coding (or processing), and planning. The two
coding processes are simultaneous and

KNOWLEDGE BASE

KNOWLEDGE BASE
successive. Thus the theory is known as

Conceptual

Conceptual
Perceptual

Perceptual
PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and

Memory

Memory
Successive) Theory. The three components of
PASS theory are shown in Fig. 1.4.
l Arousal and
Brain Stem Frontal
Attention: Suppose
a young lady goes to
market with her
3-year-old child. After
some time the child
Functional Unit
Occipital, Parietal and Temporal (Posterior)
becomes restless and
Second

also occasionally Memory Conceptual Perceptual

cries. This arouses

J.P. Das
the mother to attend
to the child’s needs.
Arousal is basic for initiating an activity.
It forces one to focus attention in a
particular direction. You have read earlier
that attention is selective: You do not pay
attention to each and everything that
comes on your way; rather, you attend to
a few selected objects/events/persons
which may be helpful in achieving the
desired goal or are related to the
motivational state.
l Simultaneous and Successive
Processing : The mother realises that her
child is hungry and decides to take her to
a restaurant. She looks at the shops
around her. The shops have displayed
different types of signboards. The mother
attends to those signboards to find out a
restaurant and tries to grasp their
meaning. Here she uses simultaneous and
l Planning : After the attention and
successive processes to grasp the
meaning out of the signboards.
Simultaneous processes help you in
grasping the meaning out of the pictures.
This involves the integration of different
stimuli at a time in groups and is holistic
SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESSIVE
KNOWLEDGE BASE
Fig. 1.4. The PASS Model of Ability
in nature. On the other hand, the mother
reads the letters and words one after
another written on the boards, integrating
the stimuli in series. In this case she is
using successive processing to grasp the
meaning. Learning of digits and alphabets
is another example of successive
processing. Simultaneous and successive
processes can be applied to the tasks of
various modalities (auditory, visual,
kinesthetic etc.) involving different kinds of
stimuli (verbal or non–verbal), and may take
place during direct perception, retention of
information, and at higher cognitive levels.
processing of information, you decide that
this is a restaurant where you can get
something to eat. If there are more than
one, you select one of your choice. Thus,
planning refers to generation of plans or
10
problems as well as to goal setting, strategy
selection, and performance monitoring.
Planning is responsible for activities such
as asking questions, problem solving, and
the capacity for self-monitoring.
Based on the PASS theory, Das-Naglieri
Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) was
developed. The system employs verbal and
non-verbal tests presented through visual and
auditory sensory channels. It is appropriate
for use with individuals between ages 5 to
11, and has been specially designed for use
with intervention purposes. Some measures
are given in Box 1.3. The system is considered
an appropriate and innovative tool for the
assessment of cognitive status.
BOX 1.3 SAMPLES OF PASS MEASURES
Planned Connections ( for Planning): It
requires children to develop some effective way
of connecting sequential stimuli (e.g., the
numbers 1-2-3-4-5), which appears in a diverse
manner on a page. For the first five trials a child
is required to connect the series of numbers in
their proper numerical sequence (1 to 2, 2 to 3,
etc.). On the last two trials the child is required
to alternatively connect numbers and letters in
their proper sequence (1 to A, A to 2, 2 to B, B
to 3, and so on). The test score is the time in
seconds taken by the child in each trial
separately as well as on all the trials.
Expressive Attention ( for Attention):It
consists of three pages, although only the last
page is used as a measure of attention. The first
and second pages contain the words Red, Blue,
and Green written in the respective colours
(page 1) or coloured rectangle of these colours
in varying orders (page 2) arranged in eight
rows and five columns. The task before the
child is to read all the words on page 1 or say
the names of the colours on page 2 as fast as
possible. The selective attention component of
this task is apparent on page 3 through the use
of an interference paradigm. Page 3 contains
the words red, blue, and green printed in
Introduction to Psychology
Creativity and Intelligence
Highly intelligent people may or may not be
creative but highly creative persons are
without doubt highly intelligent. Sternberg
talks about three types of intelligence:
Analytic, Creative , and Practical.
Creativity is a process that requires the
balance and application of various aspects
of intelligence. The creative intelligence is
the ability to go beyond the given data to
generate novel and interesting ideas. A
creative person is a good synthetic thinker, sees
the connections and relationships others don’t
see. In addition, creative people also have the
ability to analyse and evaluate ideas. The
practical intelligence is the third aspect of
creativity, which refers to the ability to translate
theory into practice and transfer abstract ideas
colours different than the words (e.g. word
GREEN printed in red colour). The child’s task
is to name the colour used to print the word,
rather than read the word, as fast as possible.
Time needed to complete is recorded.
Raven’s Progressive Matrices ( for
Simultaneous Processes): These matrices are
used to assess the simultaneous processes. In
this test, the task involves the completion of
figural analogies using a progressive matrix
format. The child is required to choose one of
the six options that best completes the abstract
analogy. The requirement that each component
of the matrix must be interrelated to the others
makes this task congruent with the
simultaneous paradigm. The scores for this test
are the total number of correct choices and the
time taken by the child to complete the task.
Digit Span (for Successive Processes): You
present, for example, the following series of
digits to the child
4-7-9
2-5-8-9
3-5-6-9-11
After each presentation the child is required to
recall the digits. The total number of digits
recalled (maximum) is the digit span.
Intelligence
into practical accomplishments. Thus, while an
intelligent person is high only on analytical
intelligence, a creative person is high on all the
three aspects.
Recapitulation
In this section you read about the three
important contemporary theories of
intelligence. These theories assume that
intelligence is not one or a unitary ability
rather, a composite of many intelligences.
Gardner proposed eight types of
intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical,
Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic,
Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic
intelligences. Sternberg proposed
componential, experiential, and contextual
subtheories of intelligence. Componential
intelligence is concerned with the components
of mental functioning involved in cognitive tasks
that underlie vocabulary, knowledge, insight,
and analogies. Experiential and contextual
intelligences add creativity and practicality,
respectively, to the understanding of
intelligence. J.P. Das considered intelligence
in terms of planning, attention, simultaneous,
and successive processes (PASS model). An
Intelligent person is high on analytical
intelligence, a creative person is high on all
three aspects of intelligence – analytic,
creative and practical.
LEARNING CHECKS II
1. Gardner has proposed seven kinds of
interrelated intelligences. T/F
2. Solving logical puzzles requires bodily-
kinesthetic intelligence. T/F
3. Sailors are high on spatial intelligence.
T/F
4. Componential intelligence covers the
aspects of intelligence measured by
standard intelligence tests. T/F
5. You require componential intelligence
when you see a novel word embedded
in a paragraph and have to infer its
meaning from the context. T/F
6. Contextual intelligence is required to
solve everyday problems faced by an
adolescent. T/F
7. Street-smart persons are high on
experiential intelligence. T/F
8. In the PASS model, the most basic
aspect is coding of information. T/F
11
CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE
It is increasingly recognised that intellectual
processes and skills are determined by the
socio-cultural context in which people live and
grow. Since successful adaptation to one’s
own socio-cultural environment is considered
a sign of intelligence, it is reasonable to
assume that different behaviours may
represent intelligence in different cultures, as
one would observe variations in what a
particular society views as worthwhile,
meaningful and valuable. In certain places,
for example, the skills needed to be an
excellent farmer are far more important than
the skills needed to be a lawyer. Thus,
intelligence is considered a cultural genre or
product of culture. Cultural groups differ in
their notions of what constitutes intelligence.
Such an understanding depends upon
people’s experiences, which is shared by
majority of the persons in the group, is passed
on from one generation to the next in written
or oral form, and is imposed upon each of us
without our conscious intent.
The salient features of Western culture are
urbanisation, high use of technology and
schooling. It emphasises the development of
following factors in children:
l generalisation (or going beyond the
information given),
l speed (faster performance is superior),
l minimal moves (the best performance
calls for reaching the solution in fewest
steps),
l no hands (a preference for mental rather
than physical manipulations), and
l something of one’s own (a preference for
originality or creativity).
This type of culture gives rise to a kind of
intelligence, called technological intelligence,
characterised by attention, observation, speed,
and higher achievement in school. Thus,
intelligence tests developed in the West look
for these qualities among people.
Intelligence in Non-Western Traditions
In contrast to technological intelligence, many
Asian and African cultures consider a person
12 Introduction to Psychology

intelligent on the basis of social and emotional
attributes as well as his or her ability to
perform a task. Table 1.1 summarises the
salient features of intelligence emphasised in
some non-western cultures.
Intelligence in the Indian Context
The Indian thought has shown deep concern
for human potential and explored its nature
in the context of self, society, the universe,
and also beyond all these. The Indian view is
holistic and emphasises mental abilities, both
in the cognitive and non-cognitive domains,
and their integration. ‘Buddhi ’, the word often
used to translate the word intelligence, has
been used in a broader sense as compared to
the scope of intelligence in modern western
psychology. The terms that are used for
buddhi in Sanskrit, in general, refer to
the followings:
l The mental vigour or power of forming and
retaining conceptions and general notions;
l Reason, intellect, mind, discernment, and
judgment;
l Perception, comprehension, apprehen-
sion, and understanding;
l Knowledge of one’s own self, conscience,
will and desire;
l Presence of mind, ready wit, and skill.
The notion of buddhi not only includes
cognitive but also affective and motivational
aspects of life. According to J.P. Das, Buddhi
refers to waking up, noticing, recognising,
understanding, and comprehending. It
includes such things as determination,
mental effort, and even feelings and opinions
in addition to such intellectual processes
as knowledge, discrimination, and
decision-making.
According to the Indian view, an intelli-
gent person shows the following four
competencies:
l Cognitive Competence (such as
sensitivity to context, comprehension,
discrimination, problem-solving, and
effective communication),
l Social Competence (such as following
social norms, service to elders, obedience,
helping the needy, showing concern for
the environment),
l Entrepreneurial Competence (such as
hard work, commitment, vigilance, goal-
directed behaviour), and
l Emotional Competence (such as control
of emotions, honesty, politeness, realistic
self-appraisal, good conduct).
Thus, unlike the IQ notion of intelligence,
the Indian view is not limited to the cognitive
domain alone. Rather, it encompasses the
social and emotional domains, as well as task
performance. The Indian concept is more
inclusive, which emphasises on the
connectivity with the social and work

Table 1.1 Characterisation of Intelligence in Different Cultures

Africa Capability in specific situations, and social responsibility (such as

cooperativeness and obedience).

Baoule Service to the family and community, politeness and respect for elders, and speaking
well in public.

China Non-verbal reasoning (or silent thinking).

Japan (a) Sociable, humorous, and effective speaker, (b) ability to take another’s point of
view, and admitting mistakes, (c) task efficiency, (d) originality, and (e) reading and
writing.

Kenya Ability to judge and perform tasks that are required to be done at homestead.

Uganda Slow, careful and active.

Yoruba More listening than talking, understanding the problem in the proper perspective
and constructive intelligence.
Intelligence
environment. This type of intelligence is
termed as “integral intelligence”.
ACTIVITY 1.5
Understanding Laypersons’ conception
of intelligence
Interview children of different age groups as
well as some adults, across various sections
of society and find “what they think are the
characteristics of an intelligent person”? Try
to understand the concept of intelligence of
these groups.
Discuss the similarities and differences
in their definitions with other students and
the teachers.
Recapitulation
The western concept of intelligence is not valid
in all the societies. In the West, the emphasis
is on technological intelligence, which is
characterised by generalisation, speed of
work, achievement, etc. On the other hand,
in non-western societies, such as Asian and
African, a person is considered intelligent
more on the basis of social and emotional
qualities than on the cognitive attributes
alone. In these societies, an intelligent person
may not work at a high speed. He/she may
be slow but careful; poor in verbal abilities
LEARNING CHECKS III
1. Different behaviours in different
cultures are characterised as
intelligent. T/F
2. A preference for mental manipulation
rather than physical manipulation is
the characteristics of intelligent
behaviour in non-Western societies.
T/F
3. Among Japanese, admitting mistakes
is not considered an intelligent
behaviour. T/F
4. Willingness to cooperate with group
members is considered intelligent in
the African societies. T/F
5. The notion of integral intelligence
emphasises interconnectivity between
cognitive, emotional, and social
worlds. T/F
13
but good at non-veral reasoning abilities;
cooperates with group members; respectful;
and willing to share responsibilities. Indian
view of intelligence encompasses social and
emotional components together with the
cognitive and activity related components.
Thus, it may not be appropriate to label people
as intelligent or not intelligent in these
cultures on the basis of intelligence tests
developed in Western countries. Culture-
specific definitions of intelligence need to be
explored and appropriate measures need to
be developed.
ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
You have read earlier that the first attempt
to measure intelligence was made by Binet.
He also gave the concept of Mental Age (MA),
which refers to an individual’s level of mental
development relative to the environment in which
he/she lives. Binet argued that a mentally
retarded child would perform like a normal
child of a younger age. He compared MA with
Chronological Age (CA) or the biological age or
age from birth. A bright child has an MA above
CA; a dull child has an MA below CA.
The term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was
devised in 1912 by William Stern. IQ refers
to a child’s mental age divided by
chronological age, and multiplied by 100:
MA
IQ = —— x 100
CA
If the mental age is the same as the
Chronological age, then the individual’s IQ is
100 (normal); if mental age is above CA, then
the IQ is more than 100; if mental age is less
than the CA, then the IQ is less than 100. For
example, a 6-year old child with a mental age
of 8 would have an IQ of 133, (8/6 x 100)
whereas a 6-year old child with a mental age
of 5 ( 5/6 x 100) would have an IQ of 83.
ACTIVITY 1.6
Computing the IQ
l Find out the mental age of a 16-year old
student who has an IQ of 125.
l Calculate the IQ of a 12-year old child
whose mental age is 9 years.
14 Introduction to Psychology

Stanford Binet Test revision appeared in 1916, which is known

The intelligence test developed by Binet in
1905 was revised in 1909 and 1911.
Table 1.2 contains some items included in
1911 Binet’s test.
Lewis Terman, a Professor at the
University of Stanford, introduced Binet’s test
in the United States of America, where the
test underwent many revisions. The first
Table 1.2 Some Items from Binet’s
Test of Intelligence (1911 Version) at
Three Different Age Levels.
as Stanford-Binet Test. This was further
revised in 1936 and 1961. The fourth and
latest revision of Stanford-Binet test was
published in 1986. In the earlier revisions,
only a general composite score was computed
to reflect one’s IQ. In the last revision, in
addition to a composite score, the individual’s
responses in four content areas, namely
verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning,
abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term
memory are also obtained.

Year 3 The Wechsler Scales

l Point to eyes, nose, and mouth
l Repeat 2 digits
l Identify objects in a picture
l Repeat a sequence of 6 syllables
Year 7
l Show right hand and left ear
l Describe a picture
l Carryout 3 commands given
simultaneously
l Count the value of 6 coins
Year 15
l Repeat 7 digits
l Find 3 rhymes for a given word in
1 minute
l Repeat a sentence of 26 syllables
l Interpret a set of given facts
Besides the Stanford-Binet Test, the other
most widely used individual intelligence
tests are the Wechsler Scales, developed by
David Wechsler. These are known as: the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS);
the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC) for use with children
between the ages of 6 and 16; and the
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI) for use with children
from the ages of 4 to 6 ½ years. In addition
to providing an overall IQ score, separate
scores for 11 subscales (6 of which are
verbal and 5 non-verbals) are also obtained.
Table 1.3 conta ins sample items
from WAIS.

Table 1.3 Sample items from Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Verbal Scale
Information: What is steam made of?
What is pepper?
Comprehension: Why is copper often used in electric wires?
Why do some people save sales receipts?
Arithmetic: It takes 3 people 9 days to paint a house. How
many would it take to do it in 3 days?
An automobile goes 25 miles in 45 minutes.
How far would it go in 20 minutes?
Digit Repetition: Repeat the following numbers in order:
1, 3, 7, 2, 5, 4
Repeat the following digits in reverse order:
5, 8, 2, 4, 9, 6
Similarities: In what way are a circle and a triangle alike?
In what way are an egg and a seed alike?
Vocabulary: What is a hippopotamus?
What does ‘resemble’ mean?
Intelligence
Distribution of IQ Scores
The IQ scores between 90 and 110 are
labelled as “normal”, above 120 “superior ”
and below 70 as evidence of “mental
retardation” or “mentally challenged
(see Table 1.4).
Table 1.4 Descriptive Labels for IQ Scores
IQ Score Descriptive Label
Above 130 Very Superior
120-130 Superior
110-119 Bright normal
90-109 Average
80-89 Dull normal
70-79 Borderline
Below 70 Mentally Challenged
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TEST
Intelligence tests are available in different
forms. You can select an appropriate type of
test depending upon the purpose of its use.
Some of the types of tests available are
described below.
Individual or Group Tests : These tests
may be classified into different types
depending upon their mode of administration
and content. They may either be administered
to one person at a time (Individual Test) or
to a number of persons simultaneously
(Group Test). The individual tests are
administered to one person at a time. A
trained psychologist generally administers
such tests to one student or one client at a
time. Individual tests allow people to answer
orally or in written form and performance
tasks require manipulation of objects or
forms. Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales
are individually administered tests. The
collection of data using individual tests from
a larger sample is time consuming. However,
individual tests allow the test administrators
to establish proper rapport and give personal
attention to testees, and also maintain their
interest by providing necessary help when
needed.
Group tests generally employ a multiple-
choice format: A question that is followed by
four alternatives and a person has to answer
15
the correct alternative. Separate answer
sheets are provided to write the answers. As
regards administration, examiner plays a
minimal role that is restricted to reading the
instructions of the test and getting the test
completed within the stipulated time limit.
Percent of Population
2.2
6.7
16.1
50.0
16.1
6.7
2.2
There is only a negligible opportunity for one-
to-one interaction between the tester and the
testee. It may, however be noted that, a group
test can also be administered to a single
individual. A group test is not defined by the
number of examinees but by the mode of
administration. There is further difference
between an individual and a group test. The
former helps in the diagnosis and remediation
of individual learning difficulties, and the
latter is more commonly used for mass
screening. Finally, the group tests are
standardised on ultra large samples, while
the individual tests are standardised on
relatively small samples. Though group tests
are easy to administer, putting testees at ease
and maintaining their interest is generally
found to be difficult.
Verbal, Non-Verbal, and Performance Tests:
A Verbal test demands understanding of
written words. Therefore, such tests can
only be administered to literates. Also, it is
difficult to express spatial relationships
between objects through written
communication. Non-Verbal tests use
pictures or illustrations as items. For
example, Raven’s Progressive Matrices
(RPM) is one such test. In RPM, one
incomplete pattern is given. Testees have
to find, one out of six available alternative
figures, which will complete the pattern (see
Fig. 1.5 for an example).
16
1 2 3 fair tests because people of any culture could
4 5 6 Intelligence Testing in India
Fig. 1.5 An item from Raven’s Progressive
Matrices (RPM)
Performance tests are made up of certain
concrete tasks. For instance in Koh’s Block
Design Test, small boxes containing a
number of wooden blocks of different sizes
and shapes are given. The testees task is to
arrange these blocks, in accordance with the
pattern card, in an order within a given time
period. C. M. Bhatia developed a performance
test of intelligence, which is popularly known
as Bhatia Battery. It is called battery because
it is not just one test; rather it consists of a
series of five performance tests.
Culture-biased vs. Culture-fair Tests : Many
intelligence tests show a bias towards the
culture in which they are developed. They
sample items from the experience of a
particular culture. Majority of early tests
favoured urban, middle class, white European
and American people. The items were written
Table 1.5 Some Tests Developed in India
Verbal
1. Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag
Mehta
2. Group Test of Mental Ability by S.
Jalota
3. Indian Adaptation of Binet-Simon
Scale by S.K. Kulshrestha
4. Test of General Mental Ability by
M.C. Joshi
5. The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M.
Mohsin
Introduction to Psychology
with these cultures in view and the intent or
activities in many of these items do not find
place in other cultures, particularly Asian and
African cultures. The norms for these tests were
almost entirely based upon these cultural
groups. To overcome these problems, Non-
Verbal and performance tests have been
developed. These tests are considered culture-
take them. However, it has been noticed that
these tests too show cultural bias.
The development of intelligence tests in India
has for long remained one of the popular
academic pursuits. The first systematic
attempt to standardise a test of intelligence
(Binet’s test) was made by Dr. Rice in Urdu
and Punjabi in 1930s. At about the same time,
Mahalanobis attempted to standardise
Binet’s test of intelligence in Bengali. Up to
1950, the work on Binet’s test was done at
Chennai, Dacca, Jabalpur, and Lahore. Work
was also done on the development of Indian
norms for some other foreign tests like the
WAIS, RPM, Minnesota Paper Forms Board,
Alexander’s Passalong, Cube Construction,
Kohs’ Block Design Test, and others. It was
only since 1950s that published evidence
points towards the development of Indian
tests. The first doctorate on Test Construction
was awarded to K.G. Desai in 1954, for the
development of a group test of intelligence in
Gujarati. Subsequently a number of
intelligence tests were either developed
originally or were adaptations of tests
developed in the West.
Some tests developed in India are given
in Table 1.5.
Performance
1. Adaptation of Wechsler Adult
Performance Intelligence Scale by R.
Ramalingaswamy
2. Draw-A-Man Test by Pramila Phatak
3. Performance Test of Intelligence by
C.M. Bhatia
4. CIE Non-Verbal Test
Intelligence
Recapitulation
Intelligence is measured in terms of IQ, which
refers to a child’s mental age divided by
chronological age, and multiplied by 100. Binet
developed the first test of intelligence, which
has undergone several modifications and has
been used extensively. Wechsler scales (WAIS,
WISC, & WPPSI) are the other widely used
scales. Since then, many intelligence tests have
been developed, some of which can be
administered to a group while others can be
administered individually. Intelligence tests
come in three categories: Verbal, Non-Verbal,
and Performance. Test contents that show bias
toward a particular culture are called Culturally
Biased Tests. Some tests have been developed
on the assumption that they can be
administered in any culture and, thus, called
Culture-Fair Tests. IQ tests, providing a single
index of intelligence, have in recent years been
BOX 1.4 ALTERNATIVES TO IQ TESTING
In recent years some alternative ways of
assessing intelligence have emerged. Some of
these are:
Biological Measures of Intelligence:
Among the biological measures, Reaction Time
(RT) is considered a more valid measure of
intelligence. Reaction time refers to the time gap
(in seconds) between presentation of a stimulus
and the beginning of a response by the
individual. For example, when traffic light is
red, you stop and wait for the green light. After
the light turns green, you take some time to
start moving. The time gap between onset of the
green light and your movement is a measure of
RT. It could be in visual or auditory mode. The
speed and consistency with which people
perform on reaction time tasks discriminate
between groups of individuals expected to differ
in their intellective functions. It is based on the
assumption that being intelligent involves being
able to process information quickly. For
example, individuals with mental retardation
have slower and less consistent reaction times
than normal people. Similarly, gifted individuals
have faster and more consistent reaction time
than average persons.
Inspection time is another measure of
intelligence. It reflects the minimum amount
of time a particular stimulus must be exposed
17
loosing their popularity for several reasons
and alternative measures such as reaction
time, dynamic testing, etc, are gaining
popularity. In India, after 1950, a number of
tests for assessment of intelligence have
been developed.
VARIATIONS IN THE LEVEL OF INTELLIGENCE
You have observed in Table 1.4 that about
2 per cent of the population possess IQ
scores above 130 and a similar percentage
possess IQ scores below 70. The first group
is termed as the intellectually gifted and
the later as mentally retarded or
challenged. These individuals are different
from the average population for the reason
that their performance is at variance from
what is expected from people of their age
and circumstances.
to an individual to make a judgement about it
that meets some pre-established criteria of
accuracy. The shorter the inspection time, the
faster will be, presumably, the person’s
cognitive (mental) operations.
Dynamic Testing : As you have read, the
available intelligence tests measure developed
abilities of the individuals. You have learnt (in
chapter 12, class XI) about Vygotsky’s notion of
Zone of Potential Development (ZPD). ZPD
refers to the difference between the actual
development and the developmental level which a
child can attain after proper guidance. The
dynamic testing is based upon the principle of
ZPD. It is done in two phases. In the first phase,
(also called interaction phase), an adult
(usually a teacher or a parent) familiarises the
child with the tasks, gives them hints about how
they could be solved, motivates them, and also
makes some modifications in the tasks (such as
changing the order of presentation, frequency of
presentation, etc.) depending upon the child’s
developmental level. In the second phase, the
actual testing takes place, in which the child is
given the tasks or the test to solve them.
Piagetian Tasks: Recall Piaget’s theory of
development (Chapter 12, class XI). There you
have read about seriation, conservation,
pendulum tasks, etc. These tasks are also used
for the assessment of intelligence.
18
LEARNING CHECKS IV
1. Mental age is obtained on the basis of
the individual’s performance on a test
of intelligence. T/F
2. Maximum number of individuals
possess an average IQ, ranging
between 90 to 110. T/F
3. Professor Stanford adapted Binet’s
tests. Therefore, these tests are called
Stanford-Binet tests. T/F
4. Wechsler scales of intelligence have
both verbal and performance sub-
tests. T/F
5. Culture-fair tests can only be
administered to the persons of a
particular culture. T/F
6. You can also know one’s intelligence
on the basis of his/her reaction time.
T/F
GIFTEDNESS : NATURE AND INDENTIFICATION
The term ‘gifted’ is an adjective, which refers
to a person ‘endowed with one gift or many
gifts; exceptionally talented or intelligent’. The
study of such gifted persons began with the
work of Lewis Terman, in 1925, who
developed intelligence tests for screening
populations to identify individuals of superior
cognitive ability. Thus, giftedness was defined
as high general intelligence as measured by
high score on a test of intelligence. In recent
years, however, giftedness is defined as a
superior ability in any worthwhile line of
human endeavour including moral,
physical, emotional, social, intellectual,
or aesthetic life of the humanity.
Outstanding talents are present in children
and youth from all cultural groups, across
all economic strata, and in all areas of human
endeavours. It is evident from the above
definition that:
l Gifted individuals exhibit high levels of
performance in comparison to their peers
living in the same socio-cultural
background.
l Giftedness is not restricted to performance
on a test of intelligence. Rather, it is a
Introduction to Psychology
combination of general ability, specific
talents, self-concept, and motivation that
predisposes the gifted person to learn, to
achieve, and to strive for excellence.
l It is not limited to school related activities
alone but also involves areas, such as
sports and leadership.
l Mere possession of cognitive abilities is
not regarded as giftedness. Rather, it is
the nature and organisation of abilities
(i.e., processes) that constitute giftedness.
The nature, direction, and speed of this
process depends partly upon cognitive
factors, but is strongly influenced by
personality and motivation, and has
strong social elements including an
ethical dimension, and an important
communication aspect.
Joseph Renzulli proposes that giftedness
depends on the interaction of three factors :
high intelligence, high creativity, and high
motivation as shown Fig. 1.6.
Giftedness
High High
Intelligence Creativity
High
Motivation
Fig. 1.6 Aspects of Giftedness
Characteristics of Gifted Children : Gifted
children show early signs of being exceptional.
During infancy such children show large
attention span, good recognition memory,
preference for novelty, over-reactivity to
sensations, and early onset of language.
Table 1.6 contains some of the salient
characteristics of such children.
Identifying the Gifted
The tests of intelligence and achievement have
been most frequently employed for the
identification of the gifted children. Many
Intelligence 19

Table 1.6 Characteristics of Gifted Children

l A Higher order in thinking process, problem solving and decision-making.

l Transferring skills to new problems and solving problems insightfully.
l Independent thinking and non-conformism.
l High on self-efficacy and internal locus of control.
l Preference for being solitary and introverted.
l High incidence of social and emotional problems.
l Intrinsically motivated to achieve mastery, derive pleasure from work, and having a high
self-esteem about their intellectual capacities.
l Possibility of showing giftedness in one area and poor learning in another.

BOX 1.5 IDENTIFICATION OF TALENT IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT

The National Talent Search Scheme is run by
the National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) in which 1000
scholarships are awarded each year to the
students studying in Grade 10. The scholarship
is awarded on the basis of examination
conducted in two phases: State and National
Level examinations. The state level examination
is conducted by the State Governments. The
students recommended by the States appear in
the national level written examination, which
consists of Mental Ability and Scholastic
Aptitude Tests. The candidates selected at the
national level are called for interview. Awards
are declared on the basis of the national level
written tests and interviews. The scholarship is
available for studies up to the doctorate level in
the basic and social sciences and up to second-
degree level in engineering and medicine.
The Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas,
another prominent scheme of the Government
of India caters to the gifted children in rural
areas and in the weaker sections of the society.
The admission to these vidyalayas are made
through an objective type test, which consists
of Mental Ability, Language Proficiency and
Arithmetic Ability.
For promoting cultural talent, the Cultural
Talent Search Programme is run by the
Centre for Cultural Resources and Training.
Under this scheme, facilities are provided to
outstanding young children in the age group
of 10-14 years studying either in recognised
schools or belonging to the families of
practicing traditional performing or other arts
for developing their talent in various cultural
fields such as traditional form of music,
dance, drama as well as painting, sculpture
and crafts, laying emphasis on rare
forms, which are in the process of becoming
extinct.

special programmes for gifted children have l Parent interviews

rather used rigid cut off points such as IQ’s
of 130, 135, 150, or 160, or achievement at
about the 95th percentile. In recent times,
however, attention is given to the following
types of data as indicator of giftedness:
l Performance on group intelligence test
l Teacher judgment
l School record, including achievement test
scores and teacher grades
l Performance on individual intelligence test
l Appraisal of social and emotional maturity
and adjustment
l Pupil ambition and drive
In addition, peer and self-nominations
also do help in identification of the gifted child
in certain cases.
Giftedness is a multi-dimensional term.
Though, differences in gifted and talented
students may be observed at all levels, it is
more pronounced at the secondary school
level. Some gifted youngsters are just slightly
above average, while others are very unusual
to the extent of being extremely rare. Some
are gifted in just one area, while others show
20 Introduction to Psychology

it in many areas. Also, gifted children differ
in terms of motivation or interest.
INTELLECTUAL DEFICIENCY:
NATURE AND TYPES
There are defined diagnostic schemes, as
given by the American Association on Mental
Retardation (1992), and American Psychiatric
Association (1994), for judging the presence
and degree of mental retardation. According
to these criteria, mental retardation (or
mentally challenged) is currently defined
as intelligence test performance two or
more standard deviations below the mean,
accompanied by limitations in adaptive
functioning such as failure to cope with
the common tasks of daily living
appropriate to one’s age and situation.
According to this definition, persons having
IQ below 70, coupled with the inability to
manage their everyday activities like a normal
person, are classified as intellectually deficient
or mentally challenged. Table 1.7 contains the
characteristics of different types of mentally
challenged persons. It may be noted that the
IQ ranges, as shown in Table 1.6, are not viewed
rigidly. Rather, a person’s ability to function in
everyday life is important. The decision about
the level of mental retardation is based upon
the skills to perform in daily life.
Two points here are worth noting. First,
low performance on a test may also be due to
defects in vision, hearing, and health, which

Table 1.7 Characteristics of the Mentally Challenged

Level of Mental Retardation

Area of Mild Moderate Severe

Functioning (IQ range = 50-70) (IQ range = 35-49) (IQ range = 20-34)
and Profound
(IQ = below 20)
Self-help Skills Feeds and dresses Has difficulties and No skills to partial
self and cares for requires training but skills, but some can
own toilet needs can learn adequate care for personal needs
self-help skills on limited basis
Speech and Receptive and Receptive and Receptive language
Communication expressive, language expressive, language is limited to good;
is adequate; is adequate; expressive, language
understands has speech problems is limited to poor
communication
Academics Optimal learning Very few academic No academic skills
environment, third skills; first or second
to sixth grade grade is maximal
Social Skills Has friends; can Capable of making Not capable of having
learn to adjust friends but has real friends;
quickly difficulty in many No social interactions
social situations
Vocational Can hold a job; Sheltered work Generally no
Adjustment competitive to semi- environment; usually employment; usually
competitive; primarily needs consistent needs constant care
unskilled work supervision
Adult Living Usually marries, Usually does not No marriage or
has children; needs marry or have children; always
help during stress children; dependent dependent on others
Intelligence
BOX 1.6 NEW DIRECTIONS: EMOTIONAL, PRACTICAL,
AND SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCES
Emotional Intelligence (EI): Salovey
and Mayer first formally defined the concept
of EI in 1990, which emphasises blending
cognition with emotions. It gained popularity by
the publication of the best selling popular book
‘Emotional Intelligence’ by Goleman in 1995.
EI is generally defined as a form of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor
one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions,
to discriminate among them, and to use this
information to guide one’s thinking and
actions. Briefly, it consists of the following
four dimensions.
l Perception, appraisal, and expression
of emotion
l Emotional facilitation of cognitive
activities
l Understanding and analysing
emotional information and employing
l Regulation of emotion
Practical Intelligence: It refers to the
kind of thinking people do in solving their day-
to-day problems, whether at home, in social
settings, or at work. It may be viewed as “mind
in action” or the thinking that is embedded in
the larger scale purposive activities of life. It
serves to achieve the goals of everyday
activities of daily life. In occupational settings, it
is the ability to learn and then apply information
that is never explicitly taught to workers nor is
rarely verbalised, but is essential for success.
Also called Tacit Knowledge or Procedural
Knowledge, it enables the workers to meet the
often unwritten or unspoken demands of their
job. There are three characteristic features of
tacit knowledge.
l Tacit knowledge is procedural in nature and
intimately linked to action. It takes the form
of “knowing how” to do something rather
than “knowing that” subject.
l It helps in attaining one’s goals.
l It is acquired without direct help from others
– on one’s own. It is the knowledge that is
unspoken, under-emphasised, or poorly
conveyed relative to its importance for
practical success.
Thus, practical intelligence seems to be of
more use in concrete situations than academic
21
intelligence, as measured by the tests
of intelligence.
Spiritual Intelligence (SQ): It is the
intelligence with which humans address and
solve problems of meaning and value, the
intelligence with which we can place our
actions and our lives in a wider, richer,
meaning-given context, the intelligence with
which we can assess that one course of
action or one life-path is more meaningful
than the other. It is considered to be the
Ultimate Intelligence. We have a longing to
see our lives in some larger meaning-giving
context, be it family, the community, the
work, religious framework or the universe
itself. It takes us beyond the present moment
and ourselves. Spiritual intelligence allows
human beings to be creative, to change the
rules and to alter situations by extending the
boundaries. SQ operates out of the brain’s
centre and integrates all our intelligences. SQ
makes us the fully intellectual, emotional and
spiritual creatures that we are. SQ has no
necessary connection with religion.
Danah Zohar and Ian Marshall in their
book “Spiritual Intelligence: The Ultimate
Intelligence” (2000) have reported the indicators
of a highly developed SQ. These include:
l The capacity to be flexible (actively and
spontaneously adaptive).
l A high degree of self-awareness.
l A capacity to use and face suffering.
l A capacity to face and transcend pain.
l The quality of being inspired by value and
vision.
l A capacity to inspire others.
l A reluctance to cause unnecessary harm.
l A tendency to see the connections between
diverse things (being ‘holistic’).
l A marked tendency to ask ‘why?’ or ‘what
if?’ questions and to seek ‘fundamental’
answers.
l Being what psychologists call ‘field-
independent’—possessing a facility for
working against convention.
22
may erroneously lead to categorising a person
as mentally challenged. You need to be certain
that vision, hearing, and general health
conditions of the person likely to be
categorised as mentally challenged are
functioning normally. Second, the person’s
linguistic and cultural backgrounds must also
be taken into consideration. You can’t expect
someone to perform a task appropriately if
he/she has not performed similar tasks in
past or is not a part of his/her everyday
activities. Children should be classified as
retarded only if they exhibit both a low IQ
and deficiencies in everyday skills, and only
if linguistic or cultural barriers, physical
handicaps, emotional disturbances, or ill
health cannot explain those problems.
Causes of Mental Retardation
Many organic conditions can cause mental
retardation. For example, Down Syndrome is
associated with mild to severe retardation.
Persons suffering with this syndrome show
distinctive physical characteristics, such as
slanted eyes, stubby limbs, and thin hair.
Down syndrome is caused by the possession
of an extra chromosome. Phenylketonuria
is a metabolic disorder (due to an inherited
enzyme deficiency) that can lead to
retardation if it is not caught and treated in
infancy. Hydrocephaly or excessive
accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the
skull destroys brain tissues and causes
retardation. Scientists have been able to
unravel more of the genetic bases for various
kinds of mental disorders.
A variety of unfavourable environmental
factors also cause mental retardation. A vast
majority of mildly retarded children come
from the lower socioeconomic classes, where
a host of factors – such as greater marital
instability, parental neglect, inadequate
nutrition and medical care, and lower quality
schooling – many of these factors contribute
to children’s poor intellectual development.
Recapitulation
There are two major types of extreme
variations in intellectual ability–the
giftedness and the mental retardation (or
mentally challenged). Giftedness refers to
Introduction to Psychology
the high levels of accomplishments in
comparison to one’s age, experience, and
environment and also with respect to the
norms. Gifted children show long attention
spans, good recognition memory,
preference for novelty, over reactivity to
sensations, and early onset of language.
Multiple methods such as test, teacher
judgement, school record, social and
emotional maturity, etc, are used to identify
these children. On the other hand, mentally
retarded children score two or more
standard deviations below the mean on a
test of intelligence. Also, they show poor
performance in comparison to the normal
children in areas like self-help, speech and
communication, social skills, academics,
vocational adjustments, and adult living.
Many organic conditions can cause mental
retardation. For example, Down Syndrome
is associated with mild to severe
retardation. Similarly, Phenylketonuria, a
metabolic disorder, can lead to retardation.
LEARNING CHECKS V
1. One can be gifted in the moral and
aesthetic aspects of life as well. T/F
2. The performance of gifted people is
superior to the performance of all other
individuals irrespective of their age and
background. T/F
3. High incidence of social and emotional
problems is observed in the gifted
people. T/F
4. The verbal expression of a severely
retarded person is similar to that of a
normal person. T/F
5. Moderately retarded persons can learn
‘self-help skills’ by appropriate training.
T/F
SPECIAL ABILITIES OR APTITUDES:
NAURE AND MEASUREMENT
An aptitude is a combination of
characteristics that indicates an
individual’s capacity to acquire some
specific knowledge, or skill, after
training. It simply states that you need to
Intelligence
possess various qualities in different
proportions to learn or become something,
such as to acquire ability to speak a language,
to become a musician, to do some mechanical
work, and so on. These qualities can be
harnessed by appropriate training. In other
words, if a person does not have the special
abilities required to become a musician, such
as discrimination between pitch, tone,
rhythm, and other aspects of musical
sensitivity, he/she would not be a musician,
even after sufficient training.
There are salient differences between
intelligence, aptitude, and achievement.
Intelligence refers to the ability of a person
to do certain thing at a given time. Aptitude
refers to the potential ability of the individual
to perform a task, which generally consists
of a combination of abilities. Achievement
involves performance at any given point
of time in a particular subject (e.g.
mathematics) with which you have been
made familiar.
Aptitude tests, because they are
concerned with the potential of doing
something, are used for prediction. Many
aptitude tests, such as clerical aptitude,
mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude,
typing aptitude, etc. have been developed
to predict success in specific professions.
Each of these tests usually contains a
number of sub-tests. Several multiple
aptitude test batteries have been developed.
In a Multiple Aptitude Test Battery the
examinee is tested in several separate,
homogenous aptitude areas. Prominent
aptitude test batteries are: The Differential
Aptitude Test (DAT), the General Aptitude
Test Battery (GATB), and the Armed
Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
(ASVAB), etc. Salient characteristics of one
of the batteries most often used in
educational settings are described here.
The DAT was first developed to provide a
basis for the educational and vocational
guidance of students for grades 8 through 12.
Subsequently, it has been found useful for
vocational counselling of young adults out of
school and in the selection of employees. It
consists of eight independent sub-tests:
l Verbal Reasoning (VR)
l Numerical Ability (NA)
23
l Abstract Reasoning (AR)
l Clerical Speed and Accuracy (CSA)
l Mechanical Reasoning (MR)
l Space Relations (SR)
l Spelling (S)
l Language Use (LU)
J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian
adaptation of the DAT. In addition, a number
of aptitude tests have been developed in India
for measuring scientific, teaching, clerical,
engineering, scholastic, medical, literary and
other aptitudes.
Let us understand the nature of some of
the tests, which are used for aptitude testing.
Mechanical Reasoning : This test attempts
to predict success in fields involving repair of
autos, refrigerators, air-conditioners
equipments, and the like. A typical test item
is shown below in Fig. 1.7. It has two gears.
If gear x is moving in the direction of the
arrow, will gear y move : (a) clockwise or (b)
counter clockwise?
Y X
Fig. 1.7 An Item of Mechanical Aptitude Test
Verbal Skills : This test measures a person’s
interest in and knowledge about words. It is
assumed that a person who scores poorly in
this area will not do well in occupations
requiring a great deal of reading and writing.
Clerical Speed and Accuracy : It attempts
to measure some of the skills necessary in
clerical and office jobs. This is a timed, speed
test because such a job require speed with
which one works.
Generally, the tests measuring different
aptitudes are grouped together in the form of
a Test battery. The battery of tests is
administered to the client for counselling.
24 Introduction to Psychology

ACTIVITY 1.7

Test Your Mechanical Engineering Aptitude

This is a test of applied science and b) One in which it doesn’t get submerged.
mechanics. Twenty items are given below, c) Both are equal.
read each item carefully and mark (ü) one
answer (a,b or c) that you think is correct. In 6. If a car turns towards the right, man sitting
this manner complete the test without inside will move towards:
spending too much time. a) Right.
1. A heavy weight is kept on a wooden plank b) Left.
in such a way that the weight is closer to c) Won’t move at all.
side A and away from side B. If the plank
is lifted by two persons then: 7. If a moving train turns towards the right
a) Person on side A will have the heavier direction, which side of the rails will be
load. higher:
b) Person on side B will have the heavier a) The outer rail.
load. b) The inner rail.
c) The load will be equal on both sides. c) Both would be equal.

2. If a heavy weight is to be lifted with the 8. If hot liquid is poured into a glass tumbler
help of a rope, which person will have to which is likely to break:
pull it harder. a) The tumbler with thick walls.
a) The person who pulls the rope through
b) The tumbler with thin walls.
a single pulley.
c) Both are equally likely to break.
b) The person who pulls the rope through
a double pulley.
9. In a moving wheel, which point moves faster
c) The effort will be the same in both the
a) The point on the inner side of the
cases.
wheel.

3. If a bicycle has two unequal wheels, which b) The point on the outer side of the
wheel will turn faster. wheel.
a) The smaller wheel. c) Both will move at an equal pace.
b) The larger wheel.
c) Both will be equal. 10. Which stool will be steadier:
a) Stool with three legs.
4. If one table fan has three blades and the b) Stool with four legs.
other five, which fan needs a more powerful c) Stool with five legs.
motor:
a) The fan with 3 blades. 11. In a moving car the left hand break of the
b) The fan with 5 blades. front wheel somehow gets locked, resulting
c) Both will need equally powerful motors. in stopping the wheel. Which side will the
car turn :
5. Which liquid is heavier: a) Towards the right.
a) One in which a piece of wood gets b) Towards the left.
totally sub-merged. c) It will just stop.
contd...
Intelligence 25

12. Three different weights fall from a certain 17. There are two pendulums, one has short
height under a vacuum condition. They will length and the other long. Which pendulum
reach the earth: will oscillate faster:
a) At the same time. a) Pendulum with shorter length.
b) Time will be proportional to the weight. b) Pendulum with longer length.
c) None of the above. c) Both will oscillate with equal
movement.
13. The car engine idling or in low speed
operation requires: 18. If the water in the building is coming from
a) A rich mixture. an overhead roof-top-tank, which floor will
b) A lean mixture. get the greatest pressure in the taps:
c) Theoretically correct mixture. a) Second floor.
14. In a head-on collision the driver is thrown: b) First floor.
a) Forward. c) Ground floor.
b) Backwards.
c) Restrained by the safety belt. 19. If the flying plane is to be turned in the left
direction, in which direction must the rudder
15. The apparent weight of a man in a moving be turned:
lift is less than his real weight when it is a) Left.
moving down with: b) Right.
a) An acceleration. c) No need to turn the rudder.
b) Uniform speed.
c) Retardation. 20. If we keep a silver spoon in one glass
tumbler and a wooden spoon in the other,
16. Fins over engine cylinder in scooter are which tumbler is more likely to break, when
provided for: boiling water is poured into it:
a) Strengthening the cylinder. a) The tumbler with the silver spoon.
b) Better cooling. b) The tumbler with the wooden spoon.
c) Good appearance. c) Both are equally likely.

© K.D.BROOTA
Note: These are sample items. They should not be used for evaluation and diagnosis.

KEY
Give a Score of 1 if you have marked the following answers and finally, add all the scores.
17. a, 18. c, 19. a, 20. b
1. a, 2.b, 3.a, 4. b, 5. b, 6. b, 7. a, 8. a, 9. b, 10.a, 11. b, 12. a, 13.a, 14. a, 15. a, 16. b,

INTERPRETATION
Scores Level of Aptitude
15-20 High,
10-14 Medium
Scores below 10 Poor
26 Introduction to Psychology

ACTIVITY 1.8

Test Your Abstract Reasoning

Out of the four figures (a), (b), (c) & (d) given in each problem, three are similar in some way,
choose and mark the figure that is different from the other three.

(A) (B)

I. ODD MAN OUT II. COMPLETING THE SQUARE

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

QF AF

a b c d a b c d

© K.D. Broota
Attention : These are sample items. They should not be used for evaluation or diagnosis
KEY
Right Answers : 1a, 2b, 3d, 4c, 5b INTERPRETATION
COMPLETING THE SQUARE Scores and Abstract Reasoning
II.
Right Answers : 1b, 2d, 3b,4d, 5d. 8-10 High,
ODDMAN OUT 5-7 Medium and
I.
Scores below 5: Poor.
Assign a score of 1 for correct answers.
Add all the scores in I and II
Intelligence 27

Key Terms

Adaptation, Aptitude, Aptitude Test, Logical-mathematical Intelligence, Mental Age,

Culture-fair-test, Emotional Intelligence, Mental Retardation, Multiple Intelligences,
Group Tests, Individual Test, Integral Non-verbal Tests, PASS Theory, Performance
Intelligence, Intelligence, Intelligence Quotient, Tests, Practical Intelligence, Shaping,
Intelligence Tests, Linguistic Intelligence, Technological Intelligence.

SUMMARY

l Intelligence is one of the highly popular psychological concepts. Traditionally,

intelligence was defined in terms of ability to do abstract reasoning, ability to learn,
and ability to adapt in novel situations. The recent views of intelligence recognise
active role of an intelligent person in terms of shaping and selecting an environment
according to his/her choice.
l The more recent approach to understand intelligence does not see it as a unitary
ability; rather it assumes that there are many type of intelligences. Gardner
proposed eight different types of intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical,
Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.
Sternberg’s theory distinguishes three aspects of intelligence–a componential
aspect, an experiential aspect, and a contextual aspect. The PASS model of J.P.
Das conceptualised intelligence in terms of Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and
Successive Processing.
l Studies about the nature of intelligence in different cultures have shown that it is
culturally variable. In the West it is more conceptualised in terms of cognitive
abilities and the speed with which cognitive functions are performed. In contrast,
non-Western cultures view intelligence in terms of social and emotional competence
such as obedience, cooperation, fulfilling role-related obligations, and giving
weightage to group goals than individual goals. In India, the conceptualisation is
more integral as it includes cognitive, social, emotional, and task performance.
l Intelligence is assessed with the help of a specially designed test which gives an
indication about the mental age of a person. The score on an intelligence test may
be converted into IQ, which is obtained by dividing mental age (MA) by
chronological age (CA), and multiplying by 100. IQ between 90-110 is considered
average in intelligence. The first attempt to assess intelligence was made by Alfred
Binet in 1905, which has undergone several revisions. Intelligence tests can be
administered in groups as well as individually; can be verbal or performance types;
and may be culturally biased or culturally fair.
l A small proportion of the population is found to possess very high level of
intelligence. They are called “gifted”. These persons show higher order thinking,
easily transfer skills to new problems and solve problems insightfully, are non-
conforming, high on self efficacy, prefer to remain solitary, intrinsically motivated,
and also show high incidence of social and emotional problems. The gifted children
can also be identified on the basis of teachers’ judgement, school record, social
and emotional maturity, and parental opinion. Mentally retarded children, on the
other hand, score two or more standard deviations below the mean on a test of
intelligence. Mental retardation can be of four types: mild, moderate, severe, and
profound. Such mentally challenged people have difficulty in feeding, dressing,
and communicating, lack social skills, and are vocationally maladjusted.
l An aptitude refers to the potential of an individual to performa a task. It is used for
prediction purposes. A number of aptitude tests are available for use in different
areas. Generally, a battery of tests is administered to identify the potential areas.
28 Introduction to Psychology

Review Questions

1. How can you relate intelligence to adaptation, shaping, and selection?

2. What are the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner?
3. How is Sternberg’s theory different from that of Gardner?
4. What is experiential intelligence?
5. What are the components of PASS model of intelligence?
6. What is IQ? How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
7. What is giftedness? How can gifted children be identified?
8. What is mental retardation? What are the salient characteristics of a mentally retarded person?
9. What is aptitude? How is it measured?
10. Is concept of intelligence similar across cultures?
11. What are the different types of intelligence test?

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS

I : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F
II : 1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T,
6. T, 7.F, 8.F
III : 1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. T
IV : 1. T, 2. T, 3. F., 4. T, 5. F,
6. T
V : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T