ABSTRACT

In this paper, there is an introduction in chapter one, there are motivation, modes
of operation, analysis of helix and modified helices in chapter two, there are helical
antenna wave dispersion and radiation resistance in chapter three about helical
antenna. We can see an example for helical antenna in chapter four. In chapter five,
there are five topics. First one is feed impedance, second is polarization, third is
summary, fourth is conclusions and the last one is references.

1
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

A helical antenna is an antenna consisting of a conducting wire wound in the

form of a helix. In most cases, helical antennas are mounted over a ground plane.
Helical antennas can operate in one of two principal modes: normal (broadside) mode
or axial (or end-fire) mode.

A helical antenna is a specialized antenna that emits and responds to

electromagnetic fields with rotating (circular) polarization. These antennas are
commonly used at earth-based stations in satellite communications systems. This type
of antenna is designed for use with an unbalanced feed line such as coaxial cable. The
center conductor of the cable is connected to the helical element, and the shield of the
cable is connected to the reflector. To the casual observer, a helical antenna appears as
one or more "springs" or helixes mounted against a flat reflecting screen. The length of
the helical element is one wavelength or greater. The reflector is a circular or square
metal mesh or sheet whose cross dimension (diameter or edge) measures at least 3/4
wavelength. The helical element has a radius of 1/8 to 1/4 wavelengths, and a pitch of
1/4 to 1/2 wavelength. The minimum dimensions depend on the lowest frequency at
which the antenna is to be used. If the helix or reflector is too small (the frequency is
too low), the efficiency is severely degraded. Maximum radiation and response occur
along the axis of the helix. Helical antennas are commonly connected together in so-
called bays of two, four, or occasionally more elements with a common reflector. The
entire assembly can be rotated in the horizontal (azimuth) and vertical (elevation)
planes, so the system can be aimed toward a particular satellite. If the satellite is not in
a geostationary orbit, the azimuth and elevation rotators can be operated by a
computerized robot that is programmed to follow the course of the satellite across the
sky.

The helical antenna has a long history and has been the object of much study
and development over the last half century since its invention in 1946 [Kraus, 1976].
It is an interesting antenna with unique characteristics, being capable of high gain,
wide bandwidth, and circular polarization. As a result, it has been used in a wide range

2
of applications including satellite communications, radio astronomy, and wireless
networking. This dissertation presents a fundamental advancement of the basic axial
mode helix design. This new form of helix antenna, called the Stub Loaded Helix
(SLH) antenna, offers the advantage of a significant reduction in helix antenna size
with only a relatively small corresponding reduction in performance. The performance
reduction in many applications is not relevant and the application requirements are still
satisfied. The result is a new antenna design that offers the performance characteristics
and advantages of the conventional axial mode helix but in a much more compact
physical size envelope. The original aspects of the work described in this dissertation
are covered by U.S. patent #5,986,621. All intellectual properties related to this patent
are controlled and administered by Virginia Tech Intellectual Properties, Inc.

The helical antenna is a hybrid of two simple radiating elements, the dipole and
loop antennas. A helix becomes a linear antenna when its diameter approaches zero or
pitch angle goes to 90 o . On the other hand, a helix of fixed diameter can be seen as a
loop antenna when the spacing between the turns vanishes (a 0o ) .

Helical antennas have been widely used as simple and practical radiators over
the last five decades due to their remarkable and unique properties. The rigorous
analysis of a helix is extremely complicated. Therefore, radiation properties of the
helix, such as gain, far-field pattern, axial ratio, and input impedance have been
investigated using experimental methods, approximate analytical techniques, and
numerical analyses. Basic radiation properties of helical antennas are reviewed in this
chapter.

The geometry of a conventional helix is shown in Figure 2.1a. The parameters

that describe a helix are summarized below.
D diameter of helix
S spacing between turns
N number of turns
C circumference of helix  π D
A total axial length NS
a pitch angle

3
If one turn of the helix is unrolled, as shown in Figure 2.1(b), the relationships
between S, C, a and the length of wire per turn, L , are obtained as:

S L sin a C tan a

1 1
L=(S 2 +C2 ) 2 = ( S2 + π 2 D2 ) 2

Figure 1.1 A sketch of a typical helical antenna

4
 CHAPTER TWO

SURVEY OF HELICAL ANTENNAS

2.1 Motivation

The original motivation for this work came from the desire to develop a reduced
size helix antenna for use in satellite communications links for both earth terminals
and on space platforms. Although technological trends are toward the use of higher
frequencies in the microwave and millimeter regions where greater bandwidths are
available, there are still a number of satellite systems that utilize the VHF and UHF
frequency bands. The most prominent of these is the U.S. Navy FLTSATCOM system
which utilizes a network of geosynchronous satellites to provide worldwide coverage
to bases, ships, and mobile ground forces.

At VHF and UHF frequencies, the physical dimensions of a conventional axial

mode helix can be large enough to present difficulties, particularly for mobile forces
and on the ever 2 increasingly crowded top sides of today's naval ships. A typical helix
for FLTSATCOM applications can have a helix diameter on the order of one foot
(30.5 cm) and an axial length of 12 feet (4 meters) or greater with a ground plane on
the order of 4 feet (1.3 meters). Mounting and pointing of such a large structure
presents mechanical problems. Any reduction in antenna size without significantly
impacting performance would be very desirable.

In every aspect of wireless communications today, there is a desire to minimize

antenna size. The technological progress that has produced significant advances in the
miniaturization of components and circuitry has not been mirrored by corresponding
advancements in antenna miniaturization, for a very fundamental reason. Solid state
components are only now approaching structure sizes that are comparable to the
wavelength of an electron. Most antennas operate in the size regime where their
physical dimensions are on the order of the wavelength of operation. Much theoretical

5
work over the years, as well empirical results, indicate that antenna size reduction
results in compromises of some key performance characteristics, most notably
efficiency and bandwidth. It is the goal and art of engineering to minimize and
optimize these compromises to provide a solution that meets the requirements of each
specific application. It is hoped that the Stub Loaded Helix antenna has achieved an
appropriate balance between performance and compromises in order to be considered
a useful contribution.

2.2 Modes of Operation

2.2.1 Transmission Modes

An infinitely long helix may be modeled as a transmission line or waveguide

supporting a finite number of modes. If the length of one turn of the helix is small
compared to the wavelength, L λ , the lowest transmission mode, called the T0
mode, occurs. Figure 2.2a shows the charge distribution for this mode.

When the helix circumference, C , is of the order of about one wavelength

(C 1λ) , the second-order transmission mode, referred to as the T 1 mode, occurs. The
charge distribution associated with the T1 mode can be seen in Figure 2.2b. Higher-
order modes can be obtained by increasing of the ratio of circumference to wavelength
and varying the pitch angle.

2.2.2 Radiation Modes

When the helix is limited in length, it radiates and can be used as an antenna.
There are two radiation modes of important practical applications, the normal mode
and the axial mode. Important properties of normal-mode and axial-mode helixes are
summarized below.

6
 Figure 2.1 (a) Geometry of helical antenna; (b) Unrolled turn of helical antenna

Figure 2.2 Instantaneous charge distribution for transmission modes: (a) The lowest-order mode
(T0); (b) The second-order mode (T1)

7
2.2.2.1 Normal Mode

For a helical antenna with dimensions much smaller than wavelength (NL λ) ,
the current may be assumed to be of uniform magnitude and with a constant phase
along the helix . The maximum radiation occurs in the plane perpendicular to the helix
axis, as shown in Figure 2.3a. This mode of operation is referred to as the “normal
mode”. In general, the radiation field of this mode is elliptically polarized in all
directions. But, under particular conditions, the radiation field can be circularly
polarized. Because of it small size compared to the wavelength, the normal-mode helix
has low efficiency and narrow bandwidth.

2.2.2.2 Axial Mode

When the circumference of a helix is of the order of one wavelength, it radiates

with the maximum power density in the direction of its axis, as seen in Figure 2.3b.
This radiation mode is referred to as “axial mode”. The radiation field of this mode is
nearly circularly polarized about the axis. The sense of polarization is related to the
sense of the helix winding.

In addition to circular polarization, this mode is found to operate over a wide

range of frequencies. When the circumference (C ) and pitch angle (a ) are in the
ranges of 3/ 4 < C / λ < 4 /3 and 12º a 15º , the radiation characteristics of the
axial-mode helix remain relatively constant. As stated in, “if the impedance and the
pattern of an antenna do not change significantly over about one octave ( f u /f l = 2 ) or
more, we will classify it as a broadband antenna”. It is noted that the ratio of the upper
frequency to the lower frequency of the axial-mode helix is equal to
f u 4 /3
= =1.78. This is close to the definition of broadband antennas. For the reason
f l 3/4
that the axial-mode helix possesses a

8
 C≪λ C≈ λ

Figure 2.3 Radiation patterns of helix: (a) Normal mode; (b) Axial mode

number of interesting properties, including wide bandwidth and circularly polarized

radiation, it has found many important applications in communication systems.

9
2.3 Analysis of Helix

Unlike the dipole and loop antennas, the helix has a complicated geometry.
There are no exact solutions that describe the behavior of a helix. However, using
experimental methods and approximate analytical or numerical techniques, it is
possible to study the radiation properties of this antenna with sufficient accuracy. This
section briefly discusses the analysis of normal-mode and axial-mode helices.

2.3.1 Normal-Mode Helix

The analysis of a normal-mode helix is based on a uniform current distribution

over the length of the helix. Furthermore, the helix may be modeled as a series of
small loop and short dipole antennas as shown in Figure 2.4. The length of the short
dipole is the same as the spacing between turns of the helix, while the diameter of the
loop is the same as the helix diameter.

Since the helix dimensions are much smaller than wavelength, the far-field
pattern is independent of the number of turns. It is possible to calculate the total far-
field of the normal-mode helix by combining the fields of a small loop and a short
dipole connected in series. Doing so, the result for the electric field is expressed as

− jkr
k I0e
E= j ƞ
⃗ sinθ ¿), (2.1)
4 πr

2π μ
where k =
λ
is the propagation constant, ƞ =
√ ε
is the intrinsic impedance of the

medium, and I0 is a current amplitude. As noted in (2.1), the θ and ∅ components of the
field are in phase quadrature. Generally, the polarization of this mode is elliptical with
an axial ratio given by

|Eθ| 2 Sλ
AR= = , (2.2)
|E∅| π 2 D2

10
The normal-mode helix will be circularly polarized if the condition AR 1 is satisfied.
As seen from (2.2), this condition is satisfied if the diameter of the helix and the
spacing between the turns are related as

C¿ √ 2 Sλ (2.3)

It is noted that the polarization of this mode is the same in all directions except along
the z-axis where the field is zero. It is also seen from (2.1) that the maximum radiation
occurs at θ 90º ; that is, in a plane normal to the helix axis.

2.3.2 Axial-Mode Helix

Unlike the case of a normal-mode helix, simple analytical solutions for the axial
mode helix do not exist. Thus, radiation properties and current distributions are
obtained using experimental and approximate analytical or numerical methods.

The current distribution of a typical axial-mode helix is shown in Figure 2.5. As

noted, the current distribution can be divided into two regions. Near the feed region,
the current attenuates smoothly to a minimum, while the current amplitude over the
remaining length of the helix is relatively uniform. Since the near-feed region is small
compared to the length of the helix, the current can be approximated as a travelling
wave of constant amplitude. Using this approximation, the far-field pattern of the
axial-mode helix can be analytically determined. There are two methods for the
analysis of far field pattern. In the first method, an N-turn helix is considered as an
array of N elements with an element spacing equal to S . The total field pattern is then
obtained by multiplying the pattern of one turn of the helix by the array factor. The
result is

Ψ
sin( N )
2
F (θ)=cₒ . cosθ , (2.4)
Ψ
sin ( )
2

11
where cₒ is a constant coefficient and 𝛹 kS.cosθ a . Here, a is the phase shift
between successive elements and is given as

π
α =−2 π− (2.5)
N

Ψ
sin ⁡( N
)
2
In (2.4), cosθ is the element pattern and is the array factor for a uniform
Ψ
sin ⁡( )
2
array of N equally-spaced elements. As noted from (2.5), the Hansen-Woodyard
condition is satisfied. This condition is necessary in order to achieve agreement
between the measured and calculated patterns.

In a second method, the total field is directly calculated by integrating the

contributions of the current elements from one end of the helix to another. The current
is assumed to be a travelling wave of constant amplitude. The current distribution at an
arbitrary point on the helix is written as

Í (l) = Iₒ.exp(-jg∅ ' ¿ I^ , (2.6)

Where

l the length of wire from the beginning of the helix to an arbitrary point
wL ˕
g=
pc ∅ ' m
LT = the total length of the helix
p phase velocity of wave propagation along the helix relative to the helix
relative to the velocity of light , c

12
 Figure 2.4 Approximating the geometry of normal-mode helix

Figure 2.5 Measured current distribution on axial-mode helix

1
¿
= (2 N +1) ( λcosα ) according to Hansen-Woodyard condition)
sinα + [ N C]
= 2πN

∅ azimuthal coordinate of an arbitrary point

^I unit vector along the wire

 ^x sin ∅ ' yˆ cos∅ ' zˆ sina

13
The magnetic vector potential at an arbitrary point in space is obtained as

∅' m
μₐIₒ . exp ⁡(− jkr)
A(ŕ) =
⃗
4 πr
∫ exp [ ju. cos ⁡(∅−∅' )]exp(jd∅ ' ¿ I^ d∅ '
0

(2.7)

Where
u ka sinθ
a radius of the helix
d B g
B ka cosθ tana
Finally, the far-field components of the electric field, Eθ and EФ , can be expressed as

Eθ = -jw[( A X cos∅ +¿ AY sin∅)cosθ + A Z sinθ ] ,

(2.8)

Eθ =-jw( AY cos∅- A X sin∅) . (2.9)

2.3.3 Empirical Relations for Radiation Properties of Axial-Mode Helix

Approximate expressions for radiation properties of an axial-mode helix have

also been obtained empirically. A summary of the empirical formulas for radiation
characteristics is presented below. These formulas are valid when 12º a 15º ,
3 4
<C λ< ∧N >3 .
4 3
An approximate directivity expression is given as

D=C 2λ NS , (2.10)

C λ and S λ are, respectively, the circumference and spacing between turns of the helix
normalized to the free space wavelength (λ) . Since the axial-mode helix is nearly
lossless, the directivity and the gain expressions are approximately the same.

14
 In 1980, King and Wong reported that Kraus’s gain formula (2.10) overestimates
the actual gain and proposed a new gain expression using a much larger experimental
data base. The new expression is given as

0.8 √N
πD √ N +2−1
NS tan 12.5 o
G p=8.3
( ) ( )[
λp λp tanα ] 2
, (2.11)

where λ p is the free-space wavelength at peak gain.

In 1995, Emerson proposed a simple empirical expression for the maximum gain
based on numerical modeling of the helix. This expression gives the maximum gain in

LT
dB as a function of length normalized to wavelength ( ĹT = ¿.
λ
G max ( dB )=¿10.25 + 1.22 ĹT - 0.0726 ĹT 2 . (2.12)

Equation (2.12), when compared with the results from experimental and theoretical
analyses, gives the gain reasonably accurately.

Half-Power Beam width

The empirical formula for the half-power beam width is

52
HPBW = (degrees) .
C λ √ NSλ
(2.13)

A more accurate formula was later presented by King and Wong using a larger
experimental data base. This result is

15
 2 N 0.6
( )
61.5
N +5 tanα √N
HPBW = √N
πD 4 NS (0.7
tan12.5 o ) 4 ( degrees ) . (2.14)

λ( ) ( )
λ

Input Impedance

Since the current distribution on the axial-mode helix is assumed to be a

travelling wave of constant amplitude (Section 2.3.2), its terminal impedance is nearly
purely resistive and is constant with frequency. The empirical formula for the input
impedance is

R 140C λ (ohms).
(2.15)

The input impedance, however, is sensitive to feed geometry. Our numerical modeling
of the helix indicated that (2.15) is at best a crude approximation of the input
impedance.

Bandwidth

Based on the work of King and Wong, an empirical expression for gain
bandwidth, as a frequency ratio, has been developed:

4
fU 0.91
≈1.07
( ) ,
(3 √ N )
fL G (2.16)
GP

where f U and f L are the upper and lower frequencies, respectively, G Pis the peak gain
from equation (2.11), and G is the gain drop with respect to the peak gain.

16
2.3.4 Optimum Performance of Helix

Many different configurations of the helix have been examined in search of an

optimum performance entailing largest gain, widest bandwidth, and/or an axial ratio
closest to unity. The helix parameters that result in an optimum performance are
summarized in Table 2.1. There are some helices with parameters outside the ranges in
Table 2.1 that exhibit unique properties. However, such designs are not regarded as
optimum, because not all radiation characteristics meet desired specifications. A
summary of the effects of various parameters on the performance of helix is presented
below.

Table 2.1 Parameter ranges for optimum performance of helix

Circumference

As shown in Figure 2.6, it is noted that the optimum circumference for achieving
the peak gain is around 1.1λ and is relatively independent of the length of the helix.
Other results show that the peak gain smoothly drops as the diameter of the helix
decreases (Figure 2.7). Since other parameters of the helix also affect its properties, a
circumference of 1.1λ is viewed as a good estimate for an optimum performance.

Pitch Angle

17
 Keeping the circumference and the length of a helix fixed, the gain increases
smoothly when the pitch angle is reduced, as seen in Figure 2.8. However, the
reduction

Figure 2.6 Gain of helix for different lengths as function of normalized circumference (Cλ )

18
 Figure 2.7 Peak gain of various diameter as D and a varied (circles), D fixed and a varied

of pitch angle is limited by the bandwidth performance. That is, a narrower bandwidth
is obtained for a helix with a smaller pitch angle. For this reason, it has been generally
agreed that the optimal pitch angle for the axial-mode helix is about12.5O.
Number of Turns

Many properties, such as gain, axial ratio, and beam width, are affected by the
number of turns. Figure 2.9 shows the variation of gain versus the number of turns. It
is noted that as the number of turns increases, the gain increases too. The increase in
gain is simply explained using the uniformly excited equally-spaced array theory.
However, the gain does not increase linearly with the number of turns, and, for very
large number of turns, adding more turns has little effect. Also, as shown in Figure
2.10, the beam width becomes narrower for larger number of turns. Although adding
more turns improves the gain, it makes the helix larger, heavier, and more costly.
Practical helices have between 6 and 16 turns. If high gain is required, array of helices
may be used.

Conductor Diameter

19
 This parameter does not significantly affect the radiation properties of the helix.
For larger conductor diameters, slightly wider bandwidths are obtained. Also, thicker
conductors can be used for supporting a longer antenna.

Ground Plain

The effect of ground plain on radiation characteristics of the helix is negligible

since the backward traveling waves incident upon it are very weak. Nevertheless, a
ground plane with a diameter of one-half wavelength at the lowest frequency is
usually recommended.

Figure 2.8 Gain versus frequency of 30.8-inch length and 4.3-inch diameter helix for different
pitch angles.

20
 Figure 2.9 Gain versus frequency for 5 to 35-turn helical antennas with 4.23-inch diameter

Figure 2.10 Radiation patterns for various helical turns of helices with a 12o and C 10cm. at
3Hz GHz.

21
2.4 Modified Helices

Various modifications of the conventional helical antenna have been proposed

for the purpose of improving its radiation characteristics. A summary of these
modifications is presented below.

2.4.1 Helical Antenna with Tapered End

Nakano and Yamauchi have proposed a modified helix in which the open end
section is tapered as illustrated in Figure 2.11. This structure provides significant
improvement in the axial ratio over a wide bandwidth. According to them, the axial
ratio improves as the cone angle θt is increased. For a helix with pitch angle of 12.5o
and 6 turns followed by few tapered turns, they obtained an axial ratio of 1:1.3 over a
frequency range of 2.6 to 3.5 GHz.

2.4.2 Printed Resonant Quadrifilar Helix

Printed resonant quadrifilar helix is a modified form of the resonant quadrifilar

helix antenna first proposed by Kings. The structure of this helix consists of 4 micro
strips printed spirally around a cylindrical surface. The feed end is connected to the
opposite radial strips as seen in Figure 2.12. The advantage of this antenna is a broad
beam radiation pattern (half-power beam width 145o ). Additionally, its compact size
and light weight are attractive to many applications especially for GPS system.

2.4.3 Stub-Loaded Helix

To reduce the size of a helix operating in the axial mode, a novel geometry
referred to as stub-loaded helix has been recently proposed. Each turn contains four
stubs as illustrated in Figure 2.13. The stub-loaded helix provides comparable
radiation properties to the conventional helix with the same number of turns, while
offering an approximately 4:1 reduction in the physical size.

2.4.4 Monopole-Helix Antenna

22
 This antenna consists of a helix and a monopole, as shown in Figure 2.14 . The
purpose of this modified antenna is to maintain operation at two different frequencies,
applicable to dual-band cellular phone systems operating in two different frequency
bands (900 MHz for GSM and 1800 MHz for DCS1800).

Figure 2.11 Tapered helical antenna configuration.

23
 1
Figure 2.12 turn half-wavelength printed resonant quadrifilar helix .
2

Figure 2.13 Stub-loaded helix configuration .

24
 Figure 2.14 Monopole-helix antenna .

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Helical Antenna Current Density

To calculate the current density of the helical antenna a simplified geometry was
assumed with infinitely thin wire and a single complete loop around the tube at either
end to complete the circuit. Thus the generalized antenna model used to calculate the
current density consists of two helical windings, each making one rotation in a
distance λ and displaced by 0.5 × λ . The total length of the antenna is L, and the
radius of the antenna is α. This is the simplified antenna configuration employed by
the numerical model when making a comparison with the experimental results in
section 3.2. With the origin in the middle of the antenna the θ component of the
current density can be written as
25
 (
3.1)

where

L λ
θ0 = , β= , and F is defined by equation 2.4 Equation (2.17) can be Fourier
2β 2π
transformed into the more useful coordinates of the azimuthal mode number m, and
the wave number k.

(3.2)

This has the property

(3.3)

When the parallel wave number is close to the peak in the current density
spectrum, the azimuthal wave number is predominately m = |1|. This antenna has
positive helicity, in the positive k direction m = +1 is dominant, while in the negative k
direction m = -1 is predominant. The dominance of m = +1 in the positive k direction
is shown in figure 3.1(b). Figure 3.1(a) shows how the k spectra becomes more
selective as the length of the antenna is increased. The total length of the antenna used
for Basil was L = 1.5 × λ=0.27 m, where λ=0.18 m.

3.2 Helical Antenna Wave Dispersion and Radiation Resistance

26
 A helical antenna was constructed in the hope of producing plasma with the m =
-1 azimuthal mode. It would be expected that if a plasma were produced in the k‖ < 0
direction that the wave mode responsible for the plasma production would be m = 1. It
was immediately clear from the light emission that the helical antenna only produced
plasma in the direction of positive azimuthal modes. Measurements in both directions
of the wave were taken by reversing the direction of the static magnetic field.
Azimuthal magnetic wave field measurements confirmed that the mode in the
direction of strong plasma was m = 1. The plasma extended a short

Figure 3.1 The current density spectrum of the simple helical antenna, r = 0.0225 m,
λ = 0.18 m. (a) Axial spectra for azimuthal mode number m = +1 for different antenna
lengths, L , L = 2 × λ (dotted), L = 1.5 × λ(solid), L = 1 × λ(dashed), and L = 0.5 × λ
(dot-dash). (b) Azimuthal mode number spectra for parallel wave number 35 m−1 , and

L = 1.5 × λ .

27
 Distance, approximately 10cm, in the negative k direction as can be seen in
figure 3.2(a). Measurements of the azimuthal fields in this plasma revealed a low
amplitude m = +1 mode probably coupled by the end sections of the antenna. The
wave propagating in the direction of right hand rotation of the antenna travels from
under the antenna along the discharge.

The measured dispersion shown in figure 3.3(a) gives an indication of the higher
selectivity of the helical antenna, with a smaller range of parallel wavelengths being
observed than with the double saddle coil antenna. It was found that attempts to
significantly vary the wavelength by increasing the power resulted in unstable
discharges. An example of this is shown in figure 3.4, which shows the ion saturation
current of a Langmuir probe in a fix position as a function of time for increasing
power. As the power is increased the discharge becomes unstable. However, eventual
an equilibrium condition is established where further increases in power do not
increase the on axis density significantly. Thus, for a helical antenna with a total
length equal to, or larger than the wavelength of the antenna, the operating regime is
limited to the region of the preferred parallel wavelength of the antenna.
Figure 3.3(b) compares the measured radiation resistance with that calculated by
the numerical model which used the measured radial density profiles shown in figure
3.5. The radiation resistance measured for the helical antenna is more peaked than that
of the double saddle coil, which is consistent with the higher selectivity of the helical
antenna as indicated by the current density spectrum. The radiation resistance reaches

ne
a maximum at approximately ≈ 50× 1019 m−3 T −1, which from the dispersion curve
B0

correspondsto k‖=40 rads m−1. This is in agreement with figure 3.1 where the current
density

28
 Figure 3.2 Longitudinal measurements of (a) electron density (b) and temperature on
axis (c) axial magnetic wavefield amplitudes and (c) phase and (d) 3 azimuthal magnetic
wave field amplitudes and (e) phase 30msec into an Argon discharge with a helical antenna
at a static field of 960 Gauss and filling pressure of 30mTorr.

The position of the antenna is indicated by the vertical dashed lines and the end of the
static field coils by the solid line.

29
Figure 3.3 Comparison of measured and calculated dispersion and radiation resistance
of the helicon wave launched by the helical antenna in argo.

30
 Figure 3.4 Power scan with a helical antenna, B0= 576 Gauss, pressure = 30 mTorr.

Spectrum reaches a maximum at approximately the same value. It also agrees with the
numerical model which also reaches a maximum at approximately the same value.

It is noticeable that the radiation resistance of the helical antenna is much higher
than the double saddle coil antenna. However there is a significant discrepancy

nc
between the measured and calculated radiation resistance for the higher values of .
B0
As discussed in section the results from the numerical model can be strongly
influenced by systematic errors in the density profiles. This is especially the case with
the helical antenna which has a higher selectivity of parallel wavelength. However,
Kamenski demonstrated that by altering the maximum in the density profiles only
slightly higher radiation resistances could be obtained, which are not as high as the
experimental results. The peak value of the radiation resistance for the helical antenna

31
is 4 times higher than for the double saddle coil antenna. Below the peak the radiation
resistance drops off sharply, consistent with the current density spectrum and is in
reasonable agreement with the model. Above the peak there appears a systematic
discrepancy between the measured and model results which is not presently
understood.

In figure 3.2, which show longitudinal measurements for neon and krypton, it is
clear that the plasma extends in the direction of left hand rotation of the antenna
beyond the region of power deposition by the wave. This is due to ionization by
electrons travelling from the region of power deposition. As expected the distance the
plasma extends in this direction is strongly dependent on the gas, with the collision
cross section, and thus the mean free path of the electrons being a function of the gas
type and filling pressure. In an measurement at similar conditions to those in figure
3.2, but with a filling pressure of 13mTorr, the plasma extended 35cm past the antenna
compared to

Figure 3.5 Radial density profiles of Argon plasmas produced with a helical antenna as
a function of applied field.

32
10cm as in the figure, demonstrating the dependence on pressure. Also noticeable in
the axial density profiles is the peak in the density near the end of the discharge where
the plasma reaches the end of the field. This is believed to be due to depletion of
neutrals along the length of the discharge and supply of neutrals from the end of the
tube and will be studied.

By comparing the radial density profiles obtained with the helical antenna (see
figure 3.5 and those obtained with the double saddle coil antenna it can be seen that
the densities obtained in both cases are similar in magnitude. However, comparing the
corresponding plots of power coupled to the plasma for the helical antenna profiles
and double saddle coil antenna profiles (see figure 3.4) it is clear that the power
required to produce discharges of similar densities was much lower for the helical
antenna. This is not surprising, as with only half the plasma, the plasma losses have
also been halved. Thus if a plasma on only one side of the antenna is sufficient the
helical antenna is far more efficient, but has a less flexible operating regime.

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

EXAMPLE FOR HELICAL ANTENNA

A helical antenna operating in the normal mode has N turns with diameter 2b

and interturn spacing s. Both 2b and s are very small in comparison to λ/ N

and are adjusted to radiate circularly polarized waves.

Find :

(a) its directive gain and directivity,

(b) its radiation resistance.

(Sol.)

− jβR
N ωμ 0 I e− jβR 1^ NβI e
E= ( )[ a^ θ js+ a^ ϕ βπ b 2 ]sin θ H= a ×E= ( )[ a^ φ js− a^ θ βπ b2 ]sin θ
(a) 4π R , η0 R 4π R

Circularly polarized: s =βπb 2

1 β2 η0
U =R 2 a^ R⋅Pav =R2 a^ R Re[ E×H ]= 2
( NIs )2 sin2 θ
2 16 π

2π π β η
2 4 πU 3 2
Pr =∫0 ∫0 U sin θdθdφ= bπ 0 ( NIs )2 ⇒G D= = sin θ
Pr 2 ,

π
D=G D ( )=1. 5
2

34
 2 Pr η0 ( NIs)2
Rr = = =40( Nβ 2 πb 2 )2
(b) I2 3π

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Feed impedance

A typical helical antenna has an input impedance of around 140 ohms. Kraus3
gives a nominal impedance of Z = 140Cwith axial feed. This is a resistive impedance
only at one frequency, probably near the center frequency. Matching the impedance to
50 ohms over a broad bandwidth would be more difficult than simply matching it well
for a ham band. A simple quarter-wave matching section with a Zo ~ 84 ohms should
do the trick for a single band. The matching section10 is often part of the helix: a
quarter-wave of wire close to the ground plane before the first turn starts. It could also
be on the other side of the ground plane, to separate impedance matching from the
radiating element.

5.2 Polarization

Circular polarization has two possible senses: right-hand (RHCP) and lefthand
(LHCP). Since a helix cannot switch polarization, it is important to get it right: by the
IEEE definition3, RHCP results when the helix is wound as though it were to fit in the
threads of a large screw with normal right-hand threads. Note that the classical optics
definition of polarization is opposite to the IEEE definition. More important for a feed
is that the sense of the polarization reverses on reflection, so that for a dish to radiate
RHCP polarization requires a feed with LHCP. For EME, reflection from the moon
also reverses circular polarization, so that the echo returns with polarization reversed
from the transmitted polarization. A helical feed used for EME would not be able to
receive its own echoes because of cross-polarization loss.

35
5.3 Summary

The helical antenna is an excellent feed for circular polarization. It is broadband

and dimensions are not critical, and the patterns are well-suited to illumination of
offset dishes. It is a particularly good feed for small offset dishes for satellite
applications.

36
 CONCLUSION

A helical antenna for the capsule endoscope is designed. To encase the system in
the capsule module and to obtain the omni-directional radiation pattem, the small sized
normal mode helical antenna is designed. To enhance the bandwidth of the antenna for
transmitting the high data rate information, the end of the helix is connected to the
ground. From the measured return loss and the radiation pattem, it is found that the
designed antenna is suitable to use for the capsule endoscope. The shape and the size
of the ground conductor can significantly influence the helical antenna performance.
The ground conductor in the form of truncated cone has the highest favorable impact
on the antenna gain, which was demonstrated both computationally and
experimentally. The geometrical parameters of the conical ground conductor were
optimized with the goal to maximize the antenna gain. The details of the optimization
procedure were outlined. The obtained optimal parameters (cone diameters and height)
are in good agreement with those used in our computations and experiments. The
performed optimization of the conical ground conductor improves the antenna
performance.

37
 Referances

1.] http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/demerson/helix.htm or

2. ] http://www.tuc.nrao.edu/~demerson/helixgain/helix.htm

3. ] http://www.zeland.com

4. ] http://www.ansoft.com

5. ] http://www.qsl.net/wb6tpu/swindex.html

6. ] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helical_antenna

7.]http://related:scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-02102000
19330046/unrestricted/07chapter2.PDF 2. Survey of Helical Antennas

38
 References Types

1. ] Kraus, J.D., (W8JK), “A Helical-Beam Antenna Without a Ground Plane,” IEEE

Antennas and Propagation Magazine, April 1995, p. 45.

2. ] Kraus, J.D., Antennas, McGraw-Hill, 1950.

3. ] Kraus, J.D. & Marhefka, R.J., Antennas: for All Applications, third edition,
McGraw-Hill, 2002.

4. ] Emerson, D., AA7FV, “The Gain of the Axial-Mode Helix Antenna,” Antenna
Compendium Volume 4, ARRL, 1995, pp. 64-68.

5. ] Kraus, J.D., “A 50-Ohm Impedance for Helical Beam Antennas,” IEEE

Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, November 1977, p. 913

6. ] J. D. Kraus, “Helical beam antennas,” Electronics, vol. 20, pp. 109-111, April
1947.

7. ] H. E. King and J. L. Wong, “Characteristics of 1 to 8 wavelength uniform helical

antennas”, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. 28, pp. 291-296, March 1980.

39