D 02 06

EUFIRELAB
EVR1-CT-2002-40028
D-02-06
http://eufirelab.org
D-02-06 Final Version

(October 2006/February 2007)
EUFIRELAB:
Euro-Mediterranean Wildland Fire Laboratory,
a “wall-less” Laboratory
for Wildland Fire Sciences and Technologies
in the Euro-Mediterranean Region
Deliverable D-02-06
Methods for Wildland Fuel Description and Modelling:
Final Version of the State of the Art
Britta ALLGÖWER, Didier CALOGINE, Andrea CAMIA, Pedro CUIÑAS,

Paulo FERNANDES, Annalisa FRANCESETTI,
Carmen HERNANDO, Ben KOETZ, Nikos KOUTSIAS, Henrik LINDBERG,
Raffaella MARZANO, Domingo MOLINA, Felix MORSDORF, Luis Mario
RIBEIRO, Eric RIGOLOT, Olivier SÉRO-GUILLAUME
EUFIRELAB
CONTENT LIST
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................4
Glossary (alphabetic order) .........................................................................................................................................4
List of associated documents .......................................................................................................................................5
1 Introduction and Scope of D-02-06 .......................................................................................................................7
2 Fuel Information and Context: eufirelab uNIT2 – clearing house on fuels ............................................................8
2.1 Motivation...........................................................................................................................................................8
2.2 Clearing House on Fuels ...................................................................................................................................8
2.3 Fuel Data Users .................................................................................................................................................8
2.4 How to assess fuels – the fuel model scale cube ..............................................................................................9
2.4.1 Some possible users ..................................................................................................................................9
2.5 Organisation of D-02-06...................................................................................................................................10
3 Fuel description, classification and estimation ....................................................................................................11
3.1 Fuel particles....................................................................................................................................................11
3.1.1 Definition and usage .................................................................................................................................11
3.1.2 Classification schemes .............................................................................................................................11
3.1.3 Fuel particles characteristics ....................................................................................................................11
3.1.4 Variables and their measurement.............................................................................................................12
3.2 Fuel complexes................................................................................................................................................16
3.2.1 Definition and usage .................................................................................................................................16
3.2.2 Classification schemes .............................................................................................................................16
3.2.3 Variables and their calculation..................................................................................................................18
3.2.4 Fuel sampling and inventory methods......................................................................................................19
3.2.5 Indirect procedures of estimation .............................................................................................................20
3.2.6 Fuel succession ........................................................................................................................................24
4 Fuel characterisation at landscape level .............................................................................................................25
4.1 Definition ..........................................................................................................................................................25
4.2 Usage...............................................................................................................................................................25
4.3 Variables ..........................................................................................................................................................26
4.4 Classification schemes ....................................................................................................................................26
4.5 Estimates .........................................................................................................................................................27
4.6 Model for automatically refreshing fuel type raster layers by means of interacting structural vegetation types
and fire behaviour factors ...........................................................................................................................................28
4.6.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................28
4.6.2 Simulation methodology ...........................................................................................................................29
4.6.3 Variables characterizing fuel structure (5 variables): ...............................................................................30
4.6.4 Variables characterizing external inputs (6 variables):.............................................................................30
4.6.5 Fixed Parameters (1 variable): .................................................................................................................30
5 Site and country specific fuel descriptions ..........................................................................................................31
5.1 Construction of a photo-guide for the identification of fuel complexes and potential fire behaviour in the
central region of portugal (p013 adai, portugal)..........................................................................................................31
5.1.1 Fuel complex inventory – field methodology (fuel complexes identification)............................................31
5.1.2 Field procedures (sample plot design) .....................................................................................................31
5.1.3 Measuring fuels ........................................................................................................................................32
5.1.4 Stand inventory.........................................................................................................................................33
5.1.5 Photographic documentation....................................................................................................................33
5.1.6 Fire behaviour characterisation ................................................................................................................33
5.2 Fuel description in field experimental shrub plots (P018 XG-CIFAL, SPAIN) .................................................35
5.2.1 Line intersect methods..............................................................................................................................35
5.2.2 Double sampling methods ........................................................................................................................35
5.2.3 Destructive sampling methods .................................................................................................................35
5.2.4 Cube method ............................................................................................................................................35
5.2.5 Spatial variation ........................................................................................................................................35
5.2.6 Fuel inventories of pine understorey for prescribed burning research .....................................................35
5.2.7 Fuel moisture determination .....................................................................................................................36
5.3 Mathematical modelling of vegetation for fuel parameters estimation (P029 LEMTA, France) ......................36
5.3.1 Definition of I.F.S. .....................................................................................................................................36
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5.3.2 Construction of fractals .............................................................................................................................37

5.3.3 Numerical simulations around a tree ........................................................................................................38
5.3.4 I.F.S. Identification using LIDAR data.......................................................................................................39
5.4 Fuel particle determination (P010, INIA-CIFOR, Spain)..................................................................................39
5.4.1 The oven-dry measurement of fuel moisture content...............................................................................40
5.4.2 The high calorific value .............................................................................................................................40
5.4.3 Flammability..............................................................................................................................................40
5.5 Fuel research and description in the Boreal zone of Europe (Fennoscandia) ................................................41
5.5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................41
5.5.2 Fuel modeling research in Fennoscandia.................................................................................................41
5.5.3 Current Fennoscandian fuel research ......................................................................................................42
5.5.4 Future challenges for Fennoscandian fuel research ................................................................................42
6 Gaps and research needs ...................................................................................................................................43
7 References ..........................................................................................................................................................44
7.1 Fuel particles, fuel complexes and fuel succession References .....................................................................44
7.2 Hyperspectral Data (Æ Chapter 3.1.3.3.1) References...................................................................................51
7.3 LIDAR Data (Chapter 3.2.5.3) References ......................................................................................................54
7.4 Fuel at landscape level references ..................................................................................................................56
7.5 Mathematical modelling of vegetation (LEMTA) References ..........................................................................57
D-02-06.doc / final version October 2006 / February 2007, revision on May 14, 2007
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SUMMARY
Deliverable D-02-06 contains all the contributions of D-02-01 and thus substitutes the latter. The methods
on fuel modelling and fuel description were updated, whenever possible. Further the list of references starting at
the fuel particle and ending at the landscape level were brought up to date as well. It also includes examples of site
and country-specific fuel modelling methods throughout Europe, covering such different countries or areas as
Portugal or Fennoscandia.
Within UNIT 2 special emphasis was put also on the production of dissemination products that would enhance
the public website of EUFIRELAB and hence support the concept of the virtual, well-less fire laboratory. Therefore
D-02-06 keeps the outline of the concept of a ‘clearing house for knowledge on fuels’ that was described earlier in
D-02-01.
GLOSSARY
(alphabetic order)
Dead fuel Fuels with no living tissue. The moisture content of dead fuels is usually controlled by
external factors as atmospheric relative humidity, solar radiation etc.
Duff (H layer) The layer of forest floor material lying below the litter and above the mineral soil,
comprised of the partially decomposed fermentation layer and fully decomposed humus*
Coarse woody debris Large-diameter (> 10 cm) debris, variously decayed trunks lying on forest floor.
Fermentation layer The top layer of duff, directly below the litter and above the humus, comprised of
(F layer) partially decomposed organic matter whose origins can still be visually determined*
Flammability The ease of igniting and burning of a particular fuel.
Flash fuel Fuels that dry rapidly and ignite easily, e.g. dry grass, mosses, slash
Fuel Combustible material*
Fuel accumulation The build-up of fuels during a certain time frame. Often considered as a process after
certain external natural and/or man-made disturbances, e.g. fire, harvest, grazing etc.
Fuel availability Oven-dry weight of fuel per unit area which is consumed during the passing front (no
post-fronting combustion)
With this definition of fuel availability, the following equation can be established:
If = H W R
If = flame intensity (W/m)
H = heat per unit mass (kJ/kg)
W = fuel availability or fuel consumed during the passing front per unit area (kg/m2)
R = fire rate of spread (m/s)
Fuel bed Individual fuel particles organized in defined proportions and structural configurations
Fuel complex One or more (over-layered) fuel beds
Total fuel as disposed in nature (usually consisting of several identifiable layers)
Fuel consumption The amount of fuel which is removed in fire. Usually expressed as a ratio of pre and post
fire amount.
Fuel load/loading The amount of fuel. Usually expressed as oven-dry weight of fuel per unit area*
Fuel management Activities that try to affect the quantity or quality of fuels and their accumulation within
certain time scales. The fuel management usually aims to decrease the fuel load and
fire risk (i.e. fire ignition and fire outcome/damage).
Fuel moisture content The moisture percentage of fuel, usually measured by oven-drying a sample and
calculating the ratio of dry and moist samples.
Fuel particle Structurally identical fuel components.
Fuel type One or more (over-layered) fuel complexes, with properties and spatial organization
characteristics that are particular to a given vegetation type.
Fuel type is an identifiable association of fuel elements of distinctive species, form, size,
D-02-06.doc, final version October 2006 / February 2007, revision on May 14, 2007 4/57
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arrangement, or other characteristics that will cause a predictable rate of spread or

resistance to control under specified weather conditions.*
Imaging Spectroscopy Satellite and/or airborne based remote sensing methods for measuring the spectral
behaviour of biomass (transmittance, reflectance, absorption) in the wavelength range of
approximately 400 – 2600 nm; used for the determination of biophysical parameters of
fuels, namely water and chlorophyll content as well as structures.
Ladder fuel Fuels that provide vertical continuity and that enable the transition from surface fires to
crown fires.
Litter (L layer) Top layer of the forest, shrub land or grassland floor, directly above the fermentation
layer, composed of loose debris coming from dead sticks, branches, twigs, and recently
fallen leaves or needles, little altered in structure decomposition.
LIDAR, Light detection and ranging: Laser pulse based measuring technique used in mostly
Laser Scanning airborne remote sensing and/or terrestrial sensors to detect objects and their structural
characteristics on the earth surface. Usually LIDAR is applied in land survey procedures.
Within the fire community its potential for the description of the three-dimensional,
structural fuel properties is increasingly recognised.
Live fuel Fuels with living tissue. The moisture content of live fuels is not controlled totally by
external factors because tissues are able to maintain certain phase of moisture
according to their life strategies. Thus in live fuel there is big variety in moisture contents
depending on their physiological abilities in e.g. tolerating draught.
Slash Small-diameter debris which is formed as a result of some external disturbance causing
the downfall of tree(s). Consists of different parts of trees: needles, branches, twigs etc.
Often considered also as the leftover after harvesting
* Extracted from: Glossary of Wildland Fire Management Terms Used in the United States (Society of American
Foresters. Compiled by Guy R. McPherson; Dale D. Wade; Clinton B. Phillips. July 1990)
LIST OF ASSOCIATED DOCUMENTS
NONE.
EUFIRELAB
1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF D-02-06
Chapter 0 deals with fuel description methods from

Vegetation is assimilated to fuels for the purpose of
the particle to the fuel complex.
predicting the behaviour of a fire, either relative (fire
Chapter 3 highlights some aspects of fuel
danger rating) or actual (rate of spread, intensity, flame
characterisation at landscape level.
size, etc.), as well as the impact of fire.
Since we aim at including site specific descriptions
Early wildland fire researchers as FONS (1946) were
and particularities as well, chapter 4 reveals a number
already dealing with the definition of the properties of
of country and/or site specific methods that are used
fuel particles and of the assemblages of fuel particles.
throughout Europe.
This subject is relevant to a variety of people and
In conclusion some gaps encountered in fuel
organisations, from the fire modeller to the fire
description and modelling are discussed in chapter 5.
manager.
Consequently, there exists an overwhelming variety Wanting to meet the scope and goals of the ‘wall-
of methods designed to study and describe fuel less, virtual fire lab’, the deliverable D-02-06 is not a
characteristics. mere state of the art but outlines the thematic design of
a (preferably) web-based application how to access
The scope of this state of the art is to give an
information on fuels – coming from various
overview on existing fuel and new description
backgrounds and thus having different information
approaches.
needs. Within the scope of EUFIRELAB this has been
It is, however, not meant to synthesise in length
achieved by FLASH animation on LIDAR and spectral
what has been written before many times over.
data as well as flammability data of various
For this reason, it will often give bibliographic
Mediterranean species. All animations can be accessed
references only or summarise and eventually comment
via www.eufirelab.org Æ specific studies.
on some of the cited sources.
EUFIRELAB
2 FUEL INFORMATION AND CONTEXT: EUFIRELAB UNIT2 – CLEARING HOUSE ON FUELS
2.1 MOTIVATION Having now the perspective that the EUFIRELAB

website will be officially supported by the European
Information on fuel is required by a wide community
Commission until the year 2012, it seems even more
of persons and institutions dealing with wildland fire
important to put a lot of emphasis on the development
issues.
of the fuels clearing house and to permanently update it
Fuel information exists in great variety, quantity and
with new information on fuels, elaborated in other and
quality. Most times it is, however, very difficult to obtain
further projects and to encourage the dialogue between
the precise and fitting information one wishes for when
the ones that produce data on fuels and the ones
dealing with a specific question in a particular situation.
needing this information.
The goal of UNIT 02 is to provide a platform where
2.3 FUEL DATA USERS
knowledge on fuels can be gathered, re-distributed, and
where this knowledge can be accessed from very Who needs information on fuels?
different user perspectives.
Basically there are two categories of users:
2.2 CLEARING HOUSE ON FUELS - Expert users: fire scientists in the different fire
related fields and fire management operational
During the kick-off meeting in Chania (Crete,
- Interested laymen: this category can comprise very
Greece) in January 2003 the partners of UNIT 02
different groups and can best be described as the
agreed that we should create a “clearing house on
‘general public’. This public can range from the local
fuels” that should be open to anyone interested in fuel
authorities to school classes or simply interested
information. Already at an early stage of the project it
individuals who need information on fuels.
was recognized a necessity to open all the information
dissemination pages of the EUFIRELAB website to the Both user categories require specific information at
general public in order to meet the societal dimension various temporal and spatial scales, as shown in Figure
and requirements of the EUFIRELAB project. 2-1)
Subsequently and on the side of the official work plan
The web-based applications are meant to support
UNIT 2 developed some flash based, self explaining
them in an explorative way while seeking and assessing
dissemination materials on fuels and fire modelling for
fuel information.
the public web sites.
UNIT 02 also agreed on the urgent need for defining
interfaces between fuel modellers and fire behaviour
modellers – or in general – the users of fuel models.
As soon as we leave the relatively ‘safe ground’ of
all the ‘BEHAVE/FARSITE/ROTHERMEL’ based systems
and the NFFL (like) fuel models we are a bit lost: what
parameters, what units to look for in order to advance
fire behaviour modelling.
What to do with ‘new’ vegetation or fuel data capture
systems like airborne and/or terrestrial LIDAR / Laser
scanning that carry the potential of acquiring fuel
information in a spatial and thematic (granularity)
resolution only dreamed of so far?
Therefore we envisioned not only to provide (already
existing) knowledge on fuel models, but also to encour-
age the interface discussion between fuel modellers
and fuel model/data users, namely fire behaviour
modellers, and to launch a platform where such
interfaces can be developed, tested and eventually be
standardised in the future. As this is in fact an ‘old’ open
item on the agenda of the fire community it comes as
no surprise that this task has not advanced much.
Justified hope is given to the new European fire
research project FIRE PARADOX (FP6-018505), where
this task is on the agenda again in Module 3.
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2.4 HOW TO ASSESS FUELS – THE FUEL MODEL SCALE CUBE
Figure 2-1 Fuel Model Scale Cube.

‘S’ stands for small-scale and short-term processes; ‘L’ stands for large scale and long-term processes
The fuel model scale cube represents a 2.4.1 Some possible users
framework for assessing fuels and fuel models at
2.4.1.1 Fire scientists
very different temporal and spatial scales.
But maybe more important, it allows to access fuel If the user is e.g. a fire behaviour scientist who
information from different perspectives – namely the develops combustion models he or she might be
three main fields of fire research and management: interested in what fuel information is available that
- Fire behaviour would meet the requirements of his or her model.
- Fire effects Maybe – or most likely – this fire scientist will not
- Fire occurrence find the appropriate information, but he or she would
have the possibility to define the combustion oriented
These three fields can be considered to be the
side of the interface (e.g. indicating the required
axes of a (conceptual) fire co-ordinate system.
parameters, units and resolution, etc.).
The fuels or fuel models then represent the 4th
On the other hand scientists dealing with fuel
dimension in this system or assessment framework,
modelling and mapping would find very helpful
starting at very detailed information for the
information what data to retrieve and look for when
combustion level and ranging to rather coarse
applying remote sensing based techniques for fuel
information at the large (landscape) scale.
detection.
EUFIRELAB
2.4.1.2 Fire managers 2.4.1.3 General public

A local fire manager is e.g. interested in an Most fires in the Mediterranean happen in the
adequate large-scale fuel map of his area of wildland urban interface (WUI).
responsibility in order to use it in a spatial decision A possible user could be found among the group
support system. of house owners.
The maps should provide information on the This person might be interested in fuel treatment
present fuel types and their particular fire behaviour. and prevention measures that he or she could apply
Moreover, this map (or data set) should also keep to protect his or her home.
track of possible changes in forestry as well as forest In the U.S. such an example has already been
use management and thus forest stand alterations implemented (http://www.firewise.org/vrhome/).
that might affect fire behaviour.
Similar products in the Mediterranean would be of
This fire manager does not yet dispose of this
great interest.
data set but should plan and launch a fuel data
acquisition project that fits the region of interest,
possible fire behaviour patterns and requirements of
the local population. 2.5 ORGANISATION OF D-02-06
Within the proposed platform this fire manager D-02-06 aims at describing fuels from a ‘structural
would most probably not find data on his/her point of view that starts at the particle level and finally
particular region but methodologies that tell him or looks at the landscape level (see Figure 2-2). We
her what to look for and how to acquire the needed also believe that by bringing these two ‘poles’ closer
fuel data. to each other we contribute to the merging of theory
and practice.
Fuel scales / levels For which fire Which data acqui- For which purpose?
behaviour model? sition method?
Farsite Satellite images Fuel type maps

Landscape (2D/3D)
Fire line rotation model Aerial photos Ignition risk models

Imaging spectroscopy Risk maps
Spatial distribution of landscape
elements
Behave Stand inventory and Input parameters for fire

Stand (2D/3D)
Fire line rotation model mapping behavior models

Firetec 3D Aerial photos Fuel type characterisation
Canadian Model LIDAR Experimental burns
McArthur danger meter Imaging spectroscopy
Firestar 2D (x,z) Stand inventory and Input parameters for fire

Groups, WUI
Firetec 3D mapping behavior models

(2D/3D)
Aerial photos 3D fuel structures

NIST
LIDAR Biophysical parameters
Imaging spectroscopy
Firestar 2D (x,z) Cube method Input parameters for fire behavior
Individuals (3D)
Firetec 3D Field sampling models

CFIS Ground truth Fire danger rating system (FMC)
Structural & biophysical
parameters
Cube method Input parameters for fire

Firestar 2D (x,z) Field sampling behavior models
Particles
Structural & biophysical

parameters
… Biochemical analysis Input parameters for fire

Cells
behavior models
Combustion behavior
Figure 2-2: Fuel scales, fire models & fuel acquisition models
EUFIRELAB
FUEL DESCRIPTION, CLASSIFICATION AND ESTIMATION
These classes are made correspondent to moisture

The subchapters in this chapter correspond to the
timelags, defined as the time necessary for a fuel
levels of fuel descriptions we have identified.
component to reach 2/3 of its equilibrium moisture
The description centres on the fuels and therefore
content (Table 1)
does not introduce a specific chapter on spatial and
temporal scales as this information is inherent in the Table 2: Correspondence between timelag, fuel size
approach we did choose. and duff depth (Deeming et al. 1977)
Wildland fuels characteristics can be viewed as a
Timelag class Woody fuel size Duff depth
hierarchy of levels of increasing complexity, from the
class, cm class, cm
fuel particle to the fuel complex (MCCAW, 1991).
The emphasis put on each hierarchy of fuel 1 hr 0-0.6 0 – 0.6
properties and the measured characteristics will reflect
the type of information required, which is, first of all, 10 hr 0.6 – 2.5 0.6 – 1.9
related to the approach taken to model fire behaviour. 100 hr 2.5 – 7.6 1.9 – 10.2
2.6 FUEL PARTICLES 1000 hr > 7.6 >10.2
2.6.1 Definition and usage Particle size categories are not standard across the
The physical, chemical and thermal properties of world, which hinders comparability of fuel data and fire
fuel particles are assessed at the level of the individual behaviour models.
particle or element (leaf, spine, stalk, twig, branch, Although it is generally agreed that fine fuels are
stem, etc.), or of compounded particles belonging to the those with diameters below 6 mm, this is not a universal
same biological entity, e.g. the assemblage of leaves rule.
and small twigs of a given shrub species. For example, a diameter of 10 mm defines the upper
These properties have a direct effect on moisture limit for fine litter fuels in Western Australia
relationships, heat transfer, ignition, and combustion. (SNEEUWJAGT and PEET 1985).
Consequently, fuel particle characteristics contribute Sometimes the diameter defining the fine fuel
to the prediction of wildland fire intensity and severity, category is dependent on fuel condition, like in
with all its consequences on suppression difficulty and Australia, where live fine fuels are often restricted to a
human safety. maximum diameter of 2 mm (MCCAW 1991).
Characterisation of fuel particles is therefore Fine fuels are also frequently divided in two size
required to interpret the results of flammability classes in Europe (PAPIÓ and TRABAUD 1990;
experiments in the laboratory and as an input to semi- FERNANDES et al. 2000a), while in the U.S. such division
empirical and physical fire behaviour models. depends on the nature of the fuel, i.e. foliage versus
However, the natural variation and effect on fire woody particles (SCOTT and HUNGERFORD 1997).
behaviour of several properties (particle density, This approaches the European concept of fuel family
mineral content) are so low that they are usually kept (COHEN et al. 2002), that is, all the particles which have
constant in fire behaviour modelling. the same properties concerning physical and chemical
Consequently, the interest in the evaluation of fuel processes involved in a forest fire.
properties is restricted to fire researchers.
The exception is fuel moisture content, critical to 2.6.3 Fuel particles characteristics
predict the potential for fire ignition and fire behaviour, Main types of characteristics are:
but this property can be assessed at multiple levels - Physical characteristics:
(particle, bed, complex).
Measured physical characteristics: length, width,
Fuel particles are the smallest elements considered thickness, diameter, mass, volume
in order to study the fuel structure.
They are organs or pieces of the aerial parts (dead Calculated physical characteristics: mass to volume
or live) of the vegetation: branches, leaves, barks, and surface to volume ratios
cones, needles, etc. (TRABAUD 1974) - Chemical characteristics: moisture and chemical
composition
2.6.2 Classification schemes - Thermal characteristics: thermal degradation and
Fuel particles are partitioned by size classes and high calorific value
their condition (live or dead), therefore establishing the - Other: Flammability.
limits for the description of their properties.
Woody fuels (in fact, wildland fuels of any kind) are
categorised by size classes and duff fuels by depth
classes.
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2.6.4 Variables and their measurement A few authors have developed expedite methods to
determine the surface to volume ratio of specific fuels.
2.6.4.1 Specific gravity, fuel particle density or mass
JOHNSON (1984) and BRAND (1987) propose a
to volume ratio
method for conifer needles based on simple geometry
The density of a fuel particle is the relation of its where the surface area is a function of needle length,
mass to its volume, symbolised by ρp or d and usually number of needles per fascicle and volume displaced
expressed in kg m-3 or g cm-3. by water immersion.
This property is usually assessed by weighing oven- FERNANDES and REGO (1998a) present a technique
dry particles, although PAPIÓ and TRABAUD (1990) use based on water immersion which requires particle
fresh samples, and by measuring the volume of fresh, density, fuel weight before and after immersion, and an
air-dry or oven-dry particles. experimentally determined constant for the thickness of
Volumes are measured by immersion in mercury the adsorbed water pellicle.
(TUTTLE 1976; RYAN and PICKFORD 1978; SACKETT 2.6.4.3 Moisture content
1980) or in water, the most common choice
(Countryman and PHILPOT 1970; NEENAN and CHATTO and TOLHURST (1997) describe the various
STEINBECK 1979; COUNTRYMAN 1982; DALIGAULT 1991; alternatives to measure fuel moisture content.
MARSDEN-SMEDLEY and CATCHPOLE 1995a; Van Conventional oven-drying is the most frequently
WAGTENDONK et al. 1996; NALDER et al. 1999; used method to assess moisture content directly and,
DIMITRIKAPOULOS and PANOV 2001; SLIJEPCEVIC and because of its reliability and accuracy, is the reference
MARSDEN-SMEDLEY 2002). for evaluating the performance of the other methods.
A few authors (e.g. SYLVESTER and WEIN 1979) The use of portable ovens, either based on
calculate volume from the measurement of particle microwave radiation or on the conventional method, can
dimensions. overcome the major problem of oven-drying, i.e. the
time delay to obtain a result and its impracticability in
2.6.4.2 Surface area to volume ratio the field.
Determination of the surface area to volume ratio (σ, Chemical methods to measure moisture content
cm-1 or m-1) of fuel particles is possible by a variety of have been developed, based on the addition of calcium
methods. carbide to minced fuel samples in a pressure cylinder,
Like with particle density, measurements can or on distillation by xylene, an adequate method for
proceed in fresh, air-dry or oven-dry biomass. fuels rich in volatile materials.
The most accurate solution for three-dimensional
and long narrow particles is the measurement of the Electrical meters based on the direct relationship
perimeter-area ratio of a cross section by between moisture content and the electrical
photomicrography (BROWN 1970a; HOUGH and ALBINI characteristics of the fuel (resistance or capacitance)
1978) or image analysis (HERNANDO et al. 1995). also provide direct fuel moisture estimates; several
types of these devices have been developed in
The most straightforward and used approach is to Australia, the most interesting being the 'Wiltronics T-H
establish mathematical relationships between the Fine Fuel Moisture Meter' (CHATTO and TOLHURST
physical dimensions of fuels and their surface and GILLON et al. (2002) using near infrared reflectance
volume which rely on the description of shape by simple spectroscopy (NIRS) technology showed it was
geometry (BROWN 1969, 1970a; COUNTRYMAN and possible to measure the initial moisture content of a
PHILPOT 1970; SYLVESTER and WEIN 1981; FUJIOKA and fresh foliage of Mediterranean evergreen species from
FUJII 1980; VAN WILGEN 1984; PAPIÓ and TRABAUD its spectral characteristics.
1990; MARSDEN-SmeDley and CATCHPOLE 1995a;
PEREIRA et al. 1995). BURROWS (1991) developed a mechanical direct
The surface to volume ratio of stems assimilated to method based on the bending of pine needles, useful
cylinders whose terminal area is neglected and of for prescribed burning operations but capable of crude
leaves idealised as right prisms (and ignoring the edge estimates only.
area) is given by 4/d and 2/t, respectively, where The direct assessment of fuel moisture content is
d=diameter and t=thickness. essential in fire research but seldom used in fire
The assumption of conical, elliptical and triangular management applications, unless portable and
shapes also can be found in the literature. affordable devices are available.
Authors such as COUNTRYMAN (1982), PAPIÓ and Thus, the prediction of fuel moisture for fire
TRABAUD (1990), VALETTE and PORTIER (1992) and management resorts to a variety of indirect methods;
DIMITRIKAPOULOS and PANOV (2001) use photometrical which can be grouped in three classes:
techniques to measure the projected foliar area, while - Empirical or semi-physical models that relate fuel
liquid displacement allows the precise determination of moisture content to weather variables (temperature,
volume, and can be combined with geometrical relative humidity, wind speed, slope, cloud cover),
assumptions to yield the surface area (DALIGAULT site condition (aspect, slope, tree shading), and
1991). season and day of the year.
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The weather influence is frequently synthesised in a 2.6.4.3.1.1 Leaf Level

index of fire risk/danger or fuel moisture which can be
The development of biochemical retrieval algorithms
directly related to fuel moisture content, like in the fire
requires a profound knowledge of the molecular based
danger rating systems developed in The U.S., Canada
absorption characteristics of the foliar chemical
and Australia.
components, such as electronic transitions in the
- Hazard sticks or bags, analogues to fuel pieces or
chlorophyll pigments or the bending and stretching
fuel beds, which are kept in the field and periodically
vibrations of the biochemical bonds (LICHTENTHALER
re-weighted.
1987; CURRAN 1989).
- Remote sensing techniques.
The foliage affects the solar radiation regime within
2.6.4.3.1 Retrieval of fuel moisture within the canopy by its reflectance and transmittance
heterogeneous canopies based on imaging characteristics, which are primary a function of internal
spectroscopy leaf structure, water content and the foliar chemical
components (ROSS 1981; FOURTY, BARET et al. 1996;
Determination of the vegetation water content from
ASNER 1998).
spectrometry data has important applications in the
Consequently it is critical to understand the
context of the physiological plant processes (RUNNING
relationship between the processes governing the leaf
and NEMANI 1991; GAO and GOETZ 1995).
optical properties, such as light absorption and
Biogeochemical processes as photosynthesis,
scattering, and the leaf biochemical concentrations
evapotranspiration and net primary productions are
(JACQUEMOUD, USTIN et al. 1996).
directly related to the foliar biochemistry of a vegetation
A number of experiments have shown significant
canopy and more over are commonly limited by water
correlation between the leaf biochemical composition
stress (RUNNING and GOWER 1991).
and the corresponding leaf optical properties by either
Vegetation water content is consequently important
empirical or analytical means (PETERSON, ABER et al.
for the understanding of the terrestrial ecosystem
1988; FOURTY, BARET et al. 1996; JACQUEMOUD, USTIN
functioning, drought assessments and also a key factor
et al. 1996; DAUGHTRY, WALTHALL et al. 2000; CURRAN,
for forest fire risk prediction (USTIN, ROBERTS et al.
DUNGAN et al. 2001).
1998; DANSON 2000; SERRANO, USTIN et al. 2000;
Generally measurements were conducted with the
CECCATO, FLASSE et al. 2001).
combined use of a high resolution spectrometer and an
Fire risk and behaviour is depending heavily on the integrating sphere to describe the hemispherical leaf
fuel properties such as the partition of living and dead reflectance and transmittance, along with standard wet-
biomass, its quantity, moisture content, and the vertical laboratory procedures to determine the biochemistry
and horizontal structure within the canopy (CHUVIECO, (CURRAN 1989; DAUGHTRY, RANSON et al. 1989).
RIANO et al. 2002; LYNHAM, DULL et al. 2002).
The work of (CARLSON, YARGER et al. 1971; TUCKER
Accurate information on fuel properties of forests in
1980; DANSON, STEVEN et al. 1992; BARET and FOURTY
high spatial and temporal resolution are vital to
1997) concentrated specifically on the spectral features
understand the processes involved in initiation and
induced by the leaf water content.
propagation of forest fires.
They identified specific absorption features
Remote sensing offers the potential for providing
(approximately at 975, 1175, 1450 and 1950 nm) due to
spatially distributed information on biomass, canopy
leaf water in the near infrared (nIR) and the short wave
structure and fuel moisture to assess the fire risk and to
infrared (SWIR: 1400-2500 nm).
mitigate the impact of forest fires (CHUVIECO and
In particular, the wavelength at 1530 and 1720 seem
CONGALTON 1989; LEBLON 2000; FRASER and LI 2002).
to be most sensitive to leaf water variations (FOURTY
The spectral reflectance of a vegetation canopy is and BARET 1997).
known to be primary a function of the foliage optical In the wavelength domain of the SWIR also leaf
properties, canopy structure and architecture, internal structure and leaf dry matter affect significantly
background reflectance of understory and soil, the leaf optical properties.
illumination conditions and viewing geometry (GOEL Consequently a combination of the spectral
1988; CHEN, LI et al. 2000). information within the SWIR with the wavelength range
Imaging spectrometry from airborne or space 700-900 nm exclusively affected by the disturbing
platforms provide canopy reflectance in high spectral components was proposed in form of vegetation
resolution deconvolving the spectral features caused by indexes (HUNT and ROCK 1989; CECCATO, FLASSE et al.
the complex absorption and scattering processes within 2001).
the canopy (ASNER, WESSMAN et al. 2000; RAST 2001). To investigate the causal relationships between leaf
The radiative transfer determining the canopy optical properties and the leaf biochemistry in detail
reflectance is influenced basically at the leave and the physically based models describing the radiative
canopy level (PANFEROV, KNYAZIKHIN et al. 2001). transfer within the leaf are required (JACQUEMOUD and
These two level of radiative interactions will be BARET 1990; DAWSON, CURRAN et al. 1998; GANAPOL,
discussed in the following separately. JOHNSON et al. 1998).
EUFIRELAB
Inversion of the leaf radiative transfer models (RTM) Extensive measurements of the variability of
also allows a highly accurate retrieval of the respective biochemistry within a spruce canopy proofed samples
single biochemical leaf constituent as proven by from the top of canopy to be representative for the
(JACQUEMOUD, USTIN et al. 1996) in the LOPEX whole canopy, a prerequisite for remote sensing of
experiment on the leaf level. foliar biochemical components (O'NEILL, KUPIEC et al.
2002).
Several direct measurements methods exists to
It can also be concluded from literature that the
quantify the leaf water content.
dominating multiple scattering process in the near
They either rely on a ratio of leaf water content to
infrared, induced by the canopy structure, is enhancing
the total leaf weight (CHUVIECO 1999) or the water
the leaf optical properties features rising the potential of
content is expressed per unit leaf area or equivalent
biochemistry retrieval (BARET, VANDERBILT et al. 1994).
water thickness (EWT) (DOWNING, CARTER et al. 1993).
It has been also reasoned that for remote sensing The canopy reflectance is driven by physical
studies EWT is the appropriate mean to quantify leaf processes governing the radiative transfer at the leaf
water content since a weight fraction does not represent and the canopy level (figure 2).
the amount of matter interacting with the incident Consequently it seems logical to assess the foliar
radiation (JACQUEMOUD, USTIN et al. 1996; CECCATO, biochemistry, as leaf water content, by an approach of
FLASSE et al. 2001). coupled leaf and canopy radiative transfer models
(JACQUEMOUD, BARET et al. 1995; FOURTY and BARET
2.6.4.3.1.2 Canopy Level
1997; DANSON and ALDAKHEEL 2000).
Remotely sensed estimates of forest foliar Especially in canopies with a high heterogeneity in
biochemical components form airborne or space the horizontal and as well in the vertical dimension
platforms have to be assessed on the canopy where the interaction of incident radiation is dominated
reflectance. by the complex canopy structure 3-D radiative transfer
Numerous studies investigated the effects on leaf models are needed (DAWSON, CURRAN et al. 1999;
optical properties during the transition from the leaf GASTELLU-ETCHEGORRY and BRUNIQUEL-PINEL 2001).
level to the canopy scale (BARET, VANDERBILT et al. Several canopy RTM are available parameterizing
1994; KUPIEC and CURRAN 1995; ASNER and WESSMAN the canopy and consequently the radiative transfer in
1997; DAWSON, CURRAN et al. 1999; GOND, DE PURY et different complexities (e.g. (NORTH 1996; CHEN and
al. 1999; ZARCO-TEJADA, MILLER et al. 2001). LEBLANC 1997; HUEMMRICH 2001)).
(ASNER 1998) identified the canopy structure, Unfortunately the retrieval of canopy parameters
specifically the LAI, LAD and fcover, the leaf optical based on RTM is limited of the generally ill-posed
properties, the nonphotosynthetic canopy elements and nature of the RTM inversion, which is increasing with
the understory as the main factors influencing the the complexity of the model (COMBAL, BARET et al.
canopy reflectance signal. 2003).
Several authors pointed out the important influence Nevertheless the inversion of rather simple
of the understory and background reflectance on the geometric-optical models, RTM and even of
canopy level, especially for canopies with low sophisticated hybrid models showed promising results
vegetation cover (SPANNER, PIERCE et al. 1990; in retrieving biophysical and biochemical parameters of
HUEMMRICH and GOWARD 1997). heterogeneous canopies (KUUSK 1998; DEMAREZ and
For heterogeneous canopies such as boreal forests GASTELLU-ETCHEGORRY 2000; HU, INANNEN et al. 2000;
canopy architecture and geometry has to be considered GEMMELL, VARJO et al. 2002).
on needle and shout level, assessing the well known
Also a vast amount of studies based on vegetation
clumping effect of needles, on the crown level and also
index and empirical approaches, as computation of first
in the distribution of trees within the forest stands
derivatives and stepwise multiple regressions, proved
(WILLIAMS 1991; CHEN, BLANKEN et al. 1997; CHEN and
the general potential of spectrometry to estimate foliar
LEBLANC 1997; CESCATTI 1998).
biochemical components within forests (e.g. (GAO 1996;
The canopy structure can be quantified in the field
CURRAN, KUPIEC et al. 1997; ROLLIN and MILTON 1998;
by several direct and indirect methods (SMOLANDER and
CECCATO, FLASSE et al. 2002; CECCATO, GOBRON et al.
STENBERG 1996; CHEN, RICH et al. 1997).
2002)).
A new approach was presented by KOETZ et al.
(2007), who used two complementary RTMs, one
designed for large-footprint, full-waveform LIDAR and
one designed for hyperspectarl imagery. The models
were fused by generating a combined look-up-table
(LUT), which was then searched for solutions to the ill-
posed problem. The retrieval accuracy for some
parameters was increased using this combined
approach, which should be applicable for larger areas,
ones the relevant sensors are launched.
EUFIRELAB
Figure 0-1. Scheme of 'RTM-tree' (Kötz et al. 2003).

By introducing LIDAR based tree geometry RTM can be improved (see also chapter 3.2.5.3)
2.6.4.4 Ash content 2.6.4.5 Composition in extractives

The ash content is expressed as a percentage of the The caloric rich volatile components of plants
dry mass. (waxes, oils, terpenes and fats) are expressed as a
The samples are usually placed in a muffle furnace percentage of dry mass and are extracted from ground
heated to temperatures higher than 300oC and up to samples by solvents such as ether (VAN WILGEN et al.
650oC, cooled and then weighed (NEENAN and 1990), a mixture of benzene/ethanol (SUSOTT 1980), or
STEINBECK 1979; SYLVESTER and WEIN 1981; acetone (COUNTRYMAN 1982).
COUNTRYMAN 1982; VAN WAGTENDONK et al. 1998a;
2.6.4.6 Heat content or caloric value
DIMITRIKAPOULOS and PANOV 2001; Williamson and
AGEE 2002). Heat contents (J g-1 or kJ kg-1) of fuel particles,
whether high or low (i.e. corrected for the latent heat of
Alternative methods are provided by chemical
water vaporisation) and with or without ash, are
analysis (PHILPOT 1970) and by thermogravimetric
determined by standard adiabatic bomb calorimetry
analysis (MUTCH and PHILPOT 1970; VAN WILGEN 1984),
(HOUGH 1969; COUNTRYMAN and PHILPOT 1970; MUTCH
a method where the rate of the sample weight loss per
and PHILPOT 1970; SYLVESTER and WEIN 1981; DOAT
degree of temperature rise is recorded, as the sample
and VALETTE 1981; VAN WILGEN 1984, VAN WILGEN et
thermally decomposes after being subjected to a
al. 1990; Countryman 1982; ALEXANDRIAN and RIGOLOT
constant heating rate.
1992; HERNANDO et al. 1994; Van WAGTENDONK et al.
SYLVESTER and WEIN (1979) obtained the silica free
1998a; DIMITRIKAPOULOS and PANOV 2001; Williamson
ash content by hydrochloric acid digestion of the
and AGEE 2002).
samples.
The only alternative method has been developed by
GILLON et al. (1997) and uses near-infrared reflectance
spectroscopy.
Although less time consuming, its use is dependent
on calibration against bomb calorimetry.
EUFIRELAB
2.7 FUEL COMPLEXES The F- and H horizons are called duff. The L horizon
and the upper F layer provide the fuel for flaming
2.7.1 Definition and usage
combustion, although it is unclear what portion of the F
Fuel complexes result from the organisation of fuel layer should be used as an input to a fire behaviour
particles (the smallest discreet elements) into a model.
microstructure, which can result of single or multiple SACKETT and HAASE (1996) refer to this LF
beds or layers. combination as the fire intensity layer, whereas the
When the spatial distribution of microstructures is remaining forest floor is the fire severity layer which
considered (see the classification schemes section), a burns by glowing and smouldering combustion.
macrostructure is defined for the fuel type or vegetation
Figure 0-2 displays the fuel layers considered in the
type, with given vertical and horizontal fuel distribution
fuel classification system (FCC) of SANDBERG et al.
properties.
(2001), from the ground to the canopy.
Current fire behaviour models with operational This classification is considerably more detailed than
capability provide estimates for a given fuel complex, or the usual fuel stratification for the sole purpose of fire
for the combination of the surface and crown fuel strata. behaviour prediction, because it has been designed to
Fire behaviour predictions or comparative ratings of be comprehensive, flexible and able to cope with the
fire hazard for fire management purposes are variability found in Nature.
consequently based on typologies of fuel complexes, The objective is a system which ‘… simplifies the
which vary according to the fire model being employed. complexity to a reasonable degree, but does not
oversimplify the description of wildland fuel beds’.
2.7.2 Classification schemes The system considers six strata or fuel beds
Several classification schemes try to categorise fuel (ground, litter, woody fuel, low vegetation, shrubs, and
complexes according to their composition, structural tree canopy), and each stratum is defined by the
arrangement, position, role in fire behaviour, and presence of certain fuel categories.
general fire behaviour characteristics. Each category is described by physiognomic
(qualitative) variables and gradient (relative abundance)
2.7.2.1 Fuel stratification variables.
Classical schemes of fuel stratification and The system calculates the quantitative fuel
classification emphasise surface fuels, given their role properties from this information and assigns a fuel
in fire propagation, although the 'surface fuel' concept is characteristic class which combines indexes of fire
widely variable between authors and countries. spread rate (8 levels), crowning potential (4 levels), and
For BROWN (1981), surface fuel is the living and fire effects rate (6 levels).
dead vegetation up to a height of 30 cm, whereas 2.7.2.2 Qualitative fuel descriptions
ROTHERMEL (1972) defines it as the fuel contiguous to
the ground and within a height of 1.8 m height, thus A few examples exist of fuel classifications based on
including the litter, herb and shrub layers. qualitative descriptions. DE RONDE (1990) developed a
fuel hazard classification for pine plantations based in
In Australia (MCCAW 1991), fuel is classically crown canopy closure, stand age, thinning/pruning
stratified into ground (peat, duff), litter (dead leaves, slash status, understorey vegetation status, fuel
moss, lichen, prostrated herbs, grounded logs), suspension grade and forest floor depth.
elevated (tall herbs, grasses, forbs, shrubs, dead twigs, MCCARTHY et al. (1998) propose a photographical
logging or pruning slash), ladder (bark, resin, moss and guide to assess fuel hazard, defined as the fire
lichen), and canopy (foliage, dead trees). suppression difficulty that pertains to a given level of fire
The modern classification (TOLHURST and CHENEY behaviour; each fuel condition class is essentially
1999) subdivides litter into surface fuels and near- described in qualitative and physiognomic terms.
surface (or micro-elevated) fuels, those that occur up to Finally, LUIS-CALABUIG et al. (1999) describe fuel
50 cm and would burn even in the mildest fire, thus hazard according to the horizontal and vertical
approaching BROWN'S definition, and stresses the bark vegetation structure, where each layer is defined in
component. terms of dead and live % cover; each ‘fuel model’ is
Such sub-division is justified by the important role of roughly correspondent to a physiognomic vegetation
near-surface fuels in fire behaviour in eucalypt forest, type.
as well as by the importance of eucalypt bark as an
important source of both short- and long-range spotting. Empirical fire behaviour models are developed for
specific vegetation types, which are described in terms
Other frequently used term is the forest floor, of the characteristic overstorey and understorey
predominantly comprised of horizontally oriented vegetation.
particles and divided in (e.g. METZ 1958) (i) the L-layer In the Canadian Forest Fire Behaviour Prediction
(surface litter), recently cast, morphologically unaltered System fuels are described as a ‘fuel type’.
organic matter; (ii) the F-layer (fermentation layer),
whose particles are weathered but recognisable; and The numerical coefficients in a general fire spread
(iii) the H-layer, the humus horizon, made of compacted equation vary by fuel type, and each fuel type is
and decomposed material. generically described, but the system does not require
quantitative fuel information
EUFIRELAB
Figure 0-2: Fuel bed strata and categories in the Fuel Classification System
(http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/jfsp/fcc/).
2.7.2.3 Fuel Models The need to develop custom fuel models for the
specificities of Southern European well-aerated,
A fuel model is a set of quantitative fuel inputs to fire
heterogeneous and very fine fuel complexes is well-
behaviour models.
recognised, e.g. CAMIA (1996), but a given vegetation
The fuel model concept was developed in the U.S.
type or fuel situation is frequently translated in terms of
as a way to accommodate the detailed and complex
a NFFL fuel model, e.g. ICONA (1990).
fuel input requirements of ROTHERMEL’S fire spread
The development of specific fuel models is,
model.
nevertheless, used to investigate the effects of fuel
Fire managers can predict fire behaviour only after
management activities (e.g. FERNANDES and BOTELHO
assigning one of the 13 NFFL fuel models to a given
2004) and quite expanded in Portugal for local fuel
fuel situation (ANDERSON 1982).
hazard mapping, with numerous references in the grey
This stylised set of models covers the variety of
literature.
wildland fuel in broad terms, according to the main
vector of fire propagation (litter, herbs, shrubs, slash). A photo series for field reconnaissance and
If more accurate fire behaviour estimates are classification of fire hazard (procedures for
required, especially if 'real-world' fire behaviour development explained by MAXWELL and WARD 1980) is
information is available, the user can modify standard a useful companion of a set of fuel models.
fuel models or develop custom fuel models for local or Qualitative or quantitative fire behaviour estimates
regional use. for the fire weather scenarios of interest are usually
Basic concepts and procedures are presented in assigned to each photo.
BURGAN and ROTHERMEL (1984) and later detailed in European examples for local or regional use include
BURGAN (1987). ALMEIDA et al. (1995) for Southern Portugal shrub land.
ALLGÖWER et al. (1998), HARVEY et al. (1997)
developed 6 fuel models for Switzerland of which 4 are
for coniferous, 1 for deciduous and 1 for shrub land
species.
EUFIRELAB
In the Swiss studies special emphasis was given to Simple field measurements of fuel distribution and
sound stratified sampling schemes based on aerial structure based on the cartography of vegetation
photographs, digital terrain models and vegetation data approach (ETIENNE and RIGOLOT, 2001) and detailed
sets and subsequently to statistical analysis of the raw data on the distribution of fuel families are combined to
fuel data. obtain the spatial distribution of fuel in a grid of 25 x 25
ADAI (2000) developed fuel types for Central cm cells, which is generated with a cellular automata
Portugal (see chapter 1). (figure 3-3).
The volume fraction for each fuel family in each
A new fuel modeling approach (COHEN et al. 2002)
elementary cell of the grid is obtain through destructive
is taking shape in Europe, to cope with both the
measurements or using outputs from the plant
specificity of Mediterranean fuels and the input
architecture approach (CARAGLIO et al. 1996, BARCZI et
requirements of a physical fire behavior model based
al. 1997).
on a multiphase approach (MORVAN and DUPUY 2001).
The specific architecture of tree and shrub crown is
improved by taking advantage of some allometric
relationships coming from the tree growth approach
(PORTÉ et al. 2000).
Figure 0-3: Two illustrations of the fuel modelling methodology
developed in the frame of FIRESTAR project (COHEN et al. 2002).
Fuel sampling in cubes with sides of 25 cm (left), and representation with the cellular automata of a fuel break
with three fuel strata (Pinus halepensis trees, Quercus coccifera shrubs, Brachypodium ramosum herbs).
2.7.3 Variables and their calculation Other porosity indicators are:

-1 the adimensional γ index of Countryman and Philpot
Fuel load, the dry weight of fuel per unit area (t ha ,
(1970)
kg m-2), is the most obvious descriptor of a fuel-
complex, because it indicates the amount of heat V V 1
γ = c = c = (2)
release and the potential intensity of a fire. Vb W β
Because not all biomass burns the same way, it is ρp
generally discriminated by size class and dead or live
where β is the packing ratio of Rothermel (1972).
condition.
β can be calculated as the dimensionless ratio between
However, the behaviour of a fire depends not only
bulk density, which is the fuel weight per unit volume of
on the quantity of fuel available to burn but also on
other structural properties of the fuel complex. fuel bed or fuel complex (ρp, kg m-3), and particle
density.
The structural arrangement of fuel particles within a
fuel complex is essentially defined by porosity, particles Recent European literature related to the usage of
orientation, and vertical distribution. physical fire behaviour models refers to β as volume
fraction.
By definition, porosity (λ, cm or m) is the ratio
between the void volume in a fuel complex and its Because particle density is frequently assigned a
surface area (ROTHERMEL and ANDERSON 1966): constant value (513 kg m-3 in ROTHERMEL'S model), bulk
W density is a frequently used surrogate for porosity.
Vc −
Vc − Vb Vc − Vb ρp Since it is dependent of fuel volume it requires a
λ= = = (1) clear definition or measurement of the fuel bed depth,
S σVb W
σ whose assessment may well be subjective, especially in
ρp more heterogeneous vegetation (BROWN 1981).
where σ and ρp were previously defined, and Fuel depth equals fuel height in grassy or shrubby
- Vc = fuel-complex volume, cm3 or m3 fuel layers, but if the fuel complex includes a litter bed
- Vb = fuel volume, cm3 or m3 (usually not entirely available to burn actively in the fire
- S = fuel surface area, m2 front), a more objective definition of fuel depth is the
- W = fuel quantity, kg vertical extent of the combustion zone (BROWN 1981).
EUFIRELAB
Consistent field measures of fuel depth are 2.7.4.2 Direct sampling procedures
increasingly difficult to establish as the fuel complex
Like with fuel moisture, destructive sampling is
becomes non-uniform, because definition of the top
necessary to evaluate fuel loading or other structural
height will be more and more subjective.
descriptors of the fuel complex.
Particles orientation and vertical fuel distribution are Destructive sampling of wildland fuels implies that a
not explicit factors in fire models. vertical section is taken out of the fuel complex, after
RUNDEL and PARSONS (1979), COUNTRYMAN (1982), laying down a quadratic frame over the fuel complex.
PAPIÓ and TRABAUD (1991), REGO et al. (1994), SCOTT Samples are frequently collected at fixed intervals
and HUNGERFORD (1997), and HELY and FORGEARD along predefined and randomly chosen orientations.
(1998) have studied the vertical distribution of biomass
Fuel quadrates are variable in shape (square,
in shrubs.
rectangular or circular) and size, which depends
SIMMONS and ADAMS (1999) present diagrams of
essentially on the fuel strata being sampled.
density (no. contacts) versus vegetation height as a
Litter can be collected in quadrates as small as 0.01
way of describing the vertical vegetation structure.
m2 (e.g. VAN WAGTENDONK et al. 1998b) whereas more
The continuity in the horizontal and/or vertical
variable beds and tall vegetation should be harvested in
dimension can be important through its influence on the
larger units (up to 10 m2).
environmental thresholds (fuel load, fuel moisture, wind
Several studies address the important issue of
speed) allowing vertical fire development or fire spread
optimizing the size and shape of a quadrate, e.g.
in a given vegetation type.
BRUMMER et al. (1994).
In the former case, height to crown base or distance
between surface fuel and the bottom of the canopy are Direct sampling, however, is not restricted to fuel
used as inputs to crown fire initiation models. harvesting, and it includes also different non-destructive
measurements.
2.7.4 Fuel sampling and inventory methods
Field procedures to assess the composition and
2.7.4.1 Introduction structure of plant communities heavily rely on
measurements taken on transects as sampling units,
Authors such as SNEEUWJAGT (1973), MAXWELL and
i.e. ‘a cross-section of an area used as a sample for
WARD (1981) and BROWN et al. (1982) provide
recording, mapping, or studying the vegetation’ (Larson
guidelines and recommendations on sampling design
1958).
(intensity and location) and field procedures to appraise
Three types of transects are used:
wildland fuels, i.e. what information should be collected
- line transect, or one-dimensional transect;
and how.
- belt transects, i.e. rectangular strips or plots;
The sampling effort is clearly dependent of the fuel
- belt transects segmented into quadrates.
component being assessed.
CANFIELD (1941) was one of the first authors to
BROWN et al. (1982) indicate thoroughly tested non-
propose a line interception method to assess the cover
destructive field procedures, adequate to the Western
and composition of herbs and shrubs, which allows
U.S., and used to assess the load of the various fuels
record of over-layered species.
found underneath the tree canopy up to a height of 3 m.
Line interception techniques developed for fuel
They recommend the planar intersect to sample
inventory are a natural extension of CANFIELD'S method
downed woody fuels, measurement of duff depth, and
and are used to estimate not only the cover but also the
the relative weight method to assess litter and herbs,
volume and depth of the fuel complex.
and stem counts by diameter class to inventory shrubs.
The line intersect method of VAN WAGNER (1968)
A variety of methods exist to evaluate plant biomass,
estimates the volume of randomly oriented cylindrical
which have been reviewed and classified by CATCHPOLE
woody fuel pieces from the diameter of their intersection
and WHEELER (1992) according to their cost, accuracy
with the sample line.
and recommended use.
Subsequently, BROWN (1970b, 1974) developed the
RUTHERFORD (1979) and PITT and SCHWAB (1988)
theory of the line intersect method and enlarged its
review sampling strategies and shrub biomass
scope of application by using a planar intersect, which
estimation methods, and discuss their levels of
was developed to inventory downed woody fuel
accuracy, precision and efficiency, essentially from the
produced by thinning and harvesting forest operations,
perspective of biomass estimation for productivity and
but is also used to determine natural woody fuel
browsing.
accumulations.
ETIENNE (1989) proposes a review of non destructive
The success of the method is dependable on the
methods for evaluating shrub biomass and discusses
abundance of fuel (BROWN 1981).
their advantages and disadvantages in relation to the
Fuel load by size class is estimated by counting the
objectives of shrub biomass estimator.
number of intersections of woody fuel pieces with a
The fuel complex structure, the purpose of the sampling plane, which are multiplied by the physical
assessment, cost, practicality, and level of desired properties of the woody fuels, i.e. squared quadratic
accuracy guide the selection of measurement mean diameter and specific gravity, and corrected for
techniques. piece orientation with the sampling plane (tilt angle) and
terrain slope.
EUFIRELAB
A belt transect method for fuel appraisal, the bulk Many authors (DEAN et al. 1981; MURRAY and
transect, is proposed by ETIENNE and LEGRAND (1994) JACOBSON 1982; HIERRO et al. 2000; TUDELA et al.
for Mediterranean shrub communities. 2002) explore the relationships of shrub fuel weight with
It allows detailed canopy mapping at the species dimensional characteristics:
level and 3D representation of all shrubby species and - diameter of the longest stem,
their underlayers of grasses, forbs and litter. - crown width,
Transect data are easily converted into shrub - height,
volume and litter stock (RIGOLOT and ETIENNE 1996). - crown depth,
- crown density,
2.7.5 Indirect procedures of estimation
- number of basal stems,
Several indirect techniques of fuel load estimation - stem diameter,
have developed with time in order to minimize the time - height and stem diameter products.
and cost associated to the process of locating, clipping, Crown diameter and height measurements are used
sorting, drying and weighing fuel samples. to estimate the area and volume of the plant, which can
These methods are obviously important to fire be assimilated to several shapes, including the right
managers, but find also important applications in fire cylinder, elliptical cylinder, polygonal cylinder, sphere,
research. ellipsoid and oblate or prolate spheroid.
2.7.5.1 Calibrated visual estimation techniques Basal stem diameter (e.g. BROWN 1976) is a
convenient independent variable from the point of view
Calibrated visual estimation techniques provide fast of regression analysis, but the resulting model will be
estimates of biomass, and include weight estimation, difficult to apply in multi-stemmed and dense vegetation
relative weight estimation, the comparative yield
types.
method, the reference unit method, and photo keys CONARD and REGELBRUGGE (1993) stress the
(CATCHPOLE and WHEELER 1992). importance of prior knowledge of stem diameter
The photo-series method, already mentioned, is the
distribution on a stand, in order to guide fuel sampling
only variant of this family of techniques with important for the purpose of developing this type of model.
use in fire applications.
MARECHAL (1990), ÉTIENNE et al. (1991) and ARMAND
2.7.5.2 Estimation by regression equations
et al. (1993) provide mean bulk densities and biomass-
This approach relies on the establishment of an biovolume relationships for individual plants of several
equation relating the fuel variable of interest with Mediterranean shrub species in the south of France and
independent variables of easy measurement (e.g. ABDELMOULA et al. (2001) in Northern Tunisia.
cover, height, depth, age). The most adequate model varies as a function of
The weight of the forest floor is frequently predicted sampling strategy, predictor variables, spatial
from its depth, using not only equations (SNEEUWJAGT distribution of shrubs, shape of shrubs, sample size,
1973; HAWKES and LAWSON 1980; HARRINGTON 1986; data range, distribution of variance for sample means,
FINNEY and MARTIN 1993; FERNANDES et al. 2002) but regression estimates, and, of course, with the biological
also conversion factors based on mean bulk density relationship between biomass and the regressors (PITT
values (MCCORMICK 1973; De RONDE 1993; FINNEY and and SCHWAB 1988).
MARTIN 1993; VAN WAGTENDONK et al. 1998b; The most common regressions are of the linear,
FERNANDES et al. 2002; SOARES et al. 2002). power or exponential type.
Other authors have related forest floor depth (FULÉ SNEEUWJAGT (1973) estimated shrub load as a
and COVINGTON 1994) or load (LAMOIS 1958; BOYER and function of the shrub structural type (defined by density
FAHNESTOCK 1966; SOARES 1979; SACKETT and HAASE profiles and top heights); use of the method requires a
1991) with stand characteristics such as basal area, point sampling technique: a thin graduated rod is
DBH, site index, or tree density. inserted vertically into the vegetation, and the number
Estimation procedures that take advantage of and height of contacts made with the rod are registered,
correlations among size classes of woody fuel loadings which yields an estimate of the projected ground cover.
or forest floor components are sometimes attempted, SCHNEIDER and BELL (1985) relate shrub land fuel
but are not always successful, e.g. BROWN and BEVINS load with the resting height of a sliding disc instrument.
(1986). Regression equations developed from data (height,
Relationships aimed at the estimation of plant cover, volume, height x cover, basal area) collected in
biomass are abundant in the literature. quadrats are preferable to equations for individual
Here, we will focus on those that explicitly address plants, even from the point of view of field application.
biomass as a fuel. However, they are surprisingly scarce in the
Two types of equations are possible, respectively for literature (BROWN and MARSDEN 1976; MCNAB et al.
- (i) the weight of individual plants and 1978; PEREIRA et al. 1995; REGELBRUGGE and CONARD
- (ii) for clumps of plants sampled in area plots with 1998).
biomass expressed on a unit area basis. FERNANDES and REGO (1998b) and FERNANDES et al.
(2002) predict fine shrub biomass from the product of
shrub cover and height, i.e. a phytovolume index.
EUFIRELAB
XANTHOPOULOS and MANASI (2002) present general MEANS et al. (1999) found that this relationship
equations for total and available (sensu ROTHERMEL’S between tree cover and laser tree closure was 1:1
method) fuel load estimation in northern Greece fuel (r2=0.94).
types, using the product of shrub height and squared A similar approach was used for last return pulses
shrub cover as the independent variable. (COWEN et al., 2000).
The tree closure is in this case the sum of returned
Predictive relationships for the fuel properties of tree
laser pulse that hit the trees divided by the sum of all
crowns are less frequent.
returned laser pulses.
In the classic study of BROWN (1978), equations are
The relationship was also 1:1 (r2=0.79).
given for crown fuel (live and dead) weight appraisal in
Morsdorf et. al. (2006) presented an approach to
11 species of the western U.S.
derive tree cover and Leaf Area Index (LAI) from small
DBH was the main explaining variable, but for the
footprint LIDAR data. It was possible to estimate tree
majority of the species the inclusion of height, crown
cover for resolutions as small as 2 m pixel with a high
length and especially, crown ratio, improved precision
precision (r2=0.73). LAI could be derived and validated
of the models; mean values of bulk density per species
at larger resolutions, with still a quite strong relationship
were also an outcome of the study, as well as the
between LIDAR estimates and field data (r2=0.69). Data
examination of its variation with DBH and position in the
layers produced by this method were used in fire
crown (top, middle and bottom).
behavior simluations utilizing FARSITE (Morsdorf et. al.,
BURROWS (1980) proposed the estimation of thinning
2005).
slash by applying relationships between branch
diameter and weight after a diameter distribution 2.7.5.3.2 Understoreycanopy height
assessment with the line intercept technique.
Understorey canopy height is difficult to obtain from
JOHNSON et al. (1989) provide equations to estimate
large footprints.
crown weight of individual trees by fuel component from
Bare ground is mixed with surface canopy signals on
their height or combination of height and crown width.
steep slopes due to the spreading of the ground return
FERNANDES et al. (2002) estimate needle biomass in
(MEANS et al., 1999).
the crown from DBH or the product of crown length and
LEFSKY et al. (1999) separated the ground from the
crown diameter, and present an equation to estimate
vegetation signal coping and flipping vertically the lower
accumulated foliage as a function of relative height in
half of the ground return to define the higher half of the
the tree.
ground return.
PORTÉ et al. (2000) propose also allometric
Power greater than the level established by the
relationships to estimate the quantity and distribution of
ground return is assumed to be vegetation canopy.
foliage area inside Pinus pinaster crown.
Surface canopy height can be extracted easily if
BILGILI and METHVEN (1994) generate crown lengths,
there is a gap between the ground and shrubs.
weights and base heights from a distance-dependent
For example, full waveforms could be decomposed
model based on dimensional growth relationships
in gaussian components (HOFTON et al., 2000).
combined with physiological processes.
Some authors have shown that it is possible to
All the previous studies reported relationships for model the waveform in mainly three gaussian
individual trees. components: trees, underlying vegetation and ground.
CRUZ and VIEGAS (1998) describe how canopy fuel The highest part of the gaussian component that
descriptors relate to each other and to stand structure in represents the underlying vegetation would be the
Eucalyptus globulus plantations in Central Portugal. surface canopy height (figure 5.4).
CRUZ et al. (2003) combined published equations for Small footprints have also been used for this
foliage weight of individual trees with forest inventory purpose.
data and estimated the stand level fuel descriptors (i.e. NAESSET and BJERKNES (2001) conducted a specific
load, bulk density, and crown base height of the canopy study for the estimation of young forest height.
layer) used as inputs in crown fire behaviour models for The forest was between 1.5 m and 6 m with a mean
4 vegetation types of the western U.S.; the independent height of 3.8 m.
variables in the equations are stand density, basal area The authors used multiple regression analysis
or height. combining 90 percentile and laser canopy density for
the height estimation.
2.7.5.3 Determining fuel properties using LIDAR
systems 2.7.5.3.3 Crown base height
2.7.5.3.1 Tree cover Crown base height might be estimated from large
footprints using the technique mentioned earlier of the
Tree cover is inversely related to laser penetration
decomposition of full waveform into gaussian
rate (= 1-canopy closure), the greater the canopy cover,
components (HOFTON et al., 2000).
the lower the laser pulse penetration through the
The lower part of the gaussian component that
canopy (COWEN et al., 2000).
represents the trees would be the crown base height.
The laser generated tree closure is the tree
MAGNUSSEN and BOUDEWYN (1998) conducted
reflection sum divided by the sum of all reflections
another approach with small footprints.
(trees, understorey and ground) for full-digitized
They separated tree hits from below-tree hits using
waveforms.
first and last return of small footprints.
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The authors establish that laser pulses might be With these systems, using computational expensive
classified as tree hits based on a linear relationship algorithms, it is possible to reconstruct the forest scene
between the laser pulses and the predicted ground down to the individual tree level.
elevation at the point (x, y). PYYSALO and HYYPPA (2002) have shown that a
The minimum height of the tree hits would be the semi-automated segmentation of single trees is feasible
crown base height. and that they can reconstruct the tree crowns for
NAESSET and OKLAND (2002) used an empirical geometric feature extraction, such as tree height,
approach for the estimation of crown base height using canopy height, and distance measures related to the
also small footprints. crown shape (distance trunk tolaser points). A
Their approach was based on a multiple regression differentiation between different tree species (birch,
model in which a 25 percentile of the first and last spruce, pine) was possible based on the reconstructed
pulses was included. crown profile.
Noticing the fact that only first pulse laser data was
2.7.5.3.4 Crown bulk density
used in this study, this approach seems to be even
Crown bulk density might be obtained by dividing more promising applied to first- and last-pulse data.
crown biomass over crown volume.
ANDERSEN et al. (2002) used Bayesian object
Crown means tree branches and tree foliage;
recognition for segmenting single trees.
therefore tree boles, shrubs or grass should not be
They essentially use generalised ellipsoid crown
included in the biomass or volume calculations.
models as templates and match them with the Lidar
Most estimations of biomass predict above ground
signal in a Bayesian analysis, minimising the difference
biomass.
between modelled and real scene.
Empirical equations are commonly used, which
Because of the irregularity of the laser data, they
relate biomass to one or more laser predictor variables
introduce a stochastic element accounting for the
such as mean canopy height, median canopy height,
spatial distribution of the branches and leaves.
quadratic mean canopy height or maximum canopy
In addition to this, they model the laser – canopy
height (DRAKE et al., 2002; LEFSKY et al., 1999; NELSON
foliage interaction as dependent on Leaf Area Density
et al., 1997).
(LAD) and the off-nadir angle of the laser beam in order
These studies were done for full-digitised waveforms
to determine the probability of a laser reflection at a
of large footprints but also some attempts were made
certain cell in their crown model.
for small footprints (NELSON et al., 1988a).
Comparing their results with photogrammetric crown
2.7.5.3.5 Crown biomass measurements shows good correspondence, as the
number of segmented overstory trees found in the
Studies aimed at calculating tree crown biomass are scene is the same for field inventory, photogrammetric
scarce. approach and the Bayesian object recognition.
MEANS et al. (1999) predicted just foliage biomass Figure 0- shows an example of a reconstructed
by canopy reflection sum (r2= 0.84), but specific
forest scene, combining the derived tree positions,
empirical equations are needed to relate laser variables heights, diameter and crown base height with a simple
with crown (branches and foliage) biomass. ellipsoid tree model, as presented by KOETZ et al.
Most surveys predict total volume instead of crown
(2003) and MORSDORF et al. 2003,2004).
volume based on empirical equations using either large
or small footprints (HYYPPA et al., 2001; MEANS et al., PERSSON et al. (2002) detected and measured
2000; NAESSET, 1997; NELSON et al., 1997). individual trees in respect to position, height and crown
The predictor variables can be any or just one of the diameter and validated their approach with field data,
following: canopy cover percentile, height percentile, showing that 71 percent of the trees were correctly
mean canopy height, coefficient of variation of average detected.
canopy height and/or maximum canopy height. Because of the undetected trees having a small
DUBAYAH et al. (2000) realised that crown volume stem diameter, 91 percent of the timber volume was
could be directly retrieved using crown height and the identified correctly.
spatial extent of the waveform. The root-mean-square error (RMSE) of estimated
A similar approach proposed was used by NILSSON crown diameter and tree height was 0.61 m and 0.63 m
(1996) aimed at obtaining not crown, but total volume respectively.
using full-digitised waveforms of small footprints.
According to BRANDTBERG et al. (2003) individual
2.7.5.3.6 Individual tree analysis tree-based analysis appears to be the new direction for
remote sensing based forest survey and management
The spatial distribution of the trees in the forest tools for individual overstorey trees.
scene was previously implicitly contained by fractional They state that one of the advantages of working at
cover, a parameter which is relatively easy to obtain by
a finer scale is that information at coarser scales can
thresholding the CHM (Canopy Height Model) or by the easily be derived.
methods described above. Thus, if the measurement entity ‘individual tree’ is
With recent small footprint systems a more detailed
too detailed for final summary results, the information
description of this distribution seems feasible and thus can be aggregated to mean values per stand or
has been subject to research. hectare.
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Working on the individual tree level is especially

interesting regarding the development of new physical
fire propagation models, where the tree distribution in
the forest scene is actually used in modelling .
2.7.5.3.7 Terrestrial Laser Scanning
A new approach for deriving tree structure and

density related information at the single tree level is the
use of terrestrial laserscanning (TLS), as shown in
Figure 3.4. Danson et. al. (2007) have shown that it is
possible to derive the hemispherical gap fraction of the
forest canopy from TLS just as good as with
hemispherical photography. The additional benefit of
TLS data is the 3d dimensional description of the
canopy down to the leaf level, which needs to be
exploited further. It then could be used to validate or
complemt results from field measurements such as the
cube method (Section 5.2.4) or fractal modeling
approaches of tree crowns such as presented in
Section 5.3.4.
Figure 3.4 : TLS data of forest stand. (Top) Intensity of

returns in a cylindrical
projection (scan range 180◦
× 80◦ ). (Middle) Digital hemispherical photo-
graph at the same location (equiangular projection).
(Bottom) Processed x, y, z (DANSON et. al. 2007)
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Figure 0-5: Reconstruction of individual tree geometry with LIDAR data (MORSDORF et al. 2004)
ANDERSON (1974) describes how crown fuels

2.7.6 Fuel succession
change with stand age in Pseudotsuga menziesii
The expressions 'fuel succession' and 'fuel forests as a combination of the output from several
dynamics' refer to the structural temporal modifications equations, and BILGILI (2003) displays temporal fuel
undergone by a fuel layer, fuel complex or fuel type. changes in the forest floor and tree canopy as a
Some North-American authors simply describe fuel function of stand development models and thinning.
changes along a gradient of increasing stand age or
A few studies of fuel succession can be mentioned
time since prescribed fire or other disturbance (SACKETT
for Europe.
1975; RUNDEL and PARSONS 1979; AGEE and HUFF
TRABAUD et al. (1985) approached the accumulation
1987; VAN WAGTENDONK and SYDORIAK 1987).
of litter and shrubs in Pinus halepensis woodland of
ROTHERMEL and PHILPOT (1973) present time-
southern France.
dependent equations for chaparral that suit the fuel
ÉTIENNE et al. (1991) presents weight-age
input requirements of Rothermel’s model.
relationships for individual shrubs in fuel breaks.
OLSEN (1963) has described the relationship SCHIMMEL and GRANSTRÖN (1997) describe fuel
between production and accumulation as a modified dynamics after fire (1-350 years) in Pinus sylvestris
exponential function that flattens out to a plateau. forests of Sweden.
Most modelling of fuel dynamics, especially of litter ETIENNE et al. (1994) present a huge field survey of
accumulation in Australia, assumes this simple model, fuel dynamics after the use of various fuel management
which can be improved to take seasonal and annual techniques on fuel breaks installed in various vegetation
variations into account. types of South Eastern France.
The investigation of the subject is particularly RIGOLOT and ETIENNE (1998) and BROSSE-GENEVET
developed in Australia (BIRK and SIMPSON 1980; (2003) present the results of this survey on Cistus
O’CONNELL 1987; BURROWS and 1990; FENSHAM 1992; monspeliensis communties, whereas DUREAU (2004)
TOLHURST et al. 1992; MCCAW et al. 2002), because of presents them for Quercus coccifera garrigues.
the importance of prescribed burning and the necessity RIGOLOT et al. (1996) and RIGOLOT et al. (2002)
of plan fuel management as a function of time. compare fuel dynamics after different fire regimes
including periodic prescribed burnings in Cytisus
In forest stands, the equations for fuel succession
(purgans) oromediterraneus communities of Eastern
frequently combine stand age (or the duration of Pyrenees.
accumulation) with stand descriptors (especially basal TÁRREGA et al. (2001) describe how cover changes
area) that account for site quality (WILLISTON 1965;
with time in Cistus communities after several
MCNAB et al. 1978; Soares 1979; JOHANSEN et al. 1981; disturbances.
De RONDE 1984, 1993). BAEZA et al. (2002) present fuel data for Ulex
MARSDEN-SMEDLEY and Catchpole (1995b) give
parviflorus shrublands with 3, 9 and 12 years of age in
equations to evaluate fuel loading and fuel dead fraction SE Spain.
in Tasmanian moorland from the combination of age In Portugal there are models for the temporal
and site productivity (2 classes).
accumulation of forest floor and shrubs in Pinus
Knowledge on the temporal dynamics of crown fuels pinaster stands (FERNANDES et al. 2002), for the
is much lower. variation of canopy fuel characteristics with age in
Eucalyptus globulus plantations (CRUZ and VIEGAS
1998), and for the aboveground fine fuel dynamics (%
fine, load, % dead, bulk density) in several shrubland
types (FERNANDES and REGO 1998c; FERNANDES et al.
2000b).
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3 FUEL CHARACTERISATION AT LANDSCAPE LEVEL
3.1 DEFINITION 3.2 USAGE

At landscape level fuel characterisation is mainly Fuel data layers at landscape level are employed in
related to fuel mapping and its use, i.e. the description various phases of wildfire planning and with different
of the spatial arrangement of wildland fuels complexes spatial scales, through combination with other
and their spatial pattern. geographic information, usually handled in GIS
Therefore in this chapter we are addressing the fuel environment.
description and modelling issue dealt within a fuel Often fuel maps are not used all alone, but are
mapping perspective. packaged in decision support systems as a tool
The patches identified in the map and their patterns implemented for fire management.
are the concerned entities in this context, deriving from
Main uses concern plan and allocation of resources
some fuel classification system applied to the wildland
(coarse scale), the location and selection or
vegetation which can be eventually mapped and
prioritisation of areas of interest for fuel treatments and
analyzed.
fire management purposes (at mid scale) and
The fuel classification method applied to develop the simulation of fire behaviour (fine scale) as input for fire
fuel map can be one of the classification systems behaviour prediction models for surface fires and, more
mentioned previously in this document, and is largely recently, crown fires.
dependent from the intended usage of fuel map, but
Fuel territorial information is also used for fire risk
also from the final required map scale.
assessment necessary to determine fire prevention
These two criteria (user requirements and scale) are
activities and among these especially fuel management
of course strictly connected and quite important to
by treatments, as for example prescribed fire, that can
define the classification scheme to apply, although in
reduce fire potential over large land areas.
many practical cases the methodology adopted will be
ultimately the results of a compromise between the In the post-fire analysis, fuel data at landscape level
need of having accurate information and the possibility can be useful for fire impact assessment and
of getting such information at the desired scale at recurrence recording, but mostly for restoration
reasonable cost. planning.
Nevertheless, from a plain technical point of view
fuel map scale and its intended use are the most Fuel land-wide data can also be employed for
different purposes of “extra-fire” land management as
relevant characteristics to which fuel mapping
methodologies depend upon. for example in forestry, biodiversity, ecology, CO2 and
In a recent review on wildland fuels mapping at landscape management.
different scales, KEANE et al. (2001), provided an From the managerial and fire behaviour point of
interesting breakthrough concerning the subject. view, different fuel data layers at landscape level are
Three spatial scales of fuel mapping were identified, needed in order to run simulations within applications
coarse scale (national or global), mid scale (regional) like FARSITE (FINNEY 1998) that allow for proper
and fine scale (local), having different usage and identification of areas where suppression capabilities
development schemes. would be overcome by adverse wildland fire behaviour.
Similarly, simulations can be run to both locate and
validate virtual fuel (vegetation) management actions to
put down that adverse wildland fire behaviour.
The FARSITE fire growth model (FINNEY 1994,
1998) is increasingly used as a planning tool for
exploring effects of fuel management options on fire
growth.
It has also been used to demonstrate consequences
to fire behaviour of specific fuel treatments.
The value of using FARSITE is its ability to
mechanistically model fire growth with complex fuels,
weather, and topography.
FARSITE uses the same fire behaviour models most
fire managers are familiar with in the BEHAVE program
(ANDREWS 1986) and displays maps of fire behaviour
across a landscape.
The deterministic nature of FARSITE simulations
allows the results to be directly related to the causative
factors.
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3.3 VARIABLES 3.4 CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES

The variables to be considered for fuel description, All phases of wildfire planning concerned with fuel
in fuel mapping entirely depend on the classification mapping require a consistent and scientifically applied
scheme adopted. fuel classification system (SANDBERG et al., 2001).
The most relevant properties of fuel complexes According to the fire management issue addressed
focused at landscape scale are, for practical reasons, and the spatial scale requested for the fuel map,
most often related to the spatial horizontal and vertical different classification schemes can be adopted.
arrangement of fuels. The most general ones are given below.
The classification scheme adopted is therefore often
At coarser scales, plain land use classification
of a simplified type (also due to budget limitations),
referring to cover types of vegetation can be applied by
although this is not always the case.
eco-regions subdivision or by vegetation types,
Fuel patchiness refers to the spatial distribution of providing a rough description of the spatial distribution
fuels horizontally and is described by the different types of physiognomic structure of landscape unit.
of fuel, classified according to the classification scheme Although this kind of map can be argued to be far
adopted. away from a specialised fuel map, still provides useful
information for global analysis and allocation of
The spatial arrangement of the mosaic of fuel
resources (i.e. allowing the computation of wildland
patches, which are landscape elements, can be
area extension of administrative geographical units).
analysed implementing several landscape metrics,
meant as algorithms that quantify specific spatial At large-mid scale a classification scheme is needed
characteristics of patches, classes of patches, or entire that does not oversimplify the description of wildland
landscape mosaics (MCGARIGAL and MARKS, 1995), fuel beds and contains information on the vegetation
which can be meant as derived variables that provide structure.
quantitative description of the spatial patterns of Essential fuel characteristics can be provided
wildland fuels in the landscape. applying a classification scheme as the one of “fuel
types” proposed in Prometheus EC funded project
(Prometheus, 1999; RIAÑO et al. 2002; SPREAD, 2003).
At fine scale maps of fuel models (ALBINI, 1976) may
be developed with the strongest efficient cost/use for
the landscape level.
Fuel models are here meant as given by the sets of
parameters describing the physical properties of fuel
complexes that are required by a fire model in order to
simulate the fire spread and behaviour
Other specific classifications may be used according
to different purposes. As far as fire danger rating is
concerned, specific fuel models can also be developed,
such as those used in the USA, which include a heavy
fuel component that differentiates them from the fuel
models used in fire behaviour prediction (DEEMING et al.
1977; BRADSHAW et al. 1984).
A particular model of fuels (fire effects or fuel loading
fuel models) is used for first-order fire effects regarding
fuel consumption and smoke production assessment.
These models represent cover types of vegetation
and refer to fuel depth and load for the different fuel
components (duff, litter, downed woody material,
herbaceous and shrub vegetation, regeneration).
The fact that there are several sets of fuel
classification schemes that can not be interchanged
and that none of them describes completely the
properties of the fuel complexes, is confusing to users
and presents a problem for fuel maps developers
(ANDREWS et al. 2001).
The fuel classification system (FCC) of SANDBERG et
al. (2001) seems to constitute a step ahead in this
domain.
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3.5 ESTIMATES It is clear that the approaches mentioned are just

general strategies, and that in the activities designed for
According to KEANE et al. (2003) fuel mapping
the development of a fuel map, two or more strategies
strategies can be grouped into four general
can be adopted and integrated within the same
approaches:
mapping project, as it happens in most cases.
- Field recognition (traversing a landscape on the
ground and recording the extent of similar fuel Remote sensing and GIS technology are now
conditions). leading to many efforts in the spatial characterisation of
- Direct mapping with remote sensing (direct fuels, but still, for many classification schemes, remote
assignment of fuel characteristics to the results of sensing cannot break free from the difficulties faced of
image classification or photo interpretation). detecting and discriminating accurately the fuel bed and
- Indirect mapping with remote sensing (derive from its characteristics under canopy cover.
remote sensing images the information on
In the following scheme (Table 2) the advantages
vegetation cover assuming that fuel characteristics
and disadvantages of the mentioned strategies (taken
are well correlated to the observed information).
alone) are given.
- Environmental gradients and biophysical modelling
(use of biogeochemical phenomena such as climate,
topography etc, influencing vegetation and fuel
dynamics as input for biophysical modelling that can
quantify environmental gradients across a
landscape).
Table 3: Main advantages and disadvantages of the mentioned fuel mapping approaches at landscape level
(from Keane et al. 2001, modified)
Fuel Mapping strategies Advantages Disadvantages

Field recognit Actual High costs, time consuming
Few errors Subjective
Ligionht procedure Polygon definition
Direct remote sensing Simple, direct image classification Canopy cover limits to surface fuels
Relatively light procedure Vegetation rather than fuels
Ground reference Approximate detail
Indirect remote sensing Many classifications and data Errors assigning fuels to vegetation
available categories
Mapped objects well discriminated Too large polygons for fire behaviour
purpose
Multi-purpose maps Too broad or fine vegetation categories
Biophysical modelling Scale-independent Potential rather than existing
Ecological context to interpret fuels Requires data for modelling
Simulation of fuel changes overtime Complex
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The elaboration of appropriate management

3.6 MODEL FOR AUTOMATICALLY
practices at the landscape level may be achieved by
REFRESHING FUEL TYPE RASTER LAYERS BY
testing and ranking “what if” scenarios.
MEANS OF INTERACTING STRUCTURAL
New tools such as spatially explicit ecosystem
VEGETATION TYPES AND FIRE BEHAVIOUR
models may aid in the decision making process in land
FACTORS
management and bioregional planning (PLANT et al.
3.6.1 Introduction 1999).
To be workable to land managers, spatially explicit
Chapter 4.6 is described in UNIT 08 in more detail models must be frugal in their data needs, clear about
by P024. uncertainties and assumptions and specific about the
For completeness reasons an abbreviated version is
degree of accuracy of particular forecasts they make
presented in this state of the art as well. (PLANT et al. 1999)
Wildland firefighters (as fuel map end users) face WESTOBY et al. (1989) developed the state-and-
today two unresolved issues. transition model for rangeland vegetation dynamics.
First one (mentioned before), “updating fuel type They distinguish transitional states in which a site
maps”.
may not last for ever, but rather may turn into one or
Second, and not less important, “the fact that a another of the persisting states, depending on incidents
given structural vegetation type (SVT thereafter) may while the system is in a transient state.
behave differently under diverse fire behavior factors”.
WESTOBY et al. (1989) envisioned the state-and-
Therefore, a given SVT may correspond to different transition model as a conceptual management aid that
fuel models at different situations. could be implemented through a flowchart diagram.
To address these issues, close collaboration among This methodology can also be implemented on a
GRAF-DGESC (Catalonia Regional Firefighting computer; i.e., qualitative simulation models (PLANT
Agency) and University of Lleida (Eurofirelab partner 1997) by means of a rule-based representation of a
024) was established. state-and-transition model.
A model is being developed. MARF (model for By linking this models with a geographical
automatically refreshing fuel, MOLINA 2000, MOLINA & information system it is possible to generate a spatially
CASTELLNOU 2000) is a qualitative simulation model that explicit representation of the ecosystem dynamics at
will automatically generate a Fuel Type raster layer by the landscape level.
means of interacting SVT & Fire Behavior Factors. PLANT et al. (1999) presented the study of a
The ultimate goal is to improve the Farsite (FINNEY qualitative simulation study on a oak woodland site in
1998) simulations to help in wildland fire analysis. the Sierra Nevada foothills (California).
PLANT et al. (1999) used the QTIP (Qualitative
The FARSITE fire growth model is increasingly used Temporal Inference Program) expert system (PLANT
as a planning tool for prospecting consequences of fuel 1997) to encode the model’s transition rules.
management options on fire growth (MOLINA &
CASTELLNOU 2000). In MARF, we present a qualitative simulation model
to automatically refresh the fuel model layer by means
It has also been used to illustrate effects of fire of interacting Structural Vegetation Types (SVT) & Fire
behavior of specific fuel treatments (VAN WAGTENDONK Behavior Factors (FBF - fire behavior under different
1996). fire environments and diverse landscape features).
The benefit of using FARSITE is its capability to Additionally, this model allows for the update of
mechanistically model fire growth with intricate fuels, Structural Vegetation Types.
weather, and topography. In doing so, we should improve Wildland Fire
FARSITE applies the same fire behavior models Analysis and Fire Area Growth Forecast (i.e., when
most fire managers are used to in the BEHAVE using FARSITE simulations).
program (ANDREWS 1986) and displays color maps of
fire behavior across a landscape. The system that we propose functions by applying a
The deterministic nature of FARSITE simulations succession of two models, first one to determine the
allows the results to be directly related to the causative vegetation structure and second one to determine the
factors (FINNEY et al. 1999). fuel state based on the vegetation structure.
We pursue to facilitate wildfire managers to refresh
Forest vegetation as fuel type is a major piece of their landscape fuel type raster layer because we
information to mechanistically model fire growth in recognize the dynamic nature of both vegetation
FARSITE. succession and forest fuel availability to burn under
Today state-of-the-art in FARSITE does allow for a ever changing environments. We present a catalog of
fast conversion of fuel types following the same rule of transition rules that enumerate the circumstances
conversion for the whole landscape (FINNEY 1998). causing a transition from one state to another.
However it is not possible to accomplish a rapid and Firstly, states are Structural Vegetation Types (SVT)
fine scale refreshment of fuel types taking into account and transition rules account for both successional
that fire behavior varies under different fire change and seasonal development of vegetation
environments and diverse landscape features (MOLINA (fenology); both of them temporal changes.
& CASTELLNOU 2000).
EUFIRELAB
Later, states are the forest fuel types derived from This methodology requires four steps:
SVT under both spatial (fire spread direction) and
Step 1: To select and list those variables &
temporal (meteorology) variations.
parameters to be used in the steady-and-transition
This work has been made for a NE Spain forest model for automatically refreshing the fuel layer
region which includes 35000 ha of forests and (MARF).
rangelands and with some minor modification it may fit See below and table 1 for more detail.
other regions not only in Spain but in the Mediterranean
Step 2: To established the appropriate
basin.
correspondence between Structural Vegetation Type
3.6.2 Simulation methodology (SVT) and plant cover variables.
A SVT is discrete vegetation type in terms of fuel
The simulation methodology establishes an
structure, fuel availability and successional trend.
equivalence among the rules of a rule based expert
Plant cover variables are available in raster layers.
system (NOBLE 1987, PLANT and STONE 1991) and the
See below and table 2 for more detail.
transition rules of a state-and-transition model (PLANT
1997). Step 3: To write down rules to enable the update of
We use QTIP (Qualitative Temporal Interface the Structural Vegetation Types raster layer after
Program) expert system to encode the model’s management actions or natural disturbance.
transition rules. To do so, we present MARV (model for
The QTIP incorporates qualitative (i.e., non- automatically refreshing vegetation) or set of steady-
numerical) simulation. and-transition rules about the dynamics of SVT.
The most important aspect of qualitative simulation MARV is a qualitative simulation model that will
is that variables take on ordinal rather than rational or automatically generate a SVT raster layer by means of
interval values (PLANT et al. 1999). interacting SVT & management actions and
The QTIP was originally developed for the disturbances.
qualitative modeling of crop production systems (PLANT Structural Vegetation Types (SVT) & theirs
and LOOMIS 1991) and was later used for natural successional and seasonal trends under different
systems (i.e., oak woodlands) (PLANT et al. 1999). management actions and natural disturbances can be
The important feature of this program for application seen in table 3. See below and tables 3 and 4 for more
to state-and-transition modeling is that it combines an detail.
expert system with dynamic simulation of system
Step 4: MARF (model for automatically refreshing
behavior (PLANT et al. 1999).
fuel) is a qualitative simulation model that will
The state-and-transition model is linked to a GIS
automatically generate a Fuel Type raster layer by
through an algorithm that alternates among spatial
means of interacting SVT & Fire Behavior Factors.
steps and dynamic steps
See below and table 5 for more detail.
To accomplish a rapid, fine scale refreshment of fuel
In Table 3 there is a list of variables & parameters
types taking into account that fire behavior varies under
used in the steady-and-transition model for
different fire environments and diverse landscape
automatically refreshing the fuel layer (MARF).
features, our approach is to build a Structural
If we focus only on the dynamic structural vegetation
Vegetation Types (SVT) raster layer instead of a Fuel
types, a simpler model of automatically refreshing
Type raster layer – which is the present approach to fire
vegetation types is constructed (MARV).
simulations.
In this later case (MARV), no data of fuel moisture
Our qualitative simulation model will automatically
contents (FMC), neither fire spread direction is
generate a Fuel Type raster layer by means of
considered.
interacting SVT & Fire Behavior Factors
Those external inputs are important in MARF
because they play a major role in determine fuel
availability to the fire.
“Structural” vegetation type stands for vegetation as
a fuel complex; it is not only a vegetation classification.
Fuel spatial arrangement, fuel bulk density, fuel
complex ignitability, degree of shading of surface fuels
are major items in this classification.
EUFIRELAB
Table 4: List of variables & parameters used in the steady-and-transition model for automatically refreshing the fuel
layer (MARF)
Vegetation layers External inputs Fixed parameters
C1 - cover of mature trees fire level soil depth
C2 - cover of immature trees grazing level
C3 - cover of shrubs tree cutting
C4 - cover of grass, herbs & their litter FMC 1h (%)
FCL - overstory/understory fuel continuity level FMC 10h (%)
FMC live (%)
Fire spread
3.6.3 Variables characterizing fuel structure 3.6.5 Fixed Parameters (1 variable):

(5 variables): 1. Soil depth parameter: Deep soil (3), medium deep
1. % cover of mature trees - <10, 11-20, 21-40, >41 soil (2), and shallow soil (1) - linked to soil survey
2. % cover of immature trees - <30, >31 published or based on location on slope hilltop,
3. % cover of shrubs - <10, 11-20, 21-40, >41 hillside or piedmont
4. % cover of grass, herbs & their litter - <10, 11-20,
21-40, >41
5. overstory/understory fuel continuity level – without
continuity, rare continuity, continuity almost
everywhere
3.6.4 Variables characterizing external inputs (6
variables):
1. fire level – Stand replacement wildfire (3), backing
wildfire (2), understory prescribed fire (2),
Prescribed fire to enhance grazing (2), no fire (1) –
3 levels in five management /disturbance scenarios
2. grazing level – no grazing (1), proper grazing (2),
overgrazing (3) – 3 levels
3. tree cutting – clearcut, stripcut (5), selective cutting
(only removing large commercial trees) (4), light
thinning (dense stands) (3), strong thinning (leaving
few trees) (3), thinning pruning & removing shrubs
(fire hazard reduction) (2), no cutting (1) – 6 levels
4. FMC 1h (%) – Fuel moisture content of 1 hour time
lag (dead) fuels - <4, 5-8, 8-13, >13
5. FMC 10h (%) - Fuel moisture content of 10 hour
time lag (dead) fuels - <4, 5-8, 8-13, >13
6. FMC live (%) - Fuel moisture content of live fuels -
<55, 56-80, 81-110, 110-190, >190
7. Fire spread – downhill, uphill – 2 levels
Note than 1, 2, & 3 are management issues
Note than 4,5, & 6 are Fire Behavior FACTORS (to
obtain fuel model from vegetation structure i.e., Fire
Behavior under different fire environments - DFE)
EUFIRELAB
4 SITE AND COUNTRY SPECIFIC FUEL DESCRIPTIONS
4.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A PHOTO-GUIDE FOR The fuel inventory methodology is based on

THE IDENTIFICATION OF FUEL COMPLEXES destructive and double sampling procedures.
AND POTENTIAL FIRE BEHAVIOUR IN THE Table 8 in the end of this chapter summarises the
CENTRAL REGION OF PORTUGAL (P013 ADAI, fuel models for Central Portugal used by ADAI.
PORTUGAL)
4.1.1 Fuel complex inventory – field methodology
There is a need to define a common methodology (fuel complexes identification)
for inventory and photographic documentation of fuel
The identification refers to the characterisation of the
complexes in the different countries of the fire research
most representative fuel complexes that can describe
community.
most of the landscape considered.
We summarise the methodology used by ADAI, in
The main physical characteristics used are the
Central Portugal, for the inventory of fuel complex
vertical continuity, the amount of fuel available for
characteristics relevant for fire behaviour modelling, and
combustion and the structural characterisation of the
photographic documentation with the objective of
different fuel layers in Table 4.
developing a photo-series for the easy and
unambiguous identification of fuel complexes in the
field.
Table 5: The main fuel complexes identified for Central Portugal
Group ID Description
Herbaceous HER01 Herbaceous fuels
Shrubs MAT01 Shrubs with mean height less than 0,5 m
MAT02 Shrubs with mean height between 0,5 and 1,5 m
MAT03 Shrubs with mean height higher than 1,5 m
Stands PPIN02 Young pine plantation, without silvicultural intervention
PPIN03 Pine plantation without understorey
PPIN04 Pine plantation with understorey
PPIN05 Overstocked pine plantation
EUC01 Young eucalyptus stand (<3 years)
EUC02 Eucalyptus plantation without understorey
EUC03 Eucalyptus plantation with understorey
FOLC01 Broadleaf deciduous trees
Logging slash RESE01 Logging slash
- Classic stand inventory (DBH, mean height, basal

4.1.2 Field procedures (sample plot design)
area), and crown fuel descriptors (height of live
The sample plot design can be seen in Figure 4-1 crown base, crown length) is done within a 500 m2
and is constituted by a cluster of three transects or circular plot with centre in the starting point (Figure
vertical planes having only length and vertical 4-1).
dimensions, each one constituting a sample unit.
The use of three transects oriented at 60º angular
In each sample unit the following fuel characteristics
intervals forming a triangle will ensure a minimization of
are determined:
orientation bias due to soil mobilization techniques
- Shrub volume using the line interception method
before and after plantation, windfall or logging
(Canfield 1941);
techniques.
- Downed woody fuel load through the line intersect
VAN WAGNER (1982) refers that by using equilateral
method (BROWN et al. 1984) if fuel load justifies it;
triangles the starting points may be located without
- Litter and herbaceous fuels (load, height, and
accurate surveying and that the initial direction can be
percent cover) and downed woody fuel (if fuel load is
chosen at random or deliberately oriented to minimize
low) is accessed by destructive sampling in the
an obvious orientation bias.
quadrate frames along the transect (3 samples by
transect);
EUFIRELAB
4.1.2.1 Installing the sampling plot (from MCRAE et al. This gives an estimate of the shrub density and
1979) composition.
Along with the linear measurement of the
Locate and mark the starting point of the sampling
intersection is made a measurement of plant height with
triangle with a meter stick.
the objective of estimating shrub volume.
It is important that the sampling triangles are
established in representative locations within the fuel 4.1.3.3 Litter and duff fuels
complex.
Three destructive samples of litter and duff are
Once the starting point is located, an equilateral
made using the quadrate frames systematically placed
triangle with 20 m sides (sampling planes) is created.
along the sample line (Figure 4-1).
When establishing the sampling planes the surface
The litter and duff layer should be bagged
fuels should not be disturbed.
separately.
Measure the slope of the sample line (ground slope)
4.1.3.4 Downed woody fuels
on each side of the triangle.
The choice on using destructive sampling
4.1.3 Measuring fuels
techniques or the line intersect method to estimate
4.1.3.1 Herbaceous fuels dead downed woody material will depend mainly on the
quantity and type of material existing on the forest floor.
If relationships between percent cover and height
If the amount of this type of fuel is low, the fuel
(as independent variables) and fuel load and/or bulk
particles will be collected with the litter layer and then
density (dependent variables) already exist, the
partitioned in laboratory before oven-drying.
herbaceous fuels will require only a measure of fuel bed
In fuel complexes with heavy downed woody fuel
height and an estimate of percent cover.
loading, e.g. thinning and logging slash, the line
This can be done inside the quadrate frames located
intersect method is more applicable.
along the sample plane and not requiring the collection
This method requires the number of particles that
of fuels.
intersect the sampling plane to be recorded.
If the relationships mentioned above do not exist, it
Downed dead woody fuels are partitioned by time-
will be required to destructively sample the fuels and
lag fuel moisture classes (Table 1), and their tally is
oven-dry in laboratory.
made differentially along the transect (table 5 and
4.1.3.2 Shrub fuels Figure 4-1).
The 1-hr fuels are tally only in the first 5 m section of
The percent cover by species and height of shrubs the transect; fuels with 10-hr response time are tally in
are accessed along the sample plane using the line
the first 10 meters; 100-hr and 1000-hr fuels are tally
intercept method, in which linear measurements are along the whole transect.
made of the intercepts of vegetation through which the
vertical projection of the line must pass.
Figure 4-1: The cluster of sampling planes and location of destructive sampling quadrates
EUFIRELAB
4.1.4 Stand inventory

Table 6: Time lag size classes
DBH and stand mean height is measured in all trees
Woody particles size classes Transect length inside the circular plot.
∅ < 0,64 cm (1-hr) 5m 4.1.5 Photographic documentation
0,64 < ∅ < 2, 54 cm (10-hr) 10 m For the photographic documentation of the plot a
SLR camera with 50 mm lens should be used in order
2, 54 < ∅ < 7,62 cm (100-hr) 20 m
to maintain consistency between photos (a digital
∅ > 7,62 cm(>1000-hr) 20 m camera with fixed zoom can also be used).
Depending on the fuel complex the following
Fuel load by size class is determined from photographs should be made:
Equation 3 (Brown 1974): - Photo 1 - Horizontal understorey photo. This
k ⋅ n ⋅ d q2 ⋅ ρ ⋅ a ⋅ c photograph illustrates the general fuel complex
W0 = structure, namely composition, and vertical and
l (3) horizontal continuity.
Where - Photo 2 - Detailed ground fuel layer. This
- W0, fuel load by size class in metric tons/ha; photograph depicts a detailed view of the
- k the equation constant, dependent on the other components and characteristics of the fuels on the
units used on the equation; 1.234 in this situation; forest floor.
- n the number of intersections; - Photo 3 - Canopy view. This photograph illustrates
- dq class quadratic mean diameter in cm. the general characteristics of the canopy fuel strata.
- ρ, specific density in g/cm3; For the horizontal understorey photo the camera
- a correction factor due the no non-horizontal fuel should be mounted in a tripod at 1.6 m, at a distance of
particles disposal (Equation 4); 6 meters from the sampling unit starting point, and
- c slope correction factor (equation 3); oriented in the plot direction.
- l transect length in m. A vertical marker with at least 1-meter should be
The a factor (equation 4) will adjust the weight placed at the starting point.
estimate due to non-horizontal particles counting. For the detailed ground fuel layer photo, the tripod
The bias caused by counting non-horizontal particles should be located in a representative area of the plot,
is increased in the inventory of fresh logging slash and and the camera should be oriented in a 60 degree
will require a sub-sample of the acute angles (α) formed angle from the horizontal.
with the horizontal at the point of intersection (BROWN For the canopy view photo the camera should focus
and ROUSSOPOLOUS 1974). a representative area of the plot, being oriented in a 60
In normally fallen dead woody fuel, the a factor is degree angle from the horizontal.
close to one. 4.1.6 Fire behaviour characterisation
1
a= Based on the performed field work, specific fuel
cos α (4) models were built for each fuel complex.
2 The potential fire behaviour associated with each
⎛ slope(%) ⎞ fuel model was assessed for three different situations
c = 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ (it’s shown in a table accompanying each fuel complex
(5) description in the photo series – see Figure 4-2
The data to determine the quadratic mean diameter example), corresponding to three levels of potential fire
for input in [Equation 3] is estimated through a sub- spread: low, medium and high.
sample in which the diameter of wood particles is The environmental conditions associated with each
measured in the plane/fuel particle intersection point. of these three situations of the “Fire Environment “are
described in Table 6.
4.1.3.5 Crown fuels The fire behaviour descriptors used were: (1) fire
Crown length and fuel strata gap are the two crown rate of spread, (2) fire line intensity, (3) potential of
fuel parameters that are measured in the circular plot in transition from surface to crown fires and (4) mop up
order to estimate canopy bulk density and fuel complex difficulty.
vertical continuity. The models used for the fire behaviour
characterisation were:
- BEHAVE system (ANDREWS, 1986) for the surface
fires (rate of spread and linear intensity).
- CRUZ (1999) model for the transition from surface to
crown fires.
EUFIRELAB
Table 7: Fire environment characteristics used in the definition of fire danger situations.
Fuel moisture Fuel moisture Fuel moisture
Fuel moisture live Wind speed
dead fine fuels dead medium dead heavy fuels
fine fuels (%) (km/h)
(%) fuels (%) (%)
Low 12 13 14 130 0
Medium 6 7 8 100 5
High 3 4 5 70 10
Figure 4-2: Example of one the fuel models described in the photo guide
Table 8: Description of the fuel models for Portugal Central Region
Load (kg/m2) S/V Ratio Heat Extinction

(cm2/cm3) Depth
Model Dead Fuels Live Content Moisture
1-hr. 10-hr. 100-hr. (Ø<6 mm) 1-hr. shrubs (cm) (kJ/kg) (%)
HER01 1.17 - - - 80 - 28 18000 30
MAT01 0.22 - - 1.27 60 60 51 22500 40
MAT02 0.74 - - 22.3 60 60 94 22700 40
MAT03 0.92 - - 57.4 60 60 130 22700 40
PPIN02 1.3 0.1 2 - 50 - 11.6 21000 35
PPIN03 0.6 0.1 0.1 - 50 60 6.5 21000 35
PPIN04 1.7 0.2 0.2 1.8 50 60 62 22000 35
PPIN05 0.35 0.1 0.25 0.1 50 - 5 21000 35
EUC01 0.35 - - - 55 - 3 20000 25
EUC02 0.3 0.46 0.3 - 55 - 8 20000 25
EUC03 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.9 55 60 30 22000 25
FOLC01 0.8 0.3 0.74 - 55 - 10 20000 25
RESE01 0.25 0.18 0.1 - 79 - 5 18500 21
HER01 0.7 0.72 0.4 - 55 - 12.2 22000 30
EUFIRELAB
4.2.3 Destructive sampling methods

4.2 FUEL DESCRIPTION IN FIELD
EXPERIMENTAL SHRUB PLOTS (P018 XG- Destructive sampling of fuels is used to assess fuel
CIFAL, SPAIN) loads in fire behaviour research experimental plots. It
allows to assess the fuel loads and to know the
Empirical forest fire behaviour research needs to
distribution of the different layers, fuel categories (dead
carry out field measurements of fire behaviour, which is
or live) and particle sizes.
often accomplished by burning field experimental plots
Post-burn fuel load is determined from a random
to measure the fire behaviour characteristics, mainly fire
sample of 2x2 m quadrats which are clipped, and
rate of spread, flame angle and length, and depth of the
selected along the plot axis (along of which the fire is
fire front.
expected to run); another set of quadrats, chosen in the
The empirical approach to fire behaviour tries to find
vegetation surrounding the plot and as similar as
relations between fuel and weather variables and
possible to those inside the plot, are also selected to
between fire behaviour descriptors.
determine the pre-burn shrubs, herbaceous and litter
In shrub lands, the fuel complex is, in most cases, biomass, thus avoiding fuel disturbance inside the
composed by four layers: duff, litter, herbaceous and burning plot.
shrub layer, so it is necessary to describe all of them. Within each 2x2 meters quadrat the different layers
of fuel are collected separately.
To asses some of the characteristics of the fuel Fuel is separated in the laboratory attending to its
complex in experimental plots, several methods have
condition in two categories, live and dead fuels, and
been tried by partner P018 (XG-CIFAL) in different each category is separated in five different sizes (0-2
shrubs communities (mainly composed by Ulex mm, 2-6 mm, 6-25 mm, 25-70 mm and >70 mm)
europaeus, Ulex minor, Chamaespartium tridentatum,
following a common methodology shared with other
Erica umbelata, Erica australis or their mixtures). EUFIRELAB Project teams (UTMAD P025 and INRA
4.2.1 Line intersect methods P001).
Line intersect methods are based on measures of 4.2.4 Cube method
the intersection of a straight line with the existing shrubs The cube method (COHEN et al. 2002) to determine
(CANFIELD 1941). the volume fraction of the shrub layer at different
Shrub cover is measured across the major axis of
heights, developed by INRA (P001), is also been used
the plots in transect lines, the length that each species in the frame of the FIRE STAR Project in the following
and gaps intercepts the transect line is registered along species: Ulex europaeus, Ulex minor, Chamaespartium
all the transect line.
tridentatum, Erica umbellata and Erica australis.
Height of the shrub layer and cover and height of the
herbaceous and litter layers, is assessed at 0,5 or 1m 4.2.5 Spatial variation
meter intervals in the same transect lines.
The spatial variation of wildland fuel in selected
Fuel load assessment by this method was scenarios is described following the FIRE STAR
attempted, based in the calculation of shrubs volume protocol developed by INRA (P001).
from their cover and height and then calculating the fuel - Garrigue < 1m (Chamaespartium, Erica and Ulex)
load assuming a constant bulk density; in the type of - Maquis 1-2 m with sparse trees (Pinus pinaster,
shrub lands we are working, vegetation cover is near Ulex and Erica)
100% and different individual plants are overlapped
4.2.6 Fuel inventories of pine understorey for
and/or interspersed.
prescribed burning research
In this situation we have found that bulk density is
not constant and this method is not adequate. Burning experimental plots is a common practice in
prescribed burning research.
4.2.2 Double sampling methods
Pre-fire and post-fire fuel characteristics must be
Double sampling methods have been used to characterized in detail as a part of the study of fire
describe sparse wildland fuels were individual shrubs behaviour and fuel consumption behaviour.
are clearly identified.
In prescribed burning experiences in Pinus pinaster
Allometric relations between shrub dimensions and
stands (XG-CIFAL P018), fuel description is carried out
biomass were determined in experimental fire plots in
by means of destructive sampling.
SE Spain.
In pre-burn inventories, 1x1m sized quadrates are
In NW Spain, allometric relationships were randomly located inside the experimental plot and used
determined for Ulex sp. communities, between the to collect the different layers of fuel (L and F horizons of
basal diameter of the stem and shrub load but the the forest floor) and to measure their thicknesses. A
independent variable is difficult to sample in dense and smaller quadrate of 30x30 cm within the 1x1 m
thorny shrub lands. quadrate is used to collect the H layer and measure its
thickness.
EUFIRELAB
For each layer, fuel biomass is separated in the 4.3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF
laboratory considering its live or dead condition, and VEGETATION FOR FUEL PARAMETERS
each category is sorted by size class (0-6 mm, 6-25 ESTIMATION (P029 LEMTA, FRANCE)
mm, 25-70 mm and >70 mm).
The LEMTA team (P029) has developed a fractal
Post fire fuel sampling is made the same way as the construction approach for vegetation modelling.
pre-burn inventory, collecting the remaining fuel and The methodology is based on the mathematical tool
measuring the different layers thickness (when called “Iterated Function System” (I.F.S.).
present). The collaboration between the LEMTA and GIUZ
Additionally, spikes introduced in the forest floor (P033) consists to use some fuel variables deduced
before the fire are used to measure the reduction in from LIDAR measurements to obtain a fine
thickness of each layer. reconstruction of fuel.
4.2.7 Fuel moisture determination 4.3.1 Definition of I.F.S.
Samples for fuel moisture content determination are To summarize, fine shapes and forms like trees
collected immediately before ignition in several sections have been developed by using particular “Iterated
along the plot. Function Systems” (I.F.S.).
All the existing layers, sizes and categories (dead or
4.3.1.1 Definition of a deterministic I.F.S.
live) of fuels are sampled.
Fuel samples are sealed with electrical tape in Let (X, d) be a metric space, an application w from X
plastic jars with tight fitting lids. to X is a contraction if s < 1 exists such that for any
The moisture content percentage is calculated on a points x, y: s < 1 , s is called contraction coefficient.
dry weight basis and takes account of condensation
onto the jars. An I.F.S., Barnsley (1993), is a collection
lw ,K, w q of contractions on X, denoted by
l X ; w , w ,K, w qwhere s is the contraction factor
1 n
1 2 n i
of wi.
We define the space H ( X ) as the set of all
compact subsets of X.
Using the Hausdorff distance, H ( X ) is a complete
space, it is the space of fractals.
If A is an element of H ( X ) , we can define another
n
element B of H ( X ) by: B = U w ( A) . i
i =1
The application T defined by B = T ( A) is a
contraction from H ( X ) to H ( X ) .
So that using Brouwer’s fixed point theorem, the
n
sequence An +1 = Uw (A ) i n converges to a unique
i =1
limit set A, whatever the initial set A0 is.
The limit set is the attractor of the I.F.S.
4.3.1.2 Definition of a stochastic I.F.S.
Deterministic I.F.S. produces generally regular
shapes, as some examples can show. In order to obtain
irregular shapes closer to real or natural objects, we
can consider probabilistic I.F.S., where the contractions
are chosen randomly at each step.
The procedure is the following: for an I.F.S.
{ X , ( w1 , w2 ,..., wN )} with contraction mappings wi , a
probability p i > 0 has been assigned to each wi for
N
i = 1,..., N with ∑p
i =1
i = 1.
EUFIRELAB
Choosing recursively The contraction factor is then s i = inf ai .

j
x n ∈ { w1 ( x n −1 ), w2 ( x n −1 ), ... , wN ( x n −1 )} for j
n = 1,2,3,... where the probability of the event For example, the use of the set of transformations
x n = wi ( x n −1 ) is p i . j
for which dilatation coefficients ai are all equal to 0.6,
The sequence {x n : n = 0,1,2,3,...} ⊂ X defines the leads to the simple attractor represented in Figure 5-3.
attractor of the stochastic I.F.S. The attractor of a simple non deterministic I.F.S. is
4.3.2 Construction of fractals pictured in Figure 5-4.
We can use special affine transformations as In the real world, trees are not real fractals, and we
contractions; these transformations are defined by have to stop the iterations process of the I.F.S. at a
composition of dilatations, rotations and translations. certain iteration.
This number will be called the order of the I.F.S.
A transformation wi can be written:
Of course it remains the problem of determining the
⎛ ai1 0 0⎞ ⎛ t1i ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ transformations wi and eventually the probabilities pi .
wi = ⎜ 0 ai2 0 ⎟ Rφ Rθ Rϕ + ⎜ t 2i ⎟ , where Rφ , Rθ , This problem, called the inverse problem, has several
⎜0 0 ai3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ti ⎟ solutions and can be solved by the application of
⎝ ⎝ 3⎠ classical theory of moments.
and Rϕ are three rotations around the three Given an arbitrary (fractal) set S, the generic inverse
problem for deterministic fractal, consists in finding a
coordinates axes. set of contraction maps whose attractor corresponds to
S.
Figure 4-3: Example of deterministic and stochastic I.F.S.
EUFIRELAB
Figure 4-4: Examples of parameters deduced from morphological construction of tree.
Left: Porosity φ (in green), specific surface σ (in red) and ratio S/V (in blue) versus the order of iteration (n=0 to
6)
Right: Variation of the porosity smoothed with different kernels
4.3.3 Numerical simulations around a tree
After constructing a geometrical construction of a tree, we developed an automatic mesh generator using the
iterative process of the I.F.S. An example of calculus domain obtained is represented on the following figure.
Then we solved the equations of fluids mechanics (turbulent flow, Navier-Stokes) in the entire domain.
Having the velocities fields all around the tree we can determine the quantity of oxygen available to fuel
combustion (determination of the term “-Kv”, see SÉRO-GUILLAUME 2003, SÉRO-GUILLAUME and MARGERIT 2002).
Figure 4-5: Computational domain (7 M. of cells) and field velocity distribution around the tree
EUFIRELAB
4.4 FUEL PARTICLE DETERMINATION (P010,

4.3.4 I.F.S. Identification using LIDAR data
INIA-CIFOR, SPAIN)
Following a work meeting hold on 29th November at
The surface to volume ratio of pine needles using
Nancy (France) between the D. CALOGINE, O. SÉRO-
image analysis of the cross section of the needle.
GUILLAUME (LEMTA, P029) and Felix MORSDORF, Ben
KÖTZ (GIUZ, P033) we established a methodology to The method (HERNANDO et al. 1995) is based on the
couple vegetation data obtained by LIDAR and the simplification proposed by BROWN (1970) for long and
generator of fractal forest developed at LEMTA. fine fuels, like needles and small twigs:
We proposed to use the spatial distribution of trees,
SVR = Ps / Ss [6]
the height and diameters of the crown like its BBH and
- Ps being the mean perimeter,
measurements of biomass on the ground and in the
- and Ss the mean surface of the cross section.
crown in order to reconstitute a three dimensional
shape of the fuel to be used in combustion and Micro-metrical cross-sections of the needles enable
propagation codes. to obtain these values (Figure 4-6).
The use of the mean allometric distribution relatively
to the height and the density as well as the mean Figure 4-6: Micro-metrical cross-sections of the needles
biophysical distributions such as the LAI and moisture
content can allow determining the parameters of the
mathematical model of an individual tree or a group of
trees.
4.3.4.1 State of this work.
We have coded some subroutines (Fortran):
- Module of fractal tree construction with key
characteristic parameters: DBH, ratio dg/dm and the
succession of branches angle.
- Spatial distribution module to spread individual trees
on a macroscopic scale according to the LIDAR data
(x, y, tree height [m], height of crown bases [m]), we
do not take into account yet of some others
parameters available as the crown diameter [m], the
crown volume [m3] and the tree area [m3].
- Module to estimate the average data of a
reconstructed forest as local mass density and LAI
( d and f ).
The second stage consists in coupling the different

data.
We propose to use an optimisation algorithm which
allows matching data, by optimisation of an objective
function taking into account the characteristics of the INIA-CIFOR uses simultaneously an image analyser
fractal forests and the data of LIDAR. OLYMPUS CUE-2, equipped with:
Min( Fobjective ) = 0 or - a camera CCD XC57 CE, with a resolution of 550-
582 pixels,
Min( f (Rawdata, mean density, mean biophysic parameters,...)) = 0
- a microscope OLYMPUS VANOX AH3.
It randomly takes hundred pairs of needles of each
pine species and each collecting area.
It measures:
- the length L of each needle,
- the diameter D in different locations along the
needle.
- It determines the means values L and D.
For further analysis, it selects at least twenty-four
pairs of needles whose length and diameter are as
close as possible to the L and D values.
With a micro-tome, it cuts four central sections from
one out of the two needles of each pair, previously
included in paraffin.
EUFIRELAB
With the image analyser, we measure the perimeter We carry out the HCV measurement with an
(Ps1 to 4) and the cross section (Ss1 to 4) of each of the adiabatic bomb calorimeter (Figure 4-7) equipped with a
four cuts. platinum resistance sensor (PT-100).
The perimeter Ps and the cross section Ss of each Figure 4-7: HCV measurement with an adiabatic bomb
selected needle are respectively the mean values of the calorimeter
four Ps1 to 4 and Ss1 to 4
The surface-to-volume ratio of each selected needle
is equal to its perimeter-to-surface ratio:
SVRn = Ps/Ss [7]
For each of the considered species and collecting
areas, the value of SVR is the mean value of the SVRn
of each selected needle.
4.4.1 The oven-dry measurement of fuel moisture
content
Taking into account the high content of volatile
organic compounds of many Mediterranean species, we
maintain the wildland fuel in the drying oven for 24
hours at 60°C.
Numerous previous studies indicate that at this We carry out two measures from each fuel type. A
temperature level, we do not degrade these compounds third one is determined if the difference between the
too much. two first values is higher than 2% of their mean value.
We determine: 4.4.3 Flammability

- Initial mass Mi, the mass of the material and of its In the studies we have carried out, “flammability”
container just before we put them in the drying oven, describes the time required until ignition of the fuel
- Final mass Mf, the mass of the material that we occurs (TRABAUD, 1976; DELABRAZE & VALETTE, 1974,
determine as soon as we take it out of the drying VALETTE, 1990). It is equivalent to the term "ignitability"
oven and put in a cold container found in the Anglo-Saxon literature.
- Mass of the air-cooled container Tare
Moisture content is: 4.4.3.1 Method
Mc = 100 (( Mi – Tare ) – Mf ) / Mf [8] The flammability measurement device (Hernando et

al. 1994) is an electric radiator whose radiant disk has a
4.4.2 The high calorific value diameter of 10 cm, and radiates 7 W.cm-2 when
4.4.2.1 Objectives alternating current is stabilised at 220 V and at 50
Hertz.
For a given fuel type, the first objective is to obtain a A pilot flame is located 4 cm above the centre of the
comprehensible measure of the potential thermal disk.
energy that can be released during the burning of the This flame does not take part to the decay of the
fuel (SUSSOT et al. 1975; SHAFIZADEH et al. 1977). sample but allows a more regular ignition of the gases
Therefore, the second objective is to compare (Figure 4-8).
results: Figure 4-8: The flammability measurement device
- either of different fuel particles of the same species, (HERNANDO et al. 1994)
- or of the same fuel particles collected in different
locations and/or seasons.
4.4.2.2 Method
The high calorific value HCV, expressed in kJ kg-1, is
determined according to the Spanish Standard UNE
23103-78, which corresponds to the International
Standard ISO 1716 of 1973.
The procedure is:
- to constitute a sample representative of the studied
fuel type,
- to ground it in a laboratory mill,
- to press the obtained powder with a hand press for
constituting 1-g pellets,
- to put them in the drying oven (24 hours, 105°C),
- to weight the oven-dried pellets.
EUFIRELAB
Fifty samples of 1 g (fresh weight) of each studied 4.5 FUEL RESEARCH AND DESCRIPTION IN
species are prepared for each experiment. THE BOREAL ZONE OF EUROPE
For each of the fifty tests, the delay between the (FENNOSCANDIA)
laying of the sample on the radiant disk and the ignition
4.5.1 Introduction
is recorded when it occurs.
The number of “positive” tests and the arithmetical The fire regime in the boreal zone of Europe
mean of these delays are calculated at the end of the (Finland, Sweden, Norway, parts of the Baltic States,
tests and are considered as the time-to-ignition and the Scotland and large parts of northern Russia) has many
ignition frequency of the experiment. characteristic features that differ from other European
landscapes.
According to these two parameters, species are
Mainly coniferous stands, and cool, humid climate
classified following the classification of VALETTE (1988).
as well as acid soils often cause a lower decomposition
rate which frequently creates the accumulation of semi-
decayed layer of litter and detritus called duff or raw
humus.
The duff is mostly covered by moss or lichen layer.
In certain circumstances the damp conditions have led
to paludification, and the formation of peat.
Duff and peat in forested areas are combustible but
rarely flammable whereas moss and lichen layer is the
stratum where ignition usually takes place.
The stand structure in general in the European
boreal zone has been greatly affected by sylviculture.
The Fennoscandian countries have practised one of
the most intensive forest management policies in the
world.
During the post-war era the vast majority of forests
have been turned to commercial forests.
As a result of this policy the forest stands are
nowadays small-sized, even-aged.
Consequently they rarely have a significant
understorey or large amount of coarse woody debris.
These major changes in forest structure have also
changed the fire regime drastically.
The lack of understorey, coarse woody debris and
the increase of even-aged small stands have decreased
fire ignition probability and the occurrence of large –
high-intensity – crown fires.
The formerly more common – landscape-level – fires
have been replaced by small scale, low-intensity ground
fires where the combustible fuels most often are
mosses, duff or dry grass.
One could justly claim that modern forestry
management has created as an accidental side product
an effective and successful fuel management program
in Fennoscandia during last 50 years.
4.5.2 Fuel modeling research in Fennoscandia
Because of the minor importance of forest fires as a
social issue research activities during the past decades
have been low.
There was simply no need for it.
However, during the last years, with the increasing
interest to fire ecology, dendro-ecology and fire
impacts, fuels and their role in fire regime are becoming
more relevant research topics nowadays.
It is notable also that most Fennoscandian fire
research activities are driven by biodiversity and
restoration issues – and not by fire risk or fire
prevention reasons mainly.
This differs from most of the other countries.
EUFIRELAB
This situation also reflects in the goal setting of 4.5.4 Future challenges for Fennoscandian fuel
current fuel research in Fennoscandia. research
As there is quite little knowledge based on The former and ongoing fuel research tries to
systematic fuel research the ongoing and previous overcome lacking knowledge in order to construct the
research did have to start from scratch. planned implements/measures in the future.
The description of main fuel characteristics and their The main research tasks could be determined in the
relations to e.g. weather circumstances of different fuels following fields:
need to be studied by empirical tests in order to find out
1. To determine the threshold areas of fuel moisture
the essential basic knowledge that is typical for the
content where ignition becomes possible.
Fennoscandian situation.
This should be done for the most important ground
This basic data is needed in order to construct and
layer mosses and lichens.
improve practical applications e.g. fire risk
classifications, fire risk indexes, prescribed burning 2. To find out the fuel moisture content behaviour and
guidelines and the lot. variation of the most important ground floor fuels in
The methodological context can be adapted from different stands and forest types.
other boreal countries like Canada and the United
States. 3. To clarify the moisture driven interactions of the
But because of e.g. the different species composing organic moss/lichen and duff layer complex,
specifically focusing on fire depth/intensity under
and the different fuel strata their results and implements
can not be directly adapted or applied. different moisture and weather conditions
4. Developing more efficient and practical techniques
4.5.3 Current Fennoscandian fuel research
for estimating the fuel moisture content of ground
Current Fennoscandian fuel research focuses on floor fuels.
ground floor fuels, because of several reasons: The traditional oven method is very laborious and
not usable e.g. in practical operations as during
1. In Fennoscandia forest fires usually start by the
prescribed burning.
ignition of ground layer fuels.
The moss and lichen layers contain a lot of air, and
2. The fire regime has shifted to small size surface they are quite heterogeneous with a steep moisture
fires. gradient.
Although they are not socially or economically Thus the adaptation of modern techniques,
destructive they require fire brigade resources, measuring e.g. soil moisture is difficult.
especially during certain peak times of the forest fire
season and thus create unnecessary work and costs.
3. There is a growing interest in prescribed burnings.
The scope of controlled burnings is shifting from
traditional forest regeneration burnings to restoration
and ecosystem management burnings.
Therefore the expected fire result (outcome) in
different type of burnings differs as well.
The understanding of different fuels can help the
planning and timing of prescribed burnings.
4. The Finnish and Swedish Forest Fire Indexes try to
estimate the fuel moisture content of the 6 cm thick
surface layer moss layer by weather parameters.
The knowledge on fuels might help to develop the
indexes appropriate for Fennoscandia.
5. Because of the high-level forestry and the long
research tradition of forest surveys in Fennoscandia
forest inventory and remote sensing methods as
well as research are advanced.
Therefore and in case of need, the resulting tree
data at stand level can be adapted to fuel description
purposes relatively easily.
EUFIRELAB
5 GAPS AND RESEARCH NEEDS
One of the crucial lacks in fuel modelling is the fact The problem of crowning and torching has also been
that fuel models often only look at segments of the addressed by ALLGÖWER et al. 1998 in the Swiss
whole fuel complex. National Park where boreal type forests are present and
Fire, however, burns what is in the right burning where the main fuel type consists of Pinus uncinata
conditions and accessible. (also referred to as Pinus mugo ssp. unicinata or Pinus
montana Miller ssp. arborea Tubeuf).
A gap encountered in fuel description and modelling
Like most Pinus species Pinus uncinata is most
is how surface fires spread into active crown fires.
flammable given the right burning conditions.
Fire managers are increasingly concerned about the
When establishing ‘traditional’ NFFL-like fuel models
threat of crown fires. NEXUS (SCOTT & REINHARDT
for this area (HARVEY et al. 1997) it became very
2001) is an Excel(tm) spreadsheet linking surface and
obvious that fuel modelling methods need to be
crown fire prediction models.
developed that look at the whole fuel complex at once
Two indices of crown fire hazard – the Torching
in order to provide valuable input for (future) fire
Index and the
behaviour modelling.
Crowning Index- are developed in Nexus from
A promising approach is certainly the development
existing mathematical models of fire spread.
of European fuel complex models with NEXUS as e.g.
These indices may be used to assess and classify
the ‘surface&crown Pinus halepensis fuel model’
forest stands by their relative susceptibility to crown fire
(related to Rothermel fuel model Nr. 4) by P024.
as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of different
Other promising approaches are also high resolution
crown fire alleviation treatments.
remote sensing based methods like LIDAR combined
The crown hazard indices and fire behaviour
with high resolution Imaging Spectroscopy as shown by
simulations in Nexus include the effects of slope
MORSDORF et al. (2003) and KÖTZ et al. (2003).
steepness, canopy base height, canopy bulk density,
But so far the mentioned remote sensing techniques
surface fuel characteristics, wind reduction factor by the
do not allow the full registration of the whole fuel
canopy, and dead and live fuel moistures (both surface
complex at once.
and crown).
Depending on the sensor and/or the species and
NEXUS facilitates to build and test new fuel models
seasonal influences e.g. LIDAR signals cannot retrieve
that are different from standard fuel models used in the
the complete vertical layering of the fuels sufficiently.
BEHAVE program (ANDREWS 1986).
NEXUS is an Excel spreadsheet model that On the other hand fire behaviour and specifically
computes surface, transitional and crown fire behaviour, propagation modelling is not yet really ready for 3D-fire
as well as two indices of crown fire hazard. spread modelling over vast areas.
Excel contains many built-in analysis features that At present computational costs seem to be simply
advanced users will appreciate, such as: scenario too high in order to ‘jump’ from small-scale combustion
management, backwards solving, one- and two-way modelling to larger-scale 3D-fire propagation modelling.
data tables, etc.
The NEXUS workbook makes use of these
possibilities and consists of nine visible worksheets and
several hidden ones.
The hidden sheets contain the fire behaviour
calculations and other miscellaneous data.
EUFIRELAB
6 REFERENCES
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EUFIRELAB

D-02-06 Final Version

Methods for Wildland Fuel Description and Modelling:

Final Version of the State of the Art

Britta ALLGÖWER, Didier CALOGINE, Andrea CAMIA, Pedro CUIÑAS,

5.3.2 Construction of fractals .............................................................................................................................37

arrangement, or other characteristics that will cause a predictable rate of spread or

LIST OF ASSOCIATED DOCUMENTS

1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF D-02-06

Chapter 0 deals with fuel description methods from

2 FUEL INFORMATION AND CONTEXT: EUFIRELAB UNIT2 – CLEARING HOUSE ON FUELS

2.1 MOTIVATION Having now the perspective that the EUFIRELAB

2.4 HOW TO ASSESS FUELS – THE FUEL MODEL SCALE CUBE

Figure 2-1 Fuel Model Scale Cube.

2.4.1.2 Fire managers 2.4.1.3 General public

 Farsite  Satellite images  Fuel type maps

 Fire line rotation model  Aerial photos  Ignition risk models

 Behave  Stand inventory and  Input parameters for fire

 Fire line rotation model mapping behavior models

 Firestar 2D (x,z)  Stand inventory and  Input parameters for fire

 Firetec 3D mapping behavior models

 Aerial photos 3D fuel structures

 Firetec 3D  Field sampling models

 Cube method  Input parameters for fire

 Structural & biophysical

…  Biochemical analysis  Input parameters for fire

FUEL DESCRIPTION, CLASSIFICATION AND ESTIMATION

These classes are made correspondent to moisture

The weather influence is frequently synthesised in a 2.6.4.3.1.1 Leaf Level

Figure 0-1. Scheme of 'RTM-tree' (Kötz et al. 2003).

2.6.4.4 Ash content 2.6.4.5 Composition in extractives

2.7.3 Variables and their calculation Other porosity indicators are:

Working on the individual tree level is especially

A new approach for deriving tree structure and

Figure 3.4 : TLS data of forest stand. (Top) Intensity of

ANDERSON (1974) describes how crown fuels

3 FUEL CHARACTERISATION AT LANDSCAPE LEVEL

3.1 DEFINITION 3.2 USAGE

3.3 VARIABLES 3.4 CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES

3.5 ESTIMATES It is clear that the approaches mentioned are just

Fuel Mapping strategies Advantages Disadvantages

The elaboration of appropriate management

3.6.3 Variables characterizing fuel structure 3.6.5 Fixed Parameters (1 variable):

4 SITE AND COUNTRY SPECIFIC FUEL DESCRIPTIONS

4.1 CONSTRUCTION OF A PHOTO-GUIDE FOR The fuel inventory methodology is based on

- Classic stand inventory (DBH, mean height, basal

4.1.4 Stand inventory

Table 8: Description of the fuel models for Portugal Central Region

Load (kg/m2) S/V Ratio Heat Extinction

4.2.3 Destructive sampling methods

Choosing recursively The contraction factor is then s i = inf ai .

Figure 4-3: Example of deterministic and stochastic I.F.S.

Figure 4-4: Examples of parameters deduced from morphological construction of tree.

4.4 FUEL PARTICLE DETERMINATION (P010,

The second stage consists in coupling the different

We determine: 4.4.3 Flammability

Mc = 100 (( Mi – Tare ) – Mf ) / Mf [8] The flammability measurement device (Hernando et

5 GAPS AND RESEARCH NEEDS

6.2 HYPERSPECTRAL DATA (Æ CHAPTER of boreal forests: Theory, techniques, and

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