CORROSION/MAINTENANCE
Iron Sulfides—effect on amine plants
Amine plants treating gas containing H2S will have iron sulfides in the
system. Here's where they help and hinder plant operation
B. SPOONER and M. SHEILAN, Amine Experts Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada
I
n sour-gas production the two primary corrosion-causing spe-
cies are hydrogen sulfide {H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO,).
The corrosion products that torm from the reaction of these
gases with steel in rhe presence of water can provide a clue as to
the formation mechanism, severity ofthe potential corrosive
environment and degree co which the corrosion will affect amine
unit operation.
In any amine system, piping and equipment corrosion is one
ofthe worst ofthe potential prohlenis an operator or engineer can
encounter. Amine plants treating gas containing H^S «'///have
iron sulfides in the s}'stem. Are they a good thing? When do they
help and when do they hinder? This article will attempt to clarify
the pros and cons ofthe presence of iron sulfides.
The basics. Corrosion may he defined as the chemical or elec-
trochemical reaction hetween a material, usually a metal, and its
environment. The reaction causes deterioration ofthe material.
Corrosion is a natural process that is continuously taking
place everywhere within an amine plant (piping systems, process
vessels, etc.) to some degree. Steel, which h an iron alloy, is the
most prone to destruction hy corrosion in gas processing. When
exposed to difFerenc oxidizing environments, a metallic iron tries
to reach its natural state of iron oxide. Corrosion is a process that
can be reduced but not eliminated.
Pure iron is not found in nature: rather, it is in the form of red
iron oxide. To convert it to a usable metal, the oxygen is removed,
leaving hehind pure iron. Pure Iron will eventually revert hack to
its natural oxide state, which is commonly called rust. Iron may
he comhined with other metals to form alloys that improve its
properties and retard (but not eliminate) iron oxide tormation.
Oxygen is the main catalyst tor the corrosion process, and of
course oxygen is everywhere in the environment.
Iron ionization. Iron can also corrode in the presence of an
electrolytic fluid, such as an aqueous amine solution, as a result
of ionization. The fundamental step in steel corrosion is the pro-
cess by which the valence electrons are removed from iron in its
metallic state. When these electrons are removed, the iron atom
is left with 3 positive charge and is no longer able to participate in
the metallic bonding. The positively charged species must leave
the metallic environment and go somewhere else. The process is
represented as:
Fe, Fe 4-2e (1)
FJectrons cannot survive in an aqueous solution; diey "hide"
in the metal, making it negatively charged (polarized), eventually
50 MARCH 2 0 Î 0 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
stopping the reaction... unless the negative charge in the metal is
somehow reduced:
• H'^ ions can do this by reacting with the electrons (e-) to
form atomic hydrogen
• If the "circuit" is completed in this way, corrosion will con-
tinue until the system runs out of either Fe or H*
Since pH is an inverse log relationship, for every decrease of 1
"pH point" the quantity of H' ions is increased by a factor of 10.
This explains the increased corrosive tendency of low-pH fluids
(acids). They have orders of magnitude more H* ions than basic
solutions (amines) and, therefore, have almost an unlimited sup-
ply of H* ions to feed the corrosion cell (in eftect, low pH leads
to an increased corrosion current feeding the corrosion "light
bulb").
Fe (lh)
H2S corrosion. HiS dissolves in water; however, the bond is
very weak. HiS will liberate itself from the water with the slight-
est agitation, reduction in pH or contact with reactive material.
The intent of this article is to provide a basic understanding of
the corrosion mechanisms associated with HiS attack on amine
plants, how to recognize the conditions that affect corrosion sever-
ity and to gain an understanding ofthe recommended operating
parameters to get the most out of ihe facility in terms of handling
the ingress and formation of iron sulfide (FeS).
Note that there are a number of complex reaction mechanisms
associated with corrosion (especially in the presence of water).
The study of these corrosion mechanisms is tar from trivial, but
beyond the scope of this article. Presented here are simplistic
representations ofthe primar)' reaction steps.
Iron sulfides. FeS is the reaction product of iron (Fe) and
sulfur (S) in the absence of oxygen. More specifically to amine
systems, this reaction is between iron and HiS. This initial reac-
tion is a form of metal corrosion; however, under ideal conditions
the FeS formed then "sticks" to the walls oí the piping and vessel
internals and acts as a protective film thus retarding further metal
corrosion. This mechanism is actually one of the main reasons
why carbon steel is used in amine plant construction.
The reaction mechanism of HiS with steel that results in form-
ing FeS is complex and occurs hy several intermediate reactions.
The simplified reaction can he written as:
(2)

This reaction only takes place in the presence of water.
Rtist left in the system or pipeline can also lead to FeS forma-
tion:
Fe,O, (rust)-|~ 3H2S—*• 2FeS-f-3H2O-l-S (3)
Several species or types of FeS; the most commonly found in
amine systems, in order of increasing sulfidacion, are:
Mackinawite—FeSj., or Fe],,S—is the most soluble type of
FeS, as well as most reactive with oxygen.
Pyrrhotite—Fej.^S—iron-deficient sulfide. More stable than
mackinawite.
Pyrite—FeSi—most stable form of FeS.
Other types of FeS that may be found;
Greigite—Fe3S4 - product of sulphidisation of mackinawice
Troilite—FeS - stoichiometric iron sulfide - rarely found in
amine systems (found in meteorites).
HiS will attack steel very fast. The reaction is partly the solid-
state diffusion of iron in Fei.^S, and partly the fracturing of the
sulfide layer to admit more H2S to the iron surface. There are no
knownfieldmethods to differentiate one FeS spedes from another,
the most common laboratory method is by x-ray difïraccion.
Mackinawite is the inicial FeS form that normally develops in
amine systems. It is fairly soluble, and does not form as strong
of a protective layer on the piping wall compared to pyrrhotite
or pyrite. Mackinawite is normally the main component in the
"black shoe polish" often seen on rich-side particle filters. The
odier components are hydrocarhon and polymerized amine. TTiere
can still be some FeS scale on piping and vessel walls when the FeS
is mackinawite beaiuse the formation rate is much faster than the
dissolution rate back iitto the amine.
As more and more H2S reacts with the mackinawite the ratio
of sulfur CO iron grows and will eventually change che molecular
structure of the FeS molecule. With adequate HjS partial pre.ssure,
mackinawite will convert co pyrrhotite quickly ac temperatures
above 43''C(10rF).
Pyrrhotite is less soluble than mackinawite and makes a very
good protective film. Pyrrhotite will deposit on piping walls
between 43 and 15O'*C (109-302''F).
Pyrite is formed when the ratio of suIftir to iron reaches 2:1.
Elemental sulfur can also react with iron to make pyrite, making
it common in regenerator bottoms and reboilers. It has extremely
low solubility levels and is che hardest FeS type. Pyrite, chough
very durable, is not a preferred procective film. If even the small-
est space exists between it and carbon steel, a galvanic cell can be
formed between the pipe wall and pyrite that will result in very
high corrosion rates.
The properties of an FeS film depend on the surrounding
environment. Temperature, pH, fluid dynamics, HjS and CO3
partial pressures and che presence of inhibitors or surfactants
all have an effect on the film properties. Normally, a good scale
is only a few molecules thick, however, it can grow thicker and
contain wax, asphalcenes, calcite, etc. These "extras", depending
on how much of each is present, can cause tbe scale to be soft and
mushy or hard and brittle.
Iron sulfide advantages. If the FeS scale is strong enough,
it will adhere to che piping surface, forming a protective or pas-
sivating film. Unless removed (which can happen by a number of
mechanisms discussed later), this film pre\'ents further pipe and
vessel corrosion and can result in extremely long life spans for that
part ofthe amine plant.
CORROSION/MAINTENANCE
T A B L f 1. typical types of FeS scale formation
High HjS t.ow HjS
partial pressure partial pressure
Plant area
Absorber—uppei section Mackinawite Mackinawite
Absorber—lower section Pyrrhotite Mackinawite
Rich piping bEpfore lean/rich exchanger Pyrrhotite Mackinawite
Rich piping after lean/rich exdiangw Pyrrhotite/pyrite Pyrrhotite
Regenerator—upper section Pyrrhotite/pyrite Pyrrhotrte
Regenerator—lower section Pyrite Pyrite
Reboiler Pyrite Pyrite
Lean piping before lesn/rich exchanger Pyrite Pyrite
Lean piping after lean/rich exchanger
(including cooler) Mackinawite Mackinawite
The main advantage of FeS in an amine system then, is that
once formed and adhering to the piping and vessel walls, the
FeS protects the plant from further corrosion. It is important
to note, however, that FeS may have formed a strong protective
layer in one pan of a plant but not in others (Table I).
Iron sulfide disadvantages. Fiaving H^S in the inlet gas
does not necessarily mean [he resulting FeS formed in the system
will form a protective layer on the piping wails. As previously dis-
cussed, H2S partial pressure appears to make a large contribution
to che scale depth and quality. Once the scale is compromised, the
chance of developing a galvanic-tj'pe corrosion cell is increased.
Weaker scales are also easily removed or subject to delamination,
allowing for the potential ingress of COji under the deposit and
the subsequent agressive under-deposit corrosion that can lead
to significant metal failures.
FeS particles can also enter a facility via the feed gas stream.
Ideally they are removed by the inlet separation devices; however,
this is not always the case. If allowed to enter an amine unit, the
FeS will most likely be removed by the amine solution (which
acts like a water-wash column; another good way to remove FeS
upstream of a process). In these cases, the FeS will simply add to
the system suspended solids content and can cause a number of
problems, primarily plugging and flow distribution issues (dis-
cussed later in the "Iron sulfide film removal" section).
Funhermore, some FeS forms are pyrophoric, meaning expo-
sure to oxygen can cause them to radiate intense heat and start
fires. Plants must be fully clean of FeS (or the internals kept wet)
before opening them up to atmosphere. Filters containing FeS and
aflammablecomponent are also prone to pyrophoric ironfiresif
allowed to dr\' under atmospheric exposure.
Iron sulfide sources. FeS can enter an amine system in the
inlet gas or form in the amine system.
Iron sulfîdes entering amine systems with the inlet gas.
In many instances, amine plants suffer from FeS ingress in the
inlet gas. This can he a problem, since these FeS particles will not
react with the piping walls and add to the protective film; rather
they will circulate around in solution as suspended solids. They
will, in effect, scour off the previously formed protective films
contributing to a greater quantity of suspended solids in solution
as well as to erratic corrosion protection film within the system.
Freshly exposed metal surfaces are active sites for the corrosion
mechanism to continue.
HVOROCARBON PROCESSING MARCH 2010 i 51
CORROSION/MAINTENANCE
The FeS present in the feed ro amine units is rhe by-product of
corrosion in the wellbore, piping or upstream process equipment,
or is produced from the formation itself. Most commonly, corro-
sion found in processing equipment is caused by produced water
containing acid gases—particularly CO2 and H2S.
CO2 corrosion can cake various forms, but it is frequently
exhibited as localized areas of deep, sharp-sided pits found adja-
cent to areas of little corrosion {mesa-r>pe corrosion).
H2S corrosion resuJts In forming black FeS scales and is typi-
fied by "black water" in the separation facilities. Under-deposit
corrosion frequently occurs beneath the scale layer and can result
in forming deep, isolated or randomly scattered pits.
The three prime means of removing or reducing the impact of
FeS entering an amine system are to;
• Prevent the corrosion from occurring initially in the piping
by using corrosion inhibitors.
• Disperse the FeS particles into the water phase so they can
be removed by inlet separation equipment.
' Filter the FeS from the gas phase upstream ofthe amine
absorber with a Purer element or a water wash.
Iron sulñde formation in the amine system. FeS can form in
the absorber, piping system or rehoiler/
regenerator.
In the absorber. Soluble iron is
present in lean-amine streams. The iron • Once formed, it is generally
may be in the form of iron carbonate in
instances where CO? is being treated as
desirable to leave the FeS film
well as H2S. In the absorber, some of on the amine plant internals.
the HiS immediately reacts with iron
in the amine, and small FeS particles Once liberated, the suspended
are formed. These particles are generally
insoluble in amine, and provided they FeS particles can result in several liquid phase
are large enough, can be filtered out.
Fresh or clean amines have the ability problems.
to hold approximately 5 ppm of soluble
iron in solution.
An FeS scale will form on the absorber walls and tray decks as
well, if they are made of carbon steel. The scale near the absorber
bottom tends to be stronger and thicker due to higher partial pres-
sures of FÍTS in this area. Near the absorber top, most ofthe H2S
has been removed from the gas by the amine solution, resulting
in very low H2S partial pressures. Scale formation In this area is
composed mainly of mackinawite.
In the piping. Both the rich and lean amine will have FijS
in solution, however, the rich side obviously will have a much
higher amount. H2S will react immediately with iron ifthe two
meet. When H2S in the liquid or vapor phase contacts the iron
in the piping and vessel walls, the FeS particles subsequently
formed tend to adhere to the metal surface, and if enough H2S
is present, form a strong protective layer over time. Higher H2S
partial pressures result in higher tendencies for strong FeS films
to form. Piping has been found to have as much as 60% of rhe
cross-sectional area plugged with FeS in facilities with many years
of active service at high H2S partial pressures.
When the H2S partial pressure is low, the resulting FeS is nor-
mally mackinawite. Mackinawite does not iorm a strong adhesive
protective layer on the piping; instead it is preferentially carried by amine circulation rate is to be significantly increased, it is recom-
the solution and moves along with the amine resulting in lean/rich
exchanger plugging as well as other associated problems.
FeS films are stronger and thicker in plant areas where H2S
partial pressure is the highest. This ¡s typically the rich piping
MARCH 2010 HYDR' "'CESSING
between the absorber and flash tank. As system pressure or Fl2S
content in the amine decreases, so does the FeS film thickness and
quality. At the same time, because there is very little Fi^S partial
pressure, there is generally less need for protection, provided diere
is no significant CO2 content or agressive organic acid level in
either the solution or the vapor phase.
In tbe reboiler/regenerator. In the regenerator tower lower
section and in the reboiler, H2S partial pressures are extremely
low; FeS formation as a result of H2S is minimal. Elemental sul-
fur, however, which enters a plant bonded with H2S as hydrogen
polysulfide (H^S^), is liberated when the H2S is driven off and is
no longer soluble in the amine .solution. Elemental sulfur reacts
quickly with iron to form pyrite, which is the predominant scale
fotmd in this area.
If H2S remains in solution at this point, ihe usual FeS reaction
will still occur but due to the high temperatures driving the reac-
tion, the FeS formed will be pyrrhodte or pyrite.
Removing an iron suif ide f iim. Once formed, it is gener-
ally desirable to leave the FeS film on the amine plant internals.
This film can be removed accidentally, however, and it is impor-
tant for engineers and operators to be
aware ofthe accidental removal causes:
• High fluid velocity
• Excessive vibration
• Mechanical/thermal shocks during
startup/shut down
• Heat-stable salt degradation prod-
ucts (increased suspended solids erode
the FeS layer)
• Chelating agents present in the
• Adding a corrosion inhibitor to
the system without understanding the
inhibitors protection mechanism.
Once liberated, the suspended FeS
particles can result in several problems:
• Amine foaming—results ¡n ofF-spec. gas and tendency to
carryover
> Rather then cause a soludon 10 foam, sohds tend to sta-
bilize an already foaming condition
• Excessive mechanical wear on pumps and seals; lost effi-
ciency and higher maintenance frequency
• Lost amine efficiency—curtailing throughput
• Higher chemical use/costs—(i.e., andfoam, corrosion inhib-
itors, etc.)
• Abrasion—the suspended FeS erodes the exisdng FeS film
in other areas
• Excessive particle filter plugging and usage
• Packing, tray valve or sieve hole plugging.
High fluid velocity—The FeS particles that have formed
between H2S in the liquid phase and iron in the piping walls may
be under such high drag forces that they cannot adhere to the
piping walls. With no protective film, fresh iron is exposed that
will also react with H2S.
Fluid velocity depends on piping diameter. In cases where
mended pipe internal diameters are double-checked to ensure
the fluid velocities do not get too high. It is generally recognized
that in amine service a maximum fluid velocity of 6 ft/sec (2 m/s)
will prevent significant erosion-related protective film removal

FeS will turn an amine from light yellow to green to brown or black.
for carbon stee! piping. This velocity may be as low as 3 ft/sec ( 1
m/s) in exchanger tubes.
Excessive vibration—Suon^ FeS films are quite rigid and can
crack and break loose if the pipe begins to vibrate excessively. This
can be a result of piping supports coming loose, excess hydrocar-
bon and acid gas flashing, or pressure drops across pressure-relief
valves being increased.
Excessive vibration is normally associated with high heat flux
in the reboiler tubes (greater than 7400 Btu/hr/ft').
Startup/shut down shocks—It is common for plants to experi-
ence filter plugging Immediately after starting an amine system,
even if it was only shut down for a few minutes. This is commonly
referred to as an "upset" and much like excessive vibration, sud-
den surges, pushes and pulls, and thermal shocks displace the FeS
layer from piping walls. Tbe particles knocked loose are large and
easily picked up by filters. They can also plug off other pieces of
equipment.
Increase in heat-stable amine salt levels—Solubility of most
FeS in the amine solution (pyrite being the exception) increases
as pH decreases, or becomes more acidic. The pH can change
fora number of reasons: an increase in loading (HiS and COi),
change in amine type or strength, or heat-stable salt build-up. FeS
formed at pH levels below 8.5 are known to be much less effective
at adhering strongly to piping walls.
pH reductions are normally brought about by the build-up of
heat-stable amine salts. The negative effects of low pH ate found
most predominantly in high-temperature areas. As pH drops, the
existing FeS film will soften as anions From the acid will react with
the iron portion of the FeS. If allowed to continue, the FeS film
is eventually removed.
Chelating agents present—chelating, or iron compleîdng agents
such as cyanide, thiocyanate, EDFA, bicine, certain degradation
products, etc., will act to dissolve the otherwise insoluble FeS
into solution. Amines are capable of holding much more iron if
chelating agents are in the solution. With no chelants, amine can
only hold up to 5 ppm iron.
The effects of cyanide and ammonia can be especially disas-
trous. Years ago, significant hydrogen blistering in amine units
was being experienced in refmeries. Research into the cause of the
hydrogen attack revealed that the protective FeS layer is removed
by free cyanide as follows:
CORROSION/MAINTENANCE
2^ (4)
Ammonium ferrocyanide is water soluble, thus the protective
surface layer is removed, exposing additional metal to bisulfide
and H2S attack.
Filtering iron s u l f i d e s . Once a protective layer is formed,
excessive FeS should be filtered out of the amine solution.
When initially formed, FeS particles are typically 0.5-5 |Jm.
If the plant is not utilizing filters small enough to remove
particles of this size, the FeS particles will not get filtered out
until they adhere to one another and form larger particles.
Most amine systems have particle filtration installed on the lean
side. When these filters are changed they tend to be black, and when
analyzed found that tbe filtrate is predominandy FeS. It is clear FeS
exists on the lean side; however, the vast majority of FeS in an amine
system is present on the rieb side. As described earlier, FeS is either
introduced into the system via the inlet gas or formed when H2S
reacts with iron. If the solids remain in solution and do not precipi-
tate OUI in rhe lean/rich exchanger or contribute to an existing FeS
film, they are carried into the regenerator where much of the H2S is
driven off, thus liberating the Fe* ion. Sometimes these ions will react
with any remaining CO2 to form iron carbonate (which is predomi-
nandy soluble in amine), at higher temperatures (>80''C/176°F)
magtietite can form, or they simply remainfireeiron ions.
When the amine reaches tbe absorber again, the H2S will reaa
with any free iron available as well as iron carbonate to reform FeS.
If the FeS formed in the absorber does not adhere to the vessel or
pipe walls, it moves along In solution as stispended solids.
Rich filtration is necessary when the FeS in the absorber and
rich piping do not form a protective film, but rather become sus-
pended solids in the amine. Many plants with no rich filtration
have found out the lean/rich exchanger or upper regenerator trays
will act as filters instead! Whether the FeS will form a protective
film is determined by several things, the most important of which
being the H2S partial pressure, the solution pH and the overall
solution quality, ln our experience, plants that have rich-amine
HjS partial pressures between 103 kPa (15 psig) and 0.7 kPa (0.1
psig) require rich filtration.
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING MARCH 2010 53
CORROSION/MAINTENANCE
In general, the FeS seen in rich filters is mackinawice, the weak-
est FeS form and most commonly guilty of pluming equipment.
On the lean side, both mackinawite and pyrite can be found in
the filters. Pyrite forms in the reboiler and regenerator bottom. It
initially adds to the protective film on die vessel walls, but is britde
and can break off. It is not soluble in amine and, therefore, is car-
ried in solution and picked up in the lean filters. Mackinawite can
also form on the lean side due to the slight HiS partial pressure
often left in the amine.
In typical amine systems, a 5- or lO-micron absolute rated
particle filter is recommended on the lean side. Ideally, filters last
approximately two weeks before needing to be changed out. The
filter change frequency will vary from iacilit)' to facility.
FeS will turn an amine from light yellow to pale green to dark
green to brown to black (Fig. 1). Soluble metal salts are known
to cause solution color changes due to their ability to affect light
diffraction. It is common to see a green-colored rich amine and
the lean solution from the same system is yellow. This is due to the
relative absence of FeS in the lean solution compared to the rich
solution. Laboratory experiments have been carried out in which
the lean solution has changed from a pale yellow color with no
visible particles to a dark green solution with visible solids simply
by bubbling small amounts of H2S into the solution.
B e f o r e s h u t d o w n . At one time or another, most refineries
and gas plants experience spontaneous FeS ignition either on the
ground or inside equipment. When this occurs inside equipment
like columns, vessels, tanks, exchangers and filters containing
residual hydrocarbons and air, the results can be devastating. Most
commonly, pyrophoric iron fires occur during shut downs when
equipment and piping are opened for inspection or maintenance.
Instances of fires in crude columns during turnarounds, explosions
in suiftir, crude or asphalt storage tanks, overpressures in vessels,
etc.. due to pyrophoric iron ignition is not uncommon.
Wlien FeS is oxidized, this is an exothermic reaction where the
products are iron oxide, free suliôir or SOi plus heat. The heat is so
intense that surrounding FeS particles become incandescent and
will ignite any nearby flammable source (usually a hydrocarbon/
warer mixture). If there is nothing nearby to ignite, the heat dis-
sipates very quickly.
The reaction process is:
Initially, FeS is formed in the system:
Fe,O, (rust) + 3H,S^2FeS + 3H. (6)
When exposed to air:
4 F e S + 3 O , ^ 2Fe2 3 + 4S + heat (7)
4FeS + 7O2 -> 2Fe -f heat (8)
FeS fires can be hard to detect since the smoke from SOj is
white and looks like steam.
Because of the pyrophoric nattire of FeS, it is important that
as much FeS as possible is removed from the system before vessel
entry, and even then the area should be kept clear of combu.stibles.
FeS poses the largest risk when allowed to dry out, and especially
when in the form ofa fine powder (maximizes surface-to-air
ratio). Mackinawite, being the most unstable of the FeS types seen
in amine plants, oxidizes the easiest. Mackinawite is found In areas
of low HiS partial pressure and temperature such as che upper
section of a contactor or cool lean piping. Pyrite is the most stable
FeS form, and as stich does not oxidize nearly as readily. Pyrite, in
fact, is found abundantly throughout the world in exposed geo-
MARCH 2010 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
logical formations and is not being oxidized. Pyrite samples can
be taken out of an amine plant with little risk involved.
The pyrophoric nature of mackinawite is also responsible for
the spontaneous ignition of spent filter cartridges that are left in
the sun or in the open air. Once the cartridges dry, there is a good
chance the FeS will cause the filter to ignite. This is important to
remember not only while the filters are on the plant site but also
while being transported to the disposal area. Some facilities utilize
steel boxes open to atmosphere to store used filters. This allows
the FeS to oxidize to iron oxide without igniting anything on fire.
Remember though, SO^ is released during the transformation.
System preparation for inspection. Several approaches
to removing FeS scale are:
' Simple acid cleaning
" Simple strong ba.se cleaning
• Chemical oxidization
• Acid or oxidizing cleaning plus additives for H2S suppression
• Noentry vessel cleaning (hurricane balls, etc.)
• Mechanical.
Chemical cleaning, in general, is the most effective method
of FeS removal both in terms of percent FeS removal and cost.
Costs can be elevated, however, if cleaning chemical disposal is
inconvenient, plus a greater amount of engineering and planning
must be spent on the program. The personnel involved ¡n chemi-
cal cleaning should be well educated and familiar with the process.
If done improperly, chemical cleaning can cause severe corrosion
to amine plant internals. HP
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Canfield. C, D.. "Amine System Cleaning Bcsc Practice." Regional Mcciing ol ihc Permian
Basin Gai ProcesM»rs Association.
Claassen, IÍ, J.. "Iron Sulfide Prccipliaicd as a Scale in Sour Gas Wells." Proceedings ol the
19861 jinadiiiii Region Wcsicm Conference - NACt. t Jlgary. AB.
Craig, B-, "Corrwion I'riMluct Analysis—A Road Map lo Corrosion in Oil and Cas Produc-
tion," Miturials PerjoTtnanic, August 2002.
Cudunings. A.. "Inrcicasinc Profitability and Intiproving Environmental Perfrirmance by Main-
[aliung Amine Solvcnr Purity," Protectiingî iif tilt 2000 Laurcntc Reid tij.s t^oniliriotiing
ConfcrciUJc, Nortnan. Oklahotna.
Cummiiig!,. Al and N. HatLlier. "Amine Sam pi ing/Laboratory Technique Jiid its tffecrs t>n
H.S Loading Meitiuremcnts," Proceedings of (he Z005 Laurence Reid Gas Conditioning
Conference. Norman, Oklaboma.
Husa, E. M., "Intemxl Corrtwion of Offshore Pipelines,' Norwegian Insritute of Technol-
ogy-
Keller. A., S. Mecum. R. Kdmmillet. F. Vcntoi. .A. CummingsandJ. Oiompscn, "Hcai-Stable
Salt Removal From Amints by ihe HSSX Process Using fon F.Kchajiae," Proceedings of ihe
1992 Laurence Reid Clas Condilionitig Conference, Norman. Üklaiioma.
Lawson, M.. L Martin and G.Arnold, "Chcmiol Cleaning of FcS Scales," National Associa-
tion oí Corro.sion Engineers.
Pauley, C. R. and R. Hashemi, "Analysis of Foaming Mechanisms in Amine Plants." Proceed-
ings of tbe 19S') Laurence Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, Nornian. Oklahuma.
Tcwari, P. H., G. Walbte and A. B. Campbell. 'The Solubilir)' of Iron Sulphides andTbeir
Roll in Mass Transport in Girdlcr-Sufphide Heavy Water Plants," \XTiiteshet! Nuclear
Research Esublishment.
Travis Chemicalï R&D Laboratory, "Revic-w on the Chemisliy, Propenies, and I'hermody-
tiamics of Iron Sulphides." AuguM !99'i.
Ward. J. t",, "The Siructure and t'roperties of Some Iron Sulphides." Commonwealth Scien-
tific and Industrial Research Organiiatitm,
Clark. P. Private correspondence; .\lbetta Sulphur Research.
Spooner. B.. M, Sheilati, D. Street ar»d E. van Hoom. "Sulphides—Friend or Foe?," originally
presented .it thr I jiurtnce Reid conference.
Ben S p o o n e r , P. E., has speni the past decade troubleshooting
:)!id optimizing amine plants woridwide. He specializes in amine
plant optimization and operator training.
M i k e S h e i l a n . P E., has been involved in several aspects of the
natural gas processing industry, primarily in relation to the chemi-
cals used to treat gas and the proœss« that use these chemicals
during his 30-yeai career.
©Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC. This material must be used for the customer's internal business use
only and a maximum of ten (10) hard copy print-outs may be made. No further copying or transmission of this
material is allowed without the express permission of Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC. Source:
Hydrocarbon Processing and http://www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com.