A

Report
On
Practical Training
At
BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED

SESSION 2010-2011

SUBMITTED BY :-

PRIYA GUPTA
B.Tech
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND
COMMUNICATION

MAHARISHI ARVIND
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

JAIPUR,RAJASTHAN
(AFFILIATED TO RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,KOTA)
 Maharishi Arvind Institute of Engineering and Technology
Jaipur
Electronics and Communication Department

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. Priya Gupta of 4th year(7th sem) Electronics and
Communication branch has submitted a report on practical training taken at
“BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED”.

Mr. K. K. Bhargava Mr. Raghvendra Patidar

(H.O.D. of ECE) (Seminar Incharge)

Date:
Place: Jaipur
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank from heart the technical team of BHARAT HEAVY
ELECTRICALS LIMITED who put their sincere efforts to realize us the
core concepts of telecommunication industry with blend of both practical
and theoretical knowledge.

I feel profound happiness in forwarding this training report to your esteemed

organization.

I would like to thank the honorable members as follows:-

Mr. Akshay Kumar Circle Head

Mr. Mahesh Singh Project Manager

Mr. B. C. Sharma Incharge/Vocational Training

Without all of them it is never being possible for me to accomplish my

whole Training Span in such a well reputated
Telecom company

Heartly thanks for your kind and humble support during the training time.
 PREFACE

As part of the curriculum for Bachelor’s degree, the students of B.Tech. 4th
year have to undergo on the job practical training for 45 days.

The object of training is to provide student an opportunity to learn practical

application of theory,develop adequate technical skill to become useful in
future working environment. On doing this training students become
confident and responsible which results in their personality development.

As a part of my training I visited telecommunication deptt. as a division of

BHEL. It was a new experience and it helped to get an insight in LAN
technologies.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Company profile
 About
 Certifications
 Contributions
 Plants in BHEL
 Vision and Mission

 Networking 
 Local Area Network
 Wide Area Network
 History of LAN 
 OSI reference model 
 Layers
 OSI Model
 Protocols 
 TCP/IP
 UDP
Comparision between TCP and UDP
 IP Address 
 Dynamic
 Static
 Domain names
 LAN Topologies 
 Types of LAN Technology 
 Ethernet
 Fast Ethernet
 Gigabyte Ethernet
 10 Gigabyte Ethernet
 Token Ring
  LAN Devices
 Modem
 Server
 UTP
 Cable Grade Capability
 Network Interface Cards
 Ethernet Switches
 Repeaters
 Hub
 Bridges
 Router
 LAN Extender
 Conclusion
 Bibliography
 
 COMPANY PROFILE

ABOUT:-
BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the
energy-related/infrastructure sector, today. BHEL was established more than
40 years ago, ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment
industry in India - a dream that has been more than realized with a well-
recognized track record of performance. The company has been earning
profits continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976-77.

BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product groups and
caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation &
Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Renewable Energy, etc. The wide
network of BHEL's 14 manufacturing divisions, four Power Sector regional
centres, over 100 project sites, eight service centres, 18 regional offices and
one subsidiary enables the Company to promptly serve its customers and
provide them with suitable products, systems and services -- efficiently and
at competitive prices. The high level of quality & reliability of its products is
due to the emphasis on design, engineering and manufacturing to
international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best
technologies from leading companies in the world, together with
technologies developed in its own R&D centres.
Established in the late 50’s, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) is,
today, a name to reckon with in the industrial world. It is the largest
engineering and manufacturing enterprise of its kind in India and one of the
leading international companies in the power field. BHEL offers over 180
products and provides systems and services to meet the needs of core sectors
like: power, transmission, industry, transportation, oil & gas, non-
conventional energy sources and telecommunication. A wide-spread
network comprising 14 manufacturing divisions, 8 service centres, 4 power
sector regional centres, 18 regional offices, besides a large number of project
sites spread all over India and abroad, enables BHEL to be close to its
customers and cater to their specialised needs with total solutions -
efficiently and economically. An ISO 9000 certification has given the
company international recognition for its commitment towards quality. With
an export presence in more than 60 countries, BHEL is truly India’s
industrial ambassador to the world.

CERTIFICATIONS:-

BHEL has acquired certifications to Quality Management Systems (ISO

9001), Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001) and Occupational
Health & Safety Management Systems (OHSAS 18001) and is also well on
its journey towards Total Quality Management
 Installed equipment for over 90,000 MW of power generation -- for
Utilities, Captive and Industrial users.

 Supplied over 2,25,000 MVA transformer capacity and other

equipment operating in Transmission & Distribution network up to
400 kV (AC & DC).

 Supplied over 25,000 Motors with Drive Control System to Power

projects, Petrochemicals, Refineries, Steel, Aluminum, Fertilizer,
Cement plants, etc.

 Supplied Traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000

kms Railway network.

 Supplied over one million Valves to Power Plants and other

Industries.
  BHEL's operations are organised around three business sectors,
namely Power, Industry - including Transmission, Transportation and
Renewable Energy - and Overseas Business. This enables BHEL to
have a strong customer orientation, to be sensitive to his needs and
respond quickly to the changes in the market.

 BHEL's vision is to become a world-class engineering enterprise,

committed to enhancing stakeholder value. The company is striving to
give shape to its aspirations and fulfill the expectations of the country
to become a global player.

 The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed

42,600 employees. Every employee is given an equal opportunity to
develop himself and grow in his career. Continuous training and
retraining, career planning, a positive work culture and participative
style of management all these have engendered development of a
committed and motivated workforce setting new benchmarks in terms
of productivity, quality and responsiveness.

CONTRIBUTIONS:-

BHEL has joined the Global Compact of United Nations and has
committed itself to support it and the set of core values enshrined in its ten
principles. The Global Compact is a partnership between the United
Nations, the business community, international labour and NGOs. It
provides a forum for them to work together and improve corporate practices
through co-operation rather than confrontation.

BHEL s contributions towards Corporate Social Responsibility till date

include adoption of villages, free medical camps/charitable dispensaries,
schools for the underprivileged and handicapped children, ban on child
labour, disaster/natural calamity aid, Employment for handicapped, Widow
resettlement, Employment for Ex-serviceman, irrigation using treated
sewage, pollution checking camps, plantation of millions of trees, energy
saving and conservation of natural resources through environmental
management.

BHEL had organized three special sessions of Joint Committee in

Workshop format during the years 2004, 2006 and 2008. The themes of
these workshops were

 Enhancing organizational effectiveness

 Roadmap to excellence
 Increasing effectiveness of the employees and Tackling
Business challenges.

Syndicate groups were formed on various topics like strengthening of

participative fora, percolation of discussions in the Joint Committee to Plant
level, multi-skilling, redeployment, effective utilization of critical machines,
enhancing the productive time of man and machines, reduction in rejection
and rework, maintenance and upkeep of machines, three shift working,
enhancing productivity of employees, dissemination of company
information, cost cutting measures at workplace and wastage control,
improving quality and bringing quality consciousness among employees,
reduction in cycle time, and sequential supplies from Units. During the Joint
Committee meeting held in August, 2009, a booklet compiling the
suggestions/recommendations given by the various syndicate groups during
various workshops was released.

At the Unit level, workshops with the theme of "Improving Production and
Productivity" were held wherein the participants were from all categories of
employees. They gave suggestions on cost reduction, meeting the production
targets, sequential deliveries and quality of goods. The involvement of all
the cadres in the workshop had a positive impact on the working in the units.
 BHEL, ranking among the major power plant equipment suppliers in the
world, is one of the largest exporters of engineering products & services
from India. Over the years, BHEL has established its references in around 60
countries of the world, ranging from the United States in the West to New
Zealand in the Far East. BHEL's export range covers individual products to
complete Power Stations, Turnkey Contracts for Power Plants, EPC
Contracts, HV/EHV Sub-stations, O&M Services for familiar technologies,
Specialized after-market services like Residual Life Assessment (RLA)
studies and Retrofitting, Refurbishing & Overhauling, and supplies to
manufacturers & EPC contractors. 

BHEL has assimilated and updated/adopted the state-of-the-art-technologies

in the Power and Industrial equipment sectors acquired from world
leaders. BHEL has successfully undertaken turnkey projects on its own and
possesses the requisite flexibility to interface and complement international
companies for large projects, and has also exhibited adaptability by
manufacturing and supplying intermediate products to the design of other
manufacturers and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). The success
in the area of rehabilitation and life extension of power projects has
established BHEL as a reliable alternative to the OEMs for such power
plants.

PLANTS IN BHEL:-
 THERMAL POWER PLANTS

Steam turbines and generators of up to 500MW capacity for utility and

combined-cycle applications; capability to manufacture steam turbines with
super critical steam cycle parameters and matching generator up to 1000
MW unit size.
Steam turbines for CPP applications; capability to manufacture condensing,
extraction, back pressure, injection or any combination of these types.

 GAS BASED POWER PLANTS

Gas turbines of up to 260MW (ISO) rating.

Gas turbine based co-generation and combined-cycle systems for industry
and utility applications.

 HYDRO POWER PLANTS

Custom-built conventional hydro turbines of Kaplan, Francis and Pelton

types with matching generators, pump turbines with matching motor-
generators.
Mini/micro hydro sets.
Spherical, butterfly and rotary valves and auxiliaries for hydro station

 DG POWER PLANTS

HSD, LDO, FO, LSHS, natural-gas/biogas based diesel power plants, unit
rating up to 20MW and voltage up to 11kV, for emergency, peaking as well
as base load operations on turnkey basis.

 INDUSTRIAL SETS

Industrial turbo-sets of ratings from 1.5 to 120MW.

Gas turbines land matching generators ranging from 3 to 260MW (ISO)
rating.
Industrial stream turbines and gas turbines for drive applications and co-
generation applications.

 BOILERS

Steam generators for utilities, ranging from 30 to 500MW capacity, using

coal, lignite, oil, natural gas or a combination of these fuels: capability to
manufacture boilers with super critical parameters up to 1000 MW unit
size.
Steam generators for industrial applications, ranging from 40 to 450t/hour
capacity using coal, natural gas, industrial gases, biomass, lignite, oil,
bagasse or a combination of these fuels.
Pulverized fuel fired boilers.
Stoker boilers.
Atmospheric fluidized bed combustion boilers.
Circulating fluidized bed combustion boilers.
Waste heat recovery boilers.
Chemical recovery boilers for paper industry, ranging from capacity of 100
to 1000 t/day of dry solids.
Pressure vessels.

 BOILER AUXILIARIES

Fan
Axial reaction fans of single stage and double stage for clean air
application, with capacity ranging from 25 to 800m3/s and pressure
ranging from 120 to 1,480 m of gas column.
Axial impulse fans for both clean air and flue gas applications, with
capacity ranging from 7 to 600m3/s and pressure up to 700 m of gas
column.
Single and double-suction radial fans for clean air and dust-laden hot
gases applications up to 400oC, with capacity ranging from 4 to 600m3/s
and pressure ranging from 150 to 1,800 m of gas column.
Air-Pre-heaters
Ljungstrom rotary regenerative air-pre-heaters for boiler and process
furnaces.
Large regenerative air-preheaters for utilities of capacity up to 1000 MW.
Gravimetric Feeders
Pulverizes
Bowl mills of slow and medium speed of capacity up to 100 t/hour.
Tube mills for pulverizing low-grade coal with high-ash content.
Pulse Jet and Reverse Air Type Fabric Filters (Bag Filters)
Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators of any capacity with efficiency up to 99.9% for
utility and industrial applications.
Mechanical Separators
Soot Blowers
Long retractable soot blowers (travel up to 12.2m), wall deslaggers, rotary
blowers and temperature probes and related control panels operating on
pneumatic, electric or manual mode.
Swivel arm type soot blowers for regenerative air-preheaters.
Valves
High-pressure and low-pressure bypass valves for utilities.
High and medium-pressure valves, cast and forged steel valves of gate,
globe, non-return (swing-check and piston lift-check) types for steam, oil
and gas duties up to 600 mm diameter, 250 kg/cm2 pressure and 540oC
 temperature.
High-capacity safety valves and automatic electrical operated pressure
relief valves for set pressure up to 200 kg/cm2 and temperature up to
550oC.
Safety relief valves for applications in power, process and other industries
for set pressure up to 175 kg/cm2 and temperature up to 565oC.
Piping Systems, Constant Load Hangers, Clamp and Hanger components,
variable Spring hangers for power stations upto 850 MW capacities,
combined cycle plants, industrial boilers and process industries. 

 HEAT EXCHANGERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

CS/AS/SS/Nonferrous shell and tube heat exchangers and pressure vessels.

Air-cooled heat exchangers.
Surface condensers.
Steam jet air ejectors.
Columns.
Reactors, drums.
LPG/propane storage bullets.
LPG/propane store mounded vessels.
Feed water heaters.

 PUMPS

Pumps for various applications to suit utilities up to a capacity of 660 MW.

Boiler feed pumps (motor or steam turbine driven).
Boiler feed booster pumps.
Condensate pumps.
Circulating water pumps.
Emergency oil pumps.
Lubricating oil pumps.
Standby oil pumps.

 POWER STATION CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Microprocessor-based distributed digital control systems.

Data acquisition systems.
Man-machine interface.
Sub-station controls with SCADA.
Static excitation equipment/automatic voltage regulator.
Electro-hydraulic governor control.
Turbine supervisory system and control.
Furnace safeguard supervisory systems.
Controls for electrostatic precipitators.
Controls for HP/LP bypass valves.

 SWITCHGEARS

Switchgear of the various types for indoor and outdoor applications and
voltage ratings up to 400 kV.
Minimum oil circuit breakers (66K – 132kV).
SF6 circuit breakers (132 kV – 400 kV).
Vacuum circuit breakers (3.3 kV – 33 kV).
Gas insulated switchgears (36 kV).

 BUS DUCTS

Bus-du cts with associated equipment to suit generator power output of

utilities of up to 500 MW capacity.

 TRANSFORMERS

Power transformers for voltage up to 400 kV.

HVDC transformers and reactors up to + 500 kV rating.
Series and shunt reactors of up to 400 kV rating.
Instrument transformers:
Current transformers up to 400 kV.
Electro-magnetic voltage transformers up to 220 kV.
Capacitor voltage transformers up to 400 kV.
Cast resin dry type transformers up to 10 MVA 33 kV.
Special transformers: earthing; furnace; rectifier; electrostatic precipitator;
freight loco and AC EMU and traction transformers.

 INSULATORS

   High-tension ceramic insulators.

Disc/suspension insulators for AC/DC applications, ranging from 45 to 400
kn electro-mechanical strength, for clean and pollute atmospheres.
Pin insulators of up to 33 kV.
Post insulators suitable for applications of up to 6 units.
Hollow porcelains of up to 400 kV.
Solid core insulators of 25 kV rating (both porcelain and hybrid) for
railways.
Disc insulators for 800 kV AC and HVDC transmission lines (BHEL is the
first Indian manufacturer to supply such insulators).

 CAPACITORS 

Power capacitors for industrial and power systems of up to 250 kVAr rating
for application up to 400 kV.
Coupling/CVT capacitors for voltages up to 400 kV.
Low Tension Thyristor Switched Capacitors (LTTSC) for dynamic power
factor correction

 ENERGY METERS

Single Phase, Poly Phase and Special-purpose electro-mechanical and

electrical meters.

Propagating Quality Management Systems and Total Quality

Management.
Formulating, implementing and monitoring, "Improvement Plans" with
focus on internal and external Customer Satisfaction.
Investigations and preventive actions on Critical Quality Issues.
Calibration and testing laboratories of BHEL are accredited under the
National Accreditation Board for Calibration and Testing Laboratories
(NABL) scheme of Laboratory Accreditation, which has got mutual
recognition with Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Conference and
International Laboratory Accreditation Conference. 

As a result of its thrust on quality and technology, BHEL enjoys national

and international recognition in the form of Product Certification by
International Bodies like ASME, API etc. and Plant Approvals by agencies
like Lloyds Register of Shipping, U.K., Chief Controller of Explosives
India, TUV Germany etc. 

In its movement towards Business Excellence and with the objective of

achieving International level of Quality, BHEL has adopted European
Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) model for Business
Excellence. Through this model and annual self-assessment
exercise, BHEL is institutionalising continuous improvement in all its
operations.
VISION AND MISSION:-
 NETWORKING
 
        Computer networking is an integral part of business today. A network
is a group of computers, printers, and other devices that are connected
together with cables. Information travels over the cables, allowing network
users to exchange documents & data with each other, print to the same
printers, and generally share any hardware or software that is connect to the
network.

Each computer, printer, or other peripheral device that is connected to

the network is called a node. Networks can have tens, thousands, or even
millions of nodes.

Local Area Networks (LANs):

A network is any collection of independent computers that exchange
information with each other over a shared communication medium. Local
Area Networks or LANs are usually confined to a limited geographic area,
such as a single building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as
few as three computers, but can often link hundreds of computers used by
thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and
media has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business
and educational organizations

Wide Area Networks (WANs):

Often elements of a network are widely separated physically. Wide area
networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This
is accomplished by connecting the several LANs with dedicated leased lines
such as a T1 or a T3, by dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and
asynchronous), by satellite links and by data packet carrier services. WANs
can be as simple as a modem and a remote access server for employees to
dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally
linked. Special routing protocols and filters minimize the expense of sending
data over vast distances.

 
 HISTORY OF LAN

          In the days before personal computers, a sight might have just one
central computer, with users acessing this via computer terminals over
simple low-speed cabling.The first LANs were created in the late 1970s and
used to create high speed links between several large central computers at
one site. Of many competing systems created at this time, Ethernet and
ARCNET were the most popular.

          The growth of CP/M and then DOS based personal computer meant
that a single site began to have dozens or even hundreds of computers. The
initial attraction of  networking these was generally to share disk space and
laser printers, which were both very expensive at the time. There was much
enthusiasm for the concept and for several years from about 1983 onward
computer industry pandits would regularly declare the coming year to be
“the year of the LAN”

 
 OSI REFERENCE MODEL

          The OSI reference model consists of seven layers, each of which can
(and typically does) have several sub layers. The upper layers of the OSI
reference model (application, presentation, session, and transport—Layers 7,
6, 5, and 4) define functions focused on the application. The lower three
layers (network, data link, and physical—Layers 3, 2, and 1) define
functions focused on end to end delivery of the data.
 OSI Reference Model:-

•    The model was developed by the International Organisation for

Standardisation (ISO) in 1984. It is now considered the primary
Architectural model for inter-computer communications.

•    The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a

descriptive network scheme. It ensures greater compatibility and
interoperability between various types of network technologies.

•    The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from
application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network
medium (such as wire) to another application programme located on
another network.

•     The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information

between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and
more manageable problems.This separation into smaller more
manageable functions is known as layering.
 OSI Layer Functional Examples
Name Description
Application (Layer Interface between network Telnet, HTTP
7) and application  
software 
Presentation(Layer How data is presented JPEG, ASCII,
6) Special processing, such as EBCDIC
encryption   
Session (Layer 5) Keeping data separate from
different applications
Transport (Layer 4) Reliable or unreliable
delivery
Multiplexing
Network (Layer 3) Logical addressing, which IP, IPX
routers use for path  
determination
Data link (Layer 2) Combination of bits into Access to the media
bytes, and bytes into frames
using MAC address
Error detection and
error recovery
Physical (Layer 1) Moving of bits between EIA/TIA-232, V.35
devices Specification of  
voltage, wire speed, and  
cable pinouts  

LAYER 7: APPLICATION
• The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
• It provides network services to the user’s applications.
• It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services
to any other OSI layer, but rather, only to applications outside the
OSI model.
• Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word
processing programs, and bank terminal programs.
• The application layer establishes the availability of intended
communication partners, synchronizes and establishes agreement
on procedures for error recovery and control of data integrity.
 
LAYER 6: PRESENTATION
• The presentation layer ensures that the information that the
application layer of one system sends out is readable by the
application layer of another system.
• If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data
formats by using a common format.
• Provides encryption and compression of data.
• Examples: - JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

 
LAYER 5: SESSION
• The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations
(called sessions) between applications.
• This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional
messages using dialogue control.
• It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers
and manages their data exchange.
• The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
• Examples: - SQL, ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol).

 
LAYER 4: TRANSPORT
• The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end
connectivity between host applications reliably and accurately.
• The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and
reassembles the data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
• The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be
thought of as the boundary between application protocols and data-
flow protocols. Whereas the application, presentation, and session
layers are concerned with application issues, the lower four layers are
concerned with data transport issues.
• Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
LAYER 3: NETWORK
• Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.
• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
• Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the
packets can be delivered.
• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller
packets to accommodate different media.
• Routers operate at Layer 3.
• Examples: - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

 LAYER 2: DATA LINK

• The data link layer provides access to the networking media and
physical transmission across the media and this enables the data to
locate its intended destination on a network.
• The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical
link by using the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
• The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data
link address in order for multiple stations to share the same medium
and still uniquely identify each other.
• Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification,
ordered delivery of frames, and flow control.
• Examples: - Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

LAYER 1: PHYSICAL
• The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the
transmission medium.
• It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating,    maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems.
• Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes,
physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical
layer specifications.
 • Examples: - EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.

ISO OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL

 PROTOCOLS

          After a physical connection has been established, network protocols

define the standards that allow computers to communicate. A protocol
establishes the rules and encoding specifications for sending data. This
defines how computers identify one another on a network, the form that the
data should take in transit, and how this information is processed once it
reaches its final destination. Protocols also define procedures for
determining the type of error checking that will be used, the data
compression method, if one is needed, how the sending device will indicate
that it has finished sending a message, how the receiving device will indicate
that it has received a message, and the handling of lost or damaged
transmissions or "packets".
         The main types of network protocols in use today are: TCP/IP (for
UNIX, Windows NT, Windows  and other platforms); IPX (for Novell
NetWare); DECnet (for networking Digital Equipment Corp. computers);
AppleTalk (for Macintosh computers), and NetBIOS/NetBEUI (for LAN
Manager and Windows NT networks) 

TCP/IP:
         TCP/IP encompasses a lot of smaller protocols, the Transmission
Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol. TCP performs only part of the
functions necessary to deliver the data between applications, and the role
that it plays is directed toward providing services for the applications that sit
at the endpoint computers.
 
TCP Functions: 
Function Description

Multiplexing Function that allows receiving hosts to decide the

correct application for which the data is destined,
based on the port number. 
Error recovery Process of numbering and acknowledging data
(reliability) with sequence and acknowledgment header fields
Flow control using Process that uses window sizes to protect buffer
windowing space and routing devices 
Connection Process used to initialize port numbers and
establishment and sequence and acknowledgement fields
termination
Ordered data transfer Continuous stream of bytes from upper-layer
process that is “segmented” for transmission
 
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP):
UDP provides a service for applications to exchange messages. Unlike TCP,
UDP is connectionless and provides no reliability, no windowing, and no
function to ensure that the data is received in the order in which it was sent.
However, UDP provides some functions of TCP, such as data transfer and
multiplexing, and it does so with fewer bytes of overhead in the UDP
header. The only difference in UDP (compared to TCP) sockets is that,
instead of designating TCP as the transport protocol, the transport protocol is
UDP. UDP data transfer differs from TCP data transfer in that no reordering
or recovery is accomplished. Applications using UDP are tolerant of the lost
data, or they have some application mechanism to recover lost data. For
example, DNS requests use UDP because the user will retry an operation if
the DNS resolution fails. The Network File System (NFS) performs recovery
with application layer code, so UDP features are acceptable to NFS.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TCP AND UDP:

Function Description (TCP) Description (UDP)

Data transfer This involves a continuous This involves message
stream of ordered data.  (datagram) delivery.
Multiplexing Receiving hosts decide the  Receiving hosts decide
correct application for which the the correct application
data is destined, based on the for which the data is
port number. destined, based on the
port number. 
Reliable Acknowledgment of data uses This is not a feature of
transfer the sequence and UDP.
acknowledgment fields in the
TCP header
Flow control This process is used to protect This is not a feature of
buffer space and routing devices.  UDP.
 Connections This process is used to initialize DP is connectionless.
port numbers and other TCP
header fields.
IP ADDRESS
 
         An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number that
devices use in order to identify and communicate with each other on a
computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol standard (IP). Any
participating network device — including routers, computers, time-servers,
printers, Internet fax machines, and some telephones — must have its own
unique address.
 
DYNAMIC AND STATIC IP ADDRESSES:
         IP addresses may either be assigned permanently (for example, to a
server which is always found at the same address) or temporarily from a
pool of available addresses.

Dynamic IP address:
Dynamic IP addresses are issued to identify non-permanent devices such as
personal computers or clients. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) use dynamic
allocation to assign addresses from a small pool to a larger number of
customers. This is used for dial-up access, WiFi and other temporary
connections, allowing a portable computer user to automatically connect to a
variety of services without needing to know the addressing details of each
network.

Static IP address:
Static IP addresses are used to identify semi-permanent devices with
constant IP addresses. Servers typically use static IP addresses. The static
address can be configured directly on the device or as part of a central
DHCP configuration which associates the device's MAC address with a
static address.
 
DOMAIN NAMES:
        A network lookup service, the Domain Name System (DNS), provides
the ability to map hostnames to an IP address. This allows humans to easily
remember a name and not a series of numbers. DNS allows multiple
addresses and names to point to one Internet resource.
          Another reason for DNS is to allow, for example, a web site to be
hosted on multiple servers (each with its own IP address) provides for
rudimentary load balancing.
 

LAN TOPOLOGIES

      LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are
organized. Four common LAN topologies exist: bus, ring, star, and tree.
These topologies are logical architectures, but the actual devices need not be
physically organized in these configurations. Logical bus and ring
topologies, for example, are commonly organized physically as a star.

      
  A bus topology is a linear LAN architecture in which transmissions from
network stations propagate the length of the medium and are received by all
other stations.

   

  A ring topology is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of devices

connected to one another by unidirectional transmission links to form a
single closed loop. Both Token Ring/IE
 EE
802.5 and FDDI networks implement a ring topology.

      
   A star topology is a LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a
network are connected to a common central hub, or switch, by dedicated
links. Logical bus and ring topologies are often implemented physically in a
star topology.
         

A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology,

except that branches with multiple nodes are possible in this case.
 TYPES OF LAN TECHNOLOGY

ETHERNET:
          Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use
today. It defines the number of conductors that are required for a connection,
the performance thresholds that can be expected, and provides the
framework for data transmission. A standard Ethernet network can transmit
data at a rate up to 10 Megabits per second (10 Mbps). Other LAN types
include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet,
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) and Local Talk.
         Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed,
cost and ease of installation. These benefits, combined with wide acceptance
in the computer marketplace and the ability to support virtually all popular
network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most
computer users today.
         The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an
Ethernet standard known as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines
rules for configuring an Ethernet network and also specifies how the
elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By adhering to
the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can
communicate efficiently.

FAST ETHERNET:
         The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established for
Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds. This standard raises
the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps with only minimal
changes to the existing cable structure. Fast Ethernet provides faster
throughput for video, multimedia, graphics, Internet surfing and stronger
error detection and correction.
      
          There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with
level 5 UTP cable; 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable; and
100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3 UTP
cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most popular due to its
close compatibility with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard.

GIGABIT ETHERNET:
         Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster
communication networks with applications such as multimedia and Voice
over IP (VoIP). Also known as "gigabit-Ethernet-over-copper" or 1000Base-
T, GigE is a version of Ethernet that runs at speeds 10 times faster than
100Base-T. It is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is currently used as
an enterprise backbone. Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps
cards can feed into a Gigabit Ethernet backbone to interconnect high
performance switches, routers and servers.

10 GIGABIT ETHERNET:
         10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the Ethernet
standards. IEEE 802.3ae defines a version of Ethernet with a nominal rate of
10Gbits/s that makes it 10 times faster than Gigabit Ethernet.
         Unlike other Ethernet systems, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is based entirely on
the use of optical fiber connections. This developing standard is moving
away from a LAN design that broadcasts to all nodes, toward a system
which includes some elements of wide area routing. As it is still very new,
which of the standards will gain commercial acceptance has yet to be
determined. 

TOKEN RING:
         Token Ring is another form of network configuration. It differs from
Ethernet in that all messages are transferred in one direction along the ring at
all times. Token Ring networks sequentially pass a “token” to each
connected device. When the token arrives at a particular computer (or
device), the recipient is allowed to transmit data onto the network. Since
only one device may be transmitting at any given time, no data collisions
occur. Access to the network is guaranteed, and time-sensitive applications
can be supported. However, these benefits come at a price. Component costs
are usually higher, and the networks themselves are considered to be more
complex and difficult to implement. Various PC vendors have been
proponents of Token Ring networks.

 
LAN DEVICES
 

MODEM:
         Modem is the short form for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a
device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for
example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally,
whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the
form of analog waves. A modem converts between these two forms.

SERVER:
          A computer or device is a network that manages network resources.
For example, a file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to
storing files. Any user on the network can store files on the server. A print
server is a computer that manages one or more printers, and a network server
is a computer that manages network traffic. A database server is a computer
system that processes database queries. Servers are often dedicated, meaning
that they perform no other tasks besides their server tasks. On
multiprocessing operating systems, however, a single computer can execute
several programs at once. A server in this case could refer to the program
that is managing resources rather than the entire computer.

 UTP: 
         Short for unshielded twisted pair, a popular type of cable that consists
of two unshielded wires twisted around each other. Due to its low cost, UTP
cabling is used extensively for local-area networks (LANs) and telephone
connections. UTP cabling does not offer as high bandwidth or as good
protection from interference as coaxial or fiber optic cables, but it is less
expensive and easier to work with.
 

Cable Grade Capabilities

Cable Makeup Frequency Data Network

Name Support Rate Compatibility
Cat-5 4 twisted pairs 100 MHz Up to ATM, Token
of copper wire 1000Mbps Ring,1000Base-
-- terminated by T, 100Base-TX,
RJ45 10Base-T
connectors
Cat-5e 4 twisted pairs 100 MHz Up to 10Base-T,
of copper wire 1000Mbps 100Base-TX,
-- terminated by 1000Base-T
RJ45
connectors
Cat-6 4 twisted pairs 250 MHz 1000Mbps 10Base-T,
 of copper wire 100Base-TX,
-- terminated by 1000Base-T
RJ45
connectors
 

NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS:

            Network Interface Cards, commonly referred to as NICs, and are
used to connect a PC to a network. The NIC provides a physical connection
between the networking cable and the computer's internal bus. Different
computers have different bus architectures. PCI bus slots are most
commonly found on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots are
commonly found on 386 and older PCs. NICs come in three basic varieties:
8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the number of bits that can be transferred
to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to the network cable. Most
NICs are designed for a particular type of network, protocol, and medium,
though some can serve multiple networks.
        Many NIC adapters comply with plug-and-play specifications. On these
systems, NICs are automatically configured without user intervention, while
on non-plug-and-play systems, configuration is done manually through a set-
up program and/or DIP switches.
        Cards are available to support almost all networking standards. Fast
Ethernet NICs are often 10/100 capable, and will automatically set to the
appropriate speed. Gigabit Ethernet NICs are 10/100/1000 capable with auto
negotiation depending on the user’s Ethernet speed. Full duplex networking
is another option where a dedicated connection to a switch allows a NIC to
operate at twice the speed.

 ETHERNET SWITCHES:
         LAN switches link multiple networks together and have two basic
architectures: cut-through and store-and-forward. In the past, cut-through
switches were faster because they examined the packet destination address
only before forwarding it on to its destination segment. A store-and-forward
switch works like a bridge in that it accepts and analyzes the entire packet
before forwarding it to its destination.

       Both cut-through and store-and-forward switches separate a network

into collision domains, allowing network design rules to be extended. Each
of the segments attached to an Ethernet switch has a full 10 Mbps of
bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in better performance (as
opposed to hubs that only allow bandwidth sharing from a single Ethernet).
Newer switches today offer high-speed links, either Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet or ATM. These are used to link switches
together or give added bandwidth to high-traffic servers

REPEATERS:

         A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media

segments of an extended network. A repeater essentially enables a series of
cable segments to be treated as a single cable. Repeaters receive signals from
one network segment and amplify, retime, and retransmit those signals to
another network segment. These actions prevent signal deterioration caused
by long cable lengths and large numbers of connected devices. Repeaters are
incapable of performing complex filtering and other traffic processing. In
addition, all electrical signals, including electrical disturbances and other
errors, are repeated and amplified.
HUB:
          A hub is a physical layer device that connects multiple user stations,
each via a dedicated cable. Electrical interconnections are established inside
the hub. Hubs are used to create a physical star network while maintaining
the logical bus or ring configuration of the LAN. In some respects, a hub
functions as a multiport repeater.

  BRIDGES:
         Bridges connect two LAN segments of similar or dissimilar types, such
as Ethernet and Token Ring. This allows two Ethernet segments to behave
like a single Ethernet allowing any pair of computers on the extended

Ethernet to communicate. Bridges are transparent therefore computers don’t

know whether a bridge separates them.

ROUTER:
        A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks, and
determines which way to send each data packet based on its current
understanding of the state of its connected networks. Routers are typically
connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a
LAN and its Internet Service Provider’s (ISPs) network. Routers are located
at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
        Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by
packet address. Routers also divide networks logically instead of physically.
An IP router can divide a network into various subnets so that only traffic
destined for particular IP addresses can pass between segments. Network
speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent forwarding. Such
filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which
only looks at the Ethernet address. However, in more complex networks,
overall efficiency is improved by using routers. 

 LAN EXTENDER:
         A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to
a host router. LAN extenders forward traffic from all the standard network
layer protocols (such as IP, IPX, and AppleTalk) and filter traffic based on
the MAC address or network layer protocol type. LAN extenders scale well
because the host router filters out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts.
However, LAN extenders are not capable of segmenting traffic or   creating
security firewalls. 
 CONCLUSION
 

             Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, as an organization is a very vast

center of electronics in itself. Today the telecommunicating world is getting
it’s roots, grabbing the new era more firmly. We think that our training was
a success and we think that BHEL was an excellent training institute for
inquisitive emerging engineers.  In BHEL, training is given to engineering
aspirant desiring to secure in the dynamic world of Electronics.

I once again whole heartedly thank BHEL for gving me this golden
opportunity for doing my implant training in it.

           
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.lantronix.com
 www.wikepedia.com
 www.google.com
 www.howstuffworks.com