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INTRODUCTION

As a weak student of history, I always felt uncomfortable during

various interviews, academic discourses and casual discussions, involving

historical references. Feeling of inadequacy in this vital subject rose with

the passage of time, but my professional commitments and poor time

management skills barred me from any reparation effort. Thanks to the

bewilderness offered by the UN shelters in Eastern Chad that I could

spare some time to read through the pages of history. Gradually, I

developed interest in the subject and decided to compile a quick read

history of the world for casual students of history like me.

In my compilation, I have endeavored to include all significant

happenings of history, in various time spans and in different parts of the

world. Almost all important events from pre-history till the 21st century,

which have influenced the world to take the shape as we look at it today,

have been chronologically ordered for easy assimilation of the readers. I

have earnestly tried to remain unbiased in my compilation of history and

present divergent points of view on various controversial issues. However,

it is a straight narration without any judgments or conclusions, leaving this

leverage to the worthy readers.

A Quick Read History of The World is in your hands. Please pardon

any omissions or mistakes in the document. I shall also welcome dissenting

views, if any.

Muqeem Ahmed Subhani

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PART – 1
ANCIENT HISTORY (PRE-HISTORY TO 20th CENTURY BC)

1. Prehistory is a term generally used to describe the period prior to recorded

history. The term is often used in referring to the period of time since life appeared on
Earth. Fossil remains found by the archeologists in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania), has
allowed them to know something about the history of human being. The
archeologists now believe that human being existed even before 2,000,000 BC. Early
human being moved from Africa across much of the world. Archeologists term this
time as “Ice Age”, during which the human being first reached America,
Russia, Alaska, Japan and Australia.
2. In dividing up human prehistory, the historians typically use Three Age System
i.e. the division of human prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for
their respective predominant tool-making technologies; the Stone Age, the Bronze
Age and the Iron Age.
a. Stone Age (Paleolithic)
(1) Early part of the Stone Age predates Homo sapiens.
Anatomic changes indicating modern language capacity arose during
this time. The systematic evolution i.e. burial of the dead, the music,
early art, and the use of increasingly sophisticated multi-part tools are
also the highlights of this period. Throughout the Stone Age, humans
generally lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. Hunter-gathering societies
tended to be very small and egalitarian, though societies with abundant
resources or advanced food-storage techniques sometimes developed
sedentary lifestyles with complex social structures such as chiefdoms
and social stratification.
(2) Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) is termed as a period for the
development of human technology that led to the introduction of
agriculture with varied timings (10000 BC – 6000 BC), in different
geographic regions. In Near East, where agriculture was already
underway, Middle Stone Age was short and poorly defined. However,
regions that experienced greater environmental effects had a much
more evident Middle Stone Age. In Northern Europe, societies were
able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands fostered by
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the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human

behaviors and delayed the coming of the New Stone Age until as late
as 4000 BC.
(3) New Stone Age (Neolithic) was a period of primitive
technological and social development, towards the end of the Stone
Age. This period saw the development of early villages, agriculture,
animal domestication, tools and the onset of the earliest recorded
incidents of confrontation and warfare.
(4) A major change of the time, described by historians as the
"Agricultural Revolution", occurred about the 10th millennium BC
with the adoption of agriculture. The Sumerians (people of
Southern Mesopotamia) began farming in 9500 BC. Jericho
(Palestine) is the oldest farming settlement yet discovered and
estimated to have existed as early as 8000 BC. The largest agricultural
settlement has so far been discovered in Turkey (Catal Huyuk), which
dates back to 6500 BC. Agriculture was developed in the Indus valley
(Mehrgarh) and South America (Peru) by 7000 BC, followed by the
Niles valley (Egypt) in 6000 BC and China by 5000 BC. Farming spread
in Europe and to islands of the Eastern Mediterranean like Cyprus and
Crete through Greece. Moving along the valleys of the Danube and
Rhine Rivers, farmers reached Northwest Europe by 4000 BC. By 3500
BC farming had reached the British Isles. However, North American
Great Plains were so suited to the hunting way of life that it survived
until modern times. Similarly, some nomadic peoples, such as the
Indigenous Australians (Aborigines) and the Bushmen of southern
Africa did not practice agriculture until relatively recent times.
b. Bronze Age
(1) The term refers to a period in human cultural development
when the most advanced metalworking techniques developed for
smelting copper and tin ores and then smelting those ores to cast
bronze. The Bronze Age is the period of which we have direct written
earliest accounts, since the invention of writing coincides with its early
beginning.
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(2) Writing began in Mesopotamia and Sumerians started to use

picture writing (cuneiform) in 3500 BC. Egyptians followed the
Sumerians in picture writing and carving (hieroglyphics). Chinese
writing began about 4000 BC. While the ancient writings of the
Egyptians and the Sumerians died out, the Chinese writing remains the
foundation from which modern Chinese language grew. Indians also
followed the suit but most of the ancient Indian writings could not be
deciphered. Writing was not introduced in Europe until almost 2000 BC,
as evident from absence of any written account of mysterious
Stonehenge (London), estimated to have been built as late as 2500
BC to 2000 BC.
c. Iron Age. Iron Age refers to the advent of ferrous metallurgy. The
adoption of iron coincided with other changes in some past cultures, often
including more sophisticated agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic
styles.
3. Early Civilizations. Only when there was a surplus food, could some people
stop farming and live in cities doing those different things essential to a civilization.
Therefore, all early civilizations appeared in those parts of the world which were the
most fertile i.e. the river valleys such as the Euphrates and Tigris valleys in
Mesopotamia (Iraq), the Niles valley in Egypt, the Indus valley in the Indian
subcontinent, and the Yellow River valley in China.
a. Mesopotamian Civilization
(1) First ever civilization of the world commenced in Mesopotamia
(Iraq) and the oldest cities in history were built between (3500 BC -
2000 BC), by the inhabitants of Mesopotamian civilization called the
Sumerians, in the land of two rivers (River Tigris and River Euphrates).
Early prophets like Prophet Adam (a.s), Prophet Idrees (a.s) and
Prophet Noah (a.s) are also reported to have lived and preached in this
region and neighboring Arabian Peninsula.
(2) Sargon the great, established the Akkadian Empire, the first
ever empire of the world in 2300 BC. He made his capital at Akkad
(Baghdad) and strengthened his empire from the Mediterranean to the
Persian Gulf. His people traded with the island of Crete in the west to
the Indus valley in the east.
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(3) Mesopotamian governments were organized enough to

build great temples and palaces out of clay bricks. They dug
canals, constructed irrigation channels and used wheeled carts.
(4) With the passage of time, other people moved into
Mesopotamia and a new civilization appeared around the city of
Babylon, on the banks of River Euphrates. The empire changed hands
between the Assyrians and the Babylonians and later between the
Persians and the Greeks, before it was finally annexed to the Muslim
territories.
b. Egyptian Civilization
(1) The ancient Egyptian civilization began in 3200 BC, when
Pharaoh Menes united the northern (Egypt) and southern (Sudan)
kingdoms. Pharaohs were very powerful and marked three distinctive
periods of their rule in Egypt; the old kingdom (2660 BC -2550 BC), the
middle kingdom (2050 BC – 1780 BC) and the new kingdom (1550 BC -
1070 BC).
(2) The Egyptians built magnificent temples and great
Pyramids. They also followed the custom of mummification. The
Egyptians were less advanced than the Mesopotamians in mathematics
and astronomy, but they were better at medicine and herbal treatment.
What made ancient Egypt different from any other civilization were its
religion and its belief in life after death.
(3) Egyptian civilization came to a slow demise when they found
themselves weak enough to fight off other empires like the Assyrians,
the Persians, the Greeks and finally the Romans before the advent of
Islam in the Niles valley.
c. Indus Valley Civilization
(1) Historically, one of the world's earliest urban civilizations
emerged in Indus valley, simultaneously with Mesopotamia (Iraq) and
ancient Egypt. Remains found at Mehrgarh (Baluchistan) prove a
modern town built as early as 7000 BC. The Indus valley civilization
(3300 BC - 1300 BC) was centered on the Indus River valley and its
tributaries, extending into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley, the Ganges-
Yamuna Doab, Gujarat, and southeastern Afghanistan.
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(2) Another sophisticated and technologically advanced urban

culture developed in the Mature Harappan period (2600 BC - 1900 BC)
that marked the beginning of the urban civilization in the subcontinent.
The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan,
Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in modern day India and Harappa,
Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro in modern day Pakistan. The civilization
was noted for its large and well planned cities built of brick, road-
side drainage system and multi storied houses. Inhabitants of
Indus valley civilization, the Harappans, developed new
techniques in metallurgy, too.
(3) In contrast to the Sumerians and the Egyptians who were very
religious, no temples are found in ancient Indian civilization. Legends
like Maha Bharata laid deep imprints on belief system of the
inhabitants of the civilization, and continue to be a centerpiece in
Hindu mythology till today. There is no record found about who ruled
the region and how they were destroyed in 1000 BC. Historians believe
that well armed Indo-Europeans (Aryan) people suddenly invaded from
the northwest (Hindu Kush Range), destroying the cities and killing
most of the inhabitants.
(4) Some of the Aryans made homes in the Indus valley, while the
others moved further east, over the low hills which divide the Indus from
the Ganga valley, and settled in the Ganga-Yamuna corridor. The
Aryans started to live in communities led by clan chiefs called as Rajas
and the priests or Brahmins who were a powerful group, too. The
Aryans seem to have been a lively, adventurous and risk taking people.
Gambling, music and dance were an important part of their life.
However, the people found themselves born into four separate castes;
the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the untouchable
Shudras.
(5) By the 6th century BC, there were sixteen separate kingdoms in
the Indus-Ganga valleys, fighting with one another. Similar independent
states existed throughout the Indian history before another wave of
invasions from south and northwest followed by establishment of
several Muslim empires there.
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d. Chinese Civilization
(1) Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along
the Yellow River. The written history of China can be found, without a
break, to the Shang Dynasty (1700 BC – 1046 BC). However, the
origins of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy developed during
the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC - 256 BC). For most of her history, China
has been cut off from rest of the world, though it is very large and highly
populated country.
(2) The conventional view of Chinese history is that of alternating
periods of political unity and disunity, with China occasionally being
dominated by Inner Asian peoples, most of whom were in turn
assimilated into the Han Chinese population. Cultural and political
influences from many parts of Asia, carried by successive waves of
immigration, expansion, and cultural assimilation, are part of the
modern culture of China.
(3) Bronze products of Shang China were the best in the
world at that time. They also discovered how to produce cloth
from silk and traded it through ancient Silk Road. In early Chinese
societies, the nobles were more important than the priests. Throughout
the Chinese history, the Chinese civilization remained very strong, even
if the emperors were weak, at times.
e. Europe
(1) In Europe, evidence of permanent settlement commences from
the 7th millennium BC in the Balkans. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
(5508 BC - 2750 BC), that nurtured in modern day Romania and
Ukraine, was the first big civilization in Europe and among the earliest
in the world.
(2) This was a time of changes and confusion in Europe. The
most relevant fact is the infiltration and invasion of large parts of the
territory by people originating from Central Asia, considered by
mainstream scholars to be the original Indo-Europeans (Aryans).
Another phenomenon was appearance of the first significant economic
stratification and, related to this, the first known monarchies in the
Balkan region.
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(3) The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that

of the Minoans of the island of Crete (1900 BC – 1400 BC), and
later the Mycenaens (1600 BC – 1100 BC) in the adjacent parts of
Greece. Cretans were once the most powerful people of the region.
They traded all round the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly with
Egypt, and ruled many coastal areas like Athens. These tribal societies
slowly transformed into states and these complex societies turned into
civilizations.
(4) The Greek civilization is considered to be the foundation of
modern day Europe. The civilization is known for its legends like King
Aegeus of Athens (Aegean Sea in named after him), Battle of Troy
(invasion of city of Troy, located in modern day Turkey, by soldiers
hiding in a wooden horse) and the war hero Achilles (famous for
Achilles heal).
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PART - 2
EARLY HISTORY (20th CENTURY BC TO 5TH CENTURY AD)

1. This was the age of philosophical development of the human beings.

German philosopher Karl Jaspers coined the term the axial age to
describe the period of 1st millennium BC, during which, according to
Jaspers, similar revolutionary thinking appeared in China, India and
the Occident. Jaspers identified a number of key axial age thinkers as
having had a profound influence on future philosophy and religion, and
identified characteristics common to each area from which those thinkers
emerged. Jaspers saw in these developments in religion and philosophy a
striking parallel without any obvious direct transmission of ideas from one
region to the other, having found no recorded proof of any extensive
intercommunication between Ancient Greece (Platonism), Middle East
(Abrahmic Religion), Iran (Zoroastrianism), India (Buddhism /
Hinduism), and China (Confucianism). Jaspers argued that during the
axial age, the spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously
and independently. And these are the foundations upon which humanity
still subsists today. These foundations were laid by individual thinkers
within a framework of a changing social environment.
2. Abrahmic Religion. Historians have a general consensus that
Prophet Abraham (a.s) lived during early 20th century BC.
a. Terah, a descent from Prophet Noah (a.s), fathered Prophet
Abraham (a.s), Nahor and Haran. Prophet Lot (a.s) was the son of Haran
and thus nephew to Prophet Abraham (a.s). Prophet Abraham (a.s) is
believed to have been born in Ur of the Chaldees (Mesopotamia, Iraq). But
the family later moved towards Canaan (Palestine), but settled in Haran on
their way to Canaan.
b. Prophet Abraham (a.s) married Hazrat Sara (a.s) but they did not
have any children for a long time. During a preaching voyage to Egypt
along with Hazrat Sara (a.s), Egyptian Pharaoh offered his daughter Hazrat
Hajra (a.s) to serve Hazrat Sara (a.s). The Jews believe that Hazrat Hajra
(a.s) was Pharaoh’s maid and not the daughter. Later, Hazrat Sara (a.s)
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suggested Prophet Abraham (a.s) to marry Hazrat Hajra (a.s) and have
children.
c. Prophet Abraham (a.s) was blessed with a son Prophet Ismael (a.s)
but that led to a split in the family. Prophet Abraham (a.s) took Hazrat Hajra
(a.s) and their new born son to Makkah and left them there following a
divine message. He however, continued to visit them time to time.
d. Prophet Abraham (a.s) received a divine message to leave the land
of his birth, his father's house and go to the land where he would become a
great nation and be the vehicle for the blessing of all mankind. So Prophet
Abraham (a.s) left Haran with Hazrat Sara (a.s), Prophet Lot (a.s), their
followers and flocks and travelled to Canaan (Palestine), where, at
Shechem (near Nablus - West Bank), Allah (s.w.t) granted land to him and
his descendants. Prophet Lot (a.s) was granted the prophet-hood in a
nearby land lying east of the Jordan River near Sodom and Gomorrah. The
land has now been encroached by the Dead Sea. In his old ages, Prophet
Abraham (a.s) was blessed with another son, Prophet Isaac (a.s) from
Hazrat Sara (a.s).
e. Prophet Abraham (a.s) is held as a founding father in the Jewish,
Christian, and Islamic religions. The nation of Israel descended from him
through his second son, Prophet Isaac (a.s), whereas the Muslims
descended from him through his first son, Prophet Ismael (a.s). The
Muslims and the Jews / Christians also differ on the sacrifice offered by
Prophet Abraham (a.s); the Muslims believe it was for Prophet Ismael (a.s)
and the Jews / Christians believe him to be Prophet Isaac (a.s). As a
reward for his act of faith in one Allah (s.w.t), he was promised that Prophet
Isaac (a.s) would inherit the Land of Canaan (Palestine). On the other hand
Prophet Abraham (a.s) during one of his visits to Makkah constructed
Ka’aba along with Prophet Ismael (a.s) and prayed to Allah (s.w.t) for grant
of multitude; Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h) and his following is considered
to be the fulfillment of the prayer.
f. The Israelites are referred to as the children of Israel, who are from
the family of Prophet Abraham (a.s), his son Prophet Isaac (a.s) and the
latter's son Prophet Yaqub (a.s) who was known as Israel (Abdullah).
Prophet Yaqub (a.s) had twelve sons. Popular convention is that the
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Israelites comprised of twelve tribes, emanating form Prophet Yaqub’s (a.s)

each son. When Prophet Yusuf (a.s), one of the twelve sons, was 17 years
old, his brothers intentionally lost him in a jungle. He was picked up by
some passing by convoy and later rose to the status of the Viceroy of
Egypt. Almost 20 years later, when famine had ravaged Canaan
(Palestine), Prophet Yusuf (a.s) persuaded his father, Prophet Yaqub (a.s),
to come with his entire family, and to settle in Egypt. Later, the family
returned to Canaan (Palestine). Phoenician Civilization, centered in the
north of Canaan (Palestine) with its heartland along the coastal
regions of modern day Lebanon , Syria and Israel emerged during
this time. The civilization was an enterprising maritime trading culture
that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC.
g. Prophet Moses (a.s), another descendent among children of Israel,
is believed to have lived in 13th and early 12th century BC. He was born at a
time when Egyptian Pharaoh of the time had commanded that all male
Hebrew children born be killed. His mother was commanded by Allah
(s.w.t) to place the child in an ark and cast him on the waters of the Niles.
Pharaoh's wife Asiya spotted Moses floating in the river and convinced
Pharaoh to adopt him as their son because they had none. Prophet Mose’s
(a.s) own mother was engaged as the child's nurse.
h. When Prophet Moses (a.s) reached adulthood, he went to see how
his brethren were faring. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, he killed
the Egyptian and made his escape over the Sinai Peninsula in regret. In
Midian, he stopped at a well, where he helped two shepherdesses scared
from a band of rude shepherds. The shepherdesses' father, Prophet
Shoaib (a.s), a priest of Midian was immensely grateful for the assistance
Prophet Moses (a.s) had given to his daughters. Prophet Shoaib (a.s)
adopted Prophet Moses (a.s) as his son and married one of his daughters
to him.
i. Prophet Moses (a.s) sojourned for several years at Midian before
being granted prophet-hood. Mission assigned to Prophet Moses (a.s) was
to invite the Pharaoh to accept Allah’s (s.w.t) divine message as well as
give salvation to the Israelites. He was also joined by his elder brother,
Prophet Harun (a.s) in his struggle. Finally, Prophet Moses (a.s) led his
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people across Red Sea towards Canaan (Palestine) and Pharaoh’s army
got drowned.
j. Following the conquest of Canaan (Palestine), at the hands of
Prophet Joshua (a.s), the Israelite tribes were allotted tribal territories.
From that time until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel in 1050 BC,
the Israelite tribes formed a loose confederation. No central government
existed, and in times of crisis the people were led by ad-hoc leaders. With
the growth of external threat, the Israelite tribes decided to form a strong
centralized monarchy to meet the challenge.
k. Following the famous fight against giant warrior Goliath, Prophet
Daud (a.s) rose to power in the region. During the reigns of Prophet Daud
(a.s) and his son Prophet Suleiman (a.s) who ruled Palestine around 970
BC and 930 BC respectively, the Kingdom of Israel is considered to have
reached the limits of the Land of Israel promised to Prophet Abraham's
(a.s) descendants. However, Prophet Daud (a.s) and Prophet Suleiman
(a.s) maintained actual government jurisdiction only over the Israelite
tribes, although they received tribute from the vaster region defined by
these borders. Prophet Suleiman (a.s) is believed to have built the Holy
Temple for the first time in around 950 BC. As per the Muslim belief,
Al Aqsa Mosque was also constructed by him.
l. Babylonians, the successors of Akkadian Empire (2300 BC – 2150
BC) fought with the Assyrians for the control of the region between 800 BC
till 539 BC. The Assyrians were known to be the most fearsome warriors of
the ancient world. Assyrian kings attacked the kingdom of Israel in 772 BC,
captured the capital city Samaria (West Bank, Palestine) and took
thousands of captives to the Assyrian capital of Nineveh (Mosul, Iraq). The
concept of the Ten Lost Tribes who were taken away coincides with the
accounts of the Assyrian deportations. Some historians believe that the
Pashtuns of Afghanistan and Pakistan are the historical descendants of the
"ten lost tribes". Some historians even believe that the black races are the
lost Israelites – literally or spiritually.
m. The Babylonians made their come back to power in early 6th century
BC. In 597 BC, the Babylonian kings sacked Jerusalem and exiled the
Jews to Babylon (present day Babil Province, Iraq). In 586 BC they
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destroyed the Holy Temple and left Jerusalem in ruins. In 538 BC,
after 50 years of Babylonian captivity, Persian King Cyrus the Great
conquered the region and invited the Jews to return to their land and
rebuild the Temple. Second construction of the Holy Temple
completed in 516 BC.
n. The region remained under the Alexander of Macedonia in around
200 BC and went under the Roman / Byzantine rule in 63 BC. Second
Holy Temple was destroyed during Jewish-Roman War in 70 AD. Only
western wall remains of that destruction. Jews believe that they will
rebuild the temple before the re-arrival of Prophet Jesus (a.s).
o. Prophet Jesus (a.s) was the last of the prophets among the Children
of Israel, though Prophet Yahya (a.s) also lived and preached at the same
time. With non acceptance of Prophet Jesus (a.s) by the Jews, Christianity
became a separate religion. Later, Christianity was reformed on the basis
of Trinity; that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing
persons; the Father, the Son (incarnate in Jesus Christ), and the Holy
Spirit. Prophet Jesus (a.s) was sentenced to death by the Jews’ priestly
court (under Roman rule) for being guilty of Blasphemy. The Muslims
believe that he was raised alive by Allah (s.w.t) towards Himself, whereas
the Christians / Jews believe that he was crucified and died a natural
death; a holy sacrifice that atones for humanity's sin and makes salvation
possible. Church of the Holy Sepulcher in the Christian Quarter of the old
city of Jerusalem is considered to be the place of crucifixion. The Muslims
and the Christians await resurrection of Prophet Jesus (a.s), whereas the
Jews await Messiah David (Anti Christ).
p. Newly founded Roman Empire and its people were dissatisfied with
the old religions based on Greek mythology. Their thirst was satisfied by
the newly known religion of Christianity. Christianity found a popular
acceptance, especially among the poor and slaves. However, the
Christians suffered badly at the hands of Roman rulers during first 300
years. Saint Paul; a Roman citizen and a Jew converted Christian first
authored the Holy Bible and exerted great religious influence on the
masses under the Roman Empire. The Anno Domini (year of Lord)
dating system is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the
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conception or birth of Prophet Jesus (a.s), with AD denoting years

after, and BC denoting years before the start of this epoch.
3. European Empires. From 8th century BC to the 6th century AD
(Classical Antiquity), the Greeks and the Romans left a legacy in Europe that is
reflected in extant language, thought, law and minds.
a. Ancient Greece
(1) The Hellenic civilization (Ancient Greece) took the form of a
collection of city-states or poleis, having vastly differing types of
government and cultures. Strongest amongst these city-states were
Athens and Sparta. Athens, the most powerful city-state, governed itself
with an early form of direct democracy. Athens was the most developed
city and cradle of learning from the time of Pericles (famous Greek
statesman). Citizens’ forum debated and legislated on the state
policies. Sparta, in contrast, was very different than Athens. Its strength
lay in its army and the soldiers. They were feared rather than admired
by the rest of Greece, for their army was terrifying.
(2) The Hellenic city-states founded a large number of colonies on
the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, Asia Minor
(Turkey), and Southern Italy. In the 5th century BC, their eastward
expansions led to retaliation from the Achaemenid Persian Empire. In
the Greco-Persian Wars, the Hellenic city-states formed an alliance and
defeated the Persian Empire, repelling the Persian invasions.
(3) The Greeks were leading the league against Persia, but
Athens’s weakening position as leader of this league led Sparta to form
another league. The two leagues began a rivalry over leadership of
Greece and fought a protracted Peloponnesian War (431 BC – 404
BC), resulting in Spartans victory. Continued Hellenic infighting made
the Greek city states an easy prey for King Philip of Macedon, who
united all the Greek city states. The campaigns of his son Alexander
the Great, later became the hallmark of the Greek Empire. Alexander
the Great took with him, the Greek culture into Persia, Egypt and India.
(4) From here arose some of the most notable classical
philosophers, such as Socrates (469 BC–399 BC), Plato (428 BC–
348 BC) and Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC). Socrates was put on trial
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and sentenced to death for "corrupting the youth" of Athens, as his

discussions conflicted with the established religious beliefs of the time.
(5) Plato was a classical Greek philosopher, mathematician,
writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in
Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western
world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle,
Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy
(Platonism) and science.
(6) Greek scientists and academics also flourished under the empire
and contributed a great deal in their respective fields of expertise. One
of the earliest scientists was Thales, who lived in modern day Turkey in
the 6th century BC. He is said to have predicted an eclipse in 585 BC
and argued that everything in the universe was a different form of one
thing i.e. water. Other Greek thinkers preferred four basic elements
(substances), water, earth, fire and air. One of his contemporary,
Pythagoras, was a mathematician, politician and a religious thinker. He
is well known for his theories about geometry, not least his theorem
about right angle triangles. Probably, greatest of the Greek
mathematicians was Archimedes, who lived in the 3 rd century BC and
made important discoveries in geometry and calculus. He is supposed
to have said “give me a long enough lever and I can move the world.
b. Alexander the Great
(1) Alexander of Macedon (356 BC-323 BC), popularly known as
Alexander the Great was a Greek king of Macedon. Alexander was
tutored by the famed philosopher Aristotle. He succeeded his
assassinated father to the throne in 336 BC and died thirteen years
later at the age of only 32 years. Although both Alexander's reign and
empire were short-lived, the cultural impact of his conquests lasted for
centuries. Alexander was known to be undefeated in battle and is
considered one of the most successful commanders of all the time. He
is one of the most famous figures of antiquity, and is remembered for
his tactical ability, his conquests, and for spreading Greek culture into
the East (marking the beginning of Hellenistic civilization). He created
one of the largest empires in ancient history.
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(2) King Philip (Alexander’s father) had already brought most of the
city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony, using
both military and diplomatic means. Upon Philip's death, Alexander
inherited a strong kingdom along with an experienced army. He went
on to execute the expansion plans, unaccomplished by his father.
(3) He invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor (Turkey), and led a series
of campaigns lasting ten years. Alexander repeatedly defeating the
Persians in battle, marched through Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia,
and Bactria; and in the process he overthrew the Persian King Darius to
conquer the Persian Empire in entirety.
(4) Pursuing his desire to conquer the ends of the world and the
Great Outer Sea, he invaded India, but was eventually forced to turn
back due to the near-mutiny mindset of his troops. During his
campaigns in central Asia, he founded a series of new cities, all
called Alexandria. Egyptian Alexandria is the only one that still exists.
(5) After establishing himself in Persia and central Asia, Alexander
was finally free to turn his attention to the Indian subcontinent.
Alexander invited all the chieftains of Gandhara (Northern Pakistan), to
come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (whose actual name
was Ambhi), ruler of Taxila. His kingdom extended from the Indus River
to the Hydaspes (the Jhelum River), complied, but the chieftains of
some hill clans, refused to submit.
(6) In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a
campaign against these hill clans; the Aspasioi of Kunar Valley,
the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the
Swat and Buner valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in
which Alexander himself was wounded but eventually the Aspasioi lost
the fight. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought bravely and
offered stubborn resistance to Alexander. The fort of Massaga could
only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which
Alexander himself was wounded seriously. Alexander slaughtered the
entire population of Massaga and reduced its buildings to rubbles. A
similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the
Assakenoi. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous
 17

Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close

behind their heels and captured the strategic hill-fort after a bloody
fight.
(7) Subsequently, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and
won an epic battle against a local ruler Porus, who ruled a region
in the Punjab, in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC. Alexander was
greatly impressed by Porus for his bravery, and therefore treated him
as a king, making an alliance with him and appointed him as his deputy
in his own kingdom, even adding land he did not own before.
(8) Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, before realizing a series of
planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia.
Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of
Achilles, and features prominently in the history and myth of Greek
and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which
generals, even to this day, compare themselves, and military
academies throughout the world still teach his tactical exploits.
c. Roman Empire
(1) Ancient Roman history includes the recorded Greek history
beginning in about 776 BC (The year of first Olympics). This coincides
roughly with the traditional date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC and
the beginning of the history of Rome. Much of Greek learning was
assimilated by the Roman state, as it expanded outward from Italy,
taking advantage of the inability of his enemies to unite.
(2) The 3rd century BC marked the start of Roman hegemony. First
governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic),
Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC,
under Augustus and his authoritarian successors. In 44 BC, its
leader Julius Caesar was murdered on suspicion of subverting the
Republic, to become dictator. The Roman Empire had its centre in
the Mediterranean Sea, controlling all the countries on its shores.
(3) The empire under Emperor Trajan, during 2nd century, reached
its maximum expansion, including Britain, Romania and parts of
Mesopotamia (Iraq). The empire brought peace, civilization and an
efficient centralized government to the subject territories but in the 3rd
 18

century a series of civil wars undermined its economic and social

strength.
(4) In the 4th century, the Roman emperors managed to slow down
the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western and an
Eastern part. The Western Roman Empire centered in Ravenna,
and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the
Byzantine Empire) centered in Constantinople. While the Western
Empire severely persecuted Christianity, the Eastern Empire declared
an official end to state-sponsored persecution of Christians, thus setting
the stage for the empire to later become officially Christian in about
380. In addition, the Eastern Empire officially shifted the capital of the
Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, which he
renamed Constantinople.
(5) The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading
armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. Another
significant development of the time was the ingress of Islam in
European circles after 632. The historians argue with regards to the
decline and fall of the Roman Empire that the Romans had become
decadent as they had lost civic virtue. Moreover, adoption of
Christianity, meant belief in a better life after death, and therefore
made people lazy and indifferent to the present. However, many
scholars maintain that rather than a fall, the changes can more
accurately be described as a complex transformation. Several theories
have been evolved as to why the Empire fell, or whether it fell at all.
4. Persian Empires
a. The Achaemenid Empire (550 BC–330 BC), was the largest Persian
Empire by geographical extent in ancient times. Cyrus the Great
conquered Babylon in 539 BC and forged an empire that spanned over three
continents: Asia, Africa and Europe. He was succeeded by King Darius who
expanded the Persian Empire that stretched from Indus valley to the
Mediterranean. At its greatest extent, the empire included the modern
territories of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, parts of Central Asia, Turkey,
Macedonia, much of the Black Sea coastal regions, Iraq, northern Saudi
Arabia, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and all significant population centers of
 19

ancient Egypt as far west as Libya. The empire had a centralized, bureaucratic
administration under the emperor and a permanent large army and civil
service, inspiring similar developments in later Persian Empires.
b. The Achaemenid Empire is noted in western history as the foe of
the Greek Empire during the Greco-Persian Wars, for emancipation of
slaves including the Jews from their Babylonian captivity, and for instituting the
usage of official languages throughout its territories. It was King Darius who
first invaded the Greek mainland in 490 BC. However, his successors could
not prevail in the Greco-Persian Wars rendering the empire to grow weaker
and subsequently collapse at the hands of Alexander the Great, in 330 BC.
c. Persian rule was re-established in the region starting from the rise of
Parthian Kings (247 BC - 224 AD). The Sassanid Empire (224 - 651)
succeeded the Parthian Empire and was recognized as one of the two
main powers in Western Asia and Europe, alongside the Roman /
Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years. The Sassanid
Empire was founded by King Ardasher and lasted until it lost in a series of
invasions from the Muslim armies. During its existence, the Sassanid Empire
encompassed all of today's Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, the Caucasus
(Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Dagestan), southwestern Central Asia,
part of Turkey, certain coastal parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf
area, and areas of southwestern Pakistan. The Sassanid era, during Late
Antiquity, is considered to have been one of Iran's most important and
influential historical periods. It influenced Roman civilization considerably
during the Sassanid period, and both the empires regarded one another as
equals.
d. Zoroastrianism, a religion and philosophy based on the teachings
of priest Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra), gained prevalence during
successive Persian Empires. The theology was founded some time before the
6th century BC in Persia (Iran). In Zoroastrianism, the creator is all good, and
no evil originates from him. Zoroastrianism, in some form or the other, served
as the national or state religion of a significant portion of the Iranian people for
many centuries before it was gradually marginalized by Islam from the 7th
century onwards. The political power of the pre-Islamic Iranian dynasties lent
 20

Zoroastrianism immense prestige in ancient times, and some of its leading

doctrines were adopted by other religious systems.
5. Chinese Empires
a. The written history of China can be found as early as the Shang
Dynasty (1700 BC to 1046 BC). Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC to 256 BC)
succeeded the powerful Shang Dynasty but it began to bow to external and
internal pressures. By the start of the 8th century BC, its ability to control its
regional lords subsequently lessened, and the kingdom eventually broke apart
into smaller states.
b. In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang united the various warring kingdoms
and created the first Chinese empire, contemporary of the Roman
Empire. Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic
systems that enabled the Chinese Emperors to directly control vast territories.
From the founding of the multi-ethnic First Empire, China saw itself as the
centre of civilization and a universal empire in terms not fundamentally
different from those of the Romans at their zenith.
c. Confucianism, the teachings of the Chinese philosopher
Confucius (Kung-fu-Tzu or Master Kong, 551–478 BC) developed as an
ethical and philosophical system during these times. It is a complex system of
moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had
tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. In Confucianism,
human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and
communal endeavor especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A
main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of
moral perfection for which one should even give up his life, if necessary. The
followers of Confucianism believe in the importance of family life and in
worshiping ancestors.
6. Africa
a. North Africa experienced colonization from Europe and Western Asia in
the early historical period, particularly Greeks and Phoenicians (ancient
civilization developed by the Children of Israel). Phoenicians founded a
number of colonies along the North African coast. Some of these were
founded relatively early. Carthage (Tunisia), was established around 800
BC, that became a major power in the Mediterranean by the 4th century
 21

BC. The Carthaginians themselves sent out expeditions to explore and

establish colonies along Africa's Atlantic coast.
b. Under Egyptian Pharaoh Amasis (570-526 BC), a Greek mercantile
colony was established near modern day Alexandria (Egypt). Greeks also
colonized Cyrenaica (Libya) around the same time. Another attempt to
establish a Greek colony near Carthage resulted in the expulsion of the Greek
colonists by the locals.
c. Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) founded Alexandria during his
conquest of Egypt. This became one of the major cities of Hellenistic (zenith of
Greek influence in the ancient world) and Roman times.
d. Carthage encountered and struggled with the Romans. After the third
and final war between them, the Third Punic War (150-146 BC), Rome
completely destroyed Carthage. Julius Caesar and Augustus in the mid and
late 1st century BC established a new Roman colony near the same site
(Tunisia) served as the capital city of the Roman province of Africa. Later in
the 5th century, the colony fell to the Byzantine Empire. Whole of the Roman /
Byzantine North Africa eventually fell to the Arabs in the 7th century, who
brought Islam and Arabic language with them.
7. Indian Subcontinent
a. Since about 1500 BC to 500 BC, Indian Subcontinent witnessed the
Vedic period, characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the
texts of Vedas (Vedic Sanskrit), sacred to Hindus. The Vedas are some of
the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic
period laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early
Indian society. The Aryans established Vedic civilization all over North India,
and increasingly so in the Gangetic Plain. The Vedic Period also established
republics which existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some
areas until the 4th century AD. The later part of this period corresponds with an
increasing movement away from the prevalent tribal system towards
establishment of kingdoms. During this period, a number of small kingdoms or
city states had covered the subcontinent. Sixteen monarchies and 'republics'
known as the Mahajanapadas, stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from
modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of
 22

the second major urbanization in India after the Indus Valley Civilization. The
swastika remained a major Hindu iconography.
b. It is believed that in 537 BC, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the
state of "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha'. Around
the same time, Mahavira propagated a similar theology that was to later
become Jainism.
c. Much of the northwestern subcontinent (present day Eastern
Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid
Empire in 520 BC, during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for
two centuries thereafter. In 326 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Asia
Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the
Indian subcontinent. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as
Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern
Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers in the Gandhara region. The
Sassanid Empire of Persia, who was contemporary of the Guptas, expanded
into the regions of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and
Persian cultures gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture.
d. The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on
Indian civilization. The political system of the Persians was to influence future
forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the
Mauryan dynasty. In addition, Gandhara Region, or present-day eastern
Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian,
Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid
culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century and
influenced the artistic development of Buddhism. Roman trade with India
started around 1 AD following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of
Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West.
e. The Mauryan Empire (322 BC to 185 BC), ruled by the Mauryan
dynasty, was geographically extensive, powerful, and a political military
empire in Ancient India. The great Mauryan Empire was established by
Chandragupta Maurya and was flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest
extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the
Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it
 23

reached beyond today’s Pakistan, annexing Baluchistan and much of what is

now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces.
f. Ashoka propagated Buddhism across the world and established many
Buddhist monuments. Chandragupta's minister Chanakya authored his
famous Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on economics,
politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion,
produced in Asia.
g. The period when much of the Indian Subcontinent was reunited under
the Gupta Empire (320 AD to 550 AD), was period of peace and prosperity
that enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India. This
period is called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive
achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic,
literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that
crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.
The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in
India during this period. The high points of this cultural creativity are
magnificent architectures, sculptures and paintings. Science and political
administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties
also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a
base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka,
Malay Archipelago and Indochina.
 24

PART - 3
MEDIAEVAL HISTORY (6TH TO 15TH CENTURY)

1. This was the time, world witnessed the rise of a great religion, Islam, as the
divine message for all times. The religion not only found a popular approval in large
parts of the world, but also laid a significant impact on the history of the world that
followed. Expansion of the Muslim Empire during late 6th century, and Muslims’
unparalleled rule for about one millennium left deep imprints in shaping the future
world. Islamic virtues spread across the globe and attracted rest of the world to the
centers of learning and civilization, developed in the Muslim world. Trade prospered
under the Muslim Empire due to their control over all the prevalent land and sea
routes and due to the fact that Letter of Credit signed by the Muslim governors in
Western Africa was also honored by their colleagues serving in Indochina. Expansion
of the empire therefore, not only caused stir in Christian world giving rise to Crusades
for the control of sacred land, but also agitated the Europeans to explore new trade
routes resulting in famous voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco Da Gama in
late 15th century.
2. Muslim World
a. Advent of Islam. Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h) was born in 570 and
was granted prophet-hood in 610. He preached Islam for twenty three years
during which he along with his companions had to migrate from Makkah to
Medina, encountered with the non believers of Makkah at several occasions
and made an epoch making peace deal (Sulah Hudebiya) with them. Makkah
was finally conquered by the Muslims in the year 630. Though, Prophet
Muhammad (p.b.u.h) died in 632 but the following centuries witnessed great
expansion of the Muslim Empire from western coasts of Africa to Indochina in
east and from southwestern Europe and Central Asia in north to southern
edge of Africa. Muslim expansion took place initially at the hands of Rashidun
Caliphate, and later under Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasside Caliphate and
Ottoman Empire. Fatimid Caliphate of Cairo / Tunisia, Safavid Caliphate of
Azerbaijan / Iran and Mughal Empire of India also mark the rise of Islam
across the world. Biggest disaster in the history of Muslim Empires came from
 25

Mongols, with sacking and destruction of Baghdad in 1258. Later, split Muslim
Empires emerged in various parts of the world until the fall of the last one, the
Ottoman Empire, in the early 20th century.
b. Rashidun Caliphate (632 - 661)
(1) After the death of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) in 632, Muslims
debated which of them should succeed the Prophet in running the
affairs of the Muslims. Hazrat Omar Bin Khattab (r.a) and Hazrat Abu
Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (r.a) pledged their loyalty to Hazrat Abu Bakr
(r.a), with the Ansar and Quraish soon following suit. Hazrat Abu Bakr
(r.a) thus became the first Caliph (Khalifa-tul-Rasul-Allah), and
embarked on consolidation of newly established Islamic dominion and
the campaigns to deliver the Message of Allah (s.w.t). Caliph Abu Bakr
(r.a) was not a monarch and never claimed such a title nor did his three
successors do so. They lived in a humble house, milked sheep and
goats and roamed in public without any guards and rested sitting
beneath a tree when tired. Later, Umayyad and Abbasids also did not
claim such a title but treated themselves as one.
(2) Shia Islam took its roots from this occurrence as they
considered that Hazrat Ali Bin Abi Talib (r.a) was the rightful
successor of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), and therefore doubt the
legitimacy of the first three caliphs. However, Hazrat Ali (r.a) himself
accepted the caliphate of all three of his predecessors, despite some
initial reservations, and stayed with all of them as a respected
companion until he was nominated as the 4th Caliph of Islam. Shia and
Sunni Muslims also differ with regards to the traditions (Sunnah) of the
Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h); Shia Muslims exclusively use sermons
attributed to Hazrat Ali (r.a), in contrast to the Sunni Muslims where the
Sunnah is largely narrated by companions of the Prophet Mohammad
(p.b.u.h). Ithna Ashari (Twelvers) is the largest branch of Shia Islam
who believe in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as the Twelve
Imams, Hazrat Ali (r.a) being the first, and that the Hazrat Mahdi will be
none other than the returned Twelfth Imam that disappeared and is
believed to be in occultation. Smaller branches of Shia Islam include
the Ismaili and Zaidi.
 26

(3) The foremost challenge confronting Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a)

was to harness the rebellion within Arab tribes. Apostasy had
become general and some tribes withheld the zakat, though they did
not otherwise challenge Islam. False prophet-hood claims, after the
death of the Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h), was yet another front to
handle. Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a) declared war on all these rebels. The
Campaign against apostasy and false prophet Musaylima was fought
against and accomplished within one year after the death of the
Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h). Hazrat Khalid bin Walid (r.a) was the
main punch of the Muslims in this drive.
(4) Once the rebellions had been put down, and Arabia was united
under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina, Caliph Abu Bakr
(r.a) began a war of conquest. He set in motion a historical
trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the
largest empires in history. Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a) maintained his
caliphate from 632 to 634. He desired Omar to be his successor, for
which he persuaded the most powerful of the followers of the Prophet
Muhammad (p.b.u.h) to go along.
(5) Caliph Omar (r.a) was gifted with innate qualities both
militarily and politically; He was one of the great political geniuses
of history. While the empire was expanding at a mind-numbing rate
beneath his leadership, he also began to build the foundations for a
political structure that would hold it together. Caliph Omar (r.a) did not
require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam nor did he
try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations
to retain their religion, language, customs, and government relatively
untouched. The only intrusion would be a governor (Ameer) and a
financial officer called an Amil. Caliph Omar's (r.a) most far-reaching
innovations were in the area of building a financial structure for the
empire. To this end, he built an efficient system of taxation and brought
the military directly under the financial control of the state. He also
founded the Diwan, a unique Islamic institution, which consisted of
individuals that were important to the Islamic faith and the Islamic
world, such as the companions of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h). Their
 27

contribution to the faith was so great that they were given pensions on
which to live, which freed them up to pursue religious and ethical
studies so as to provide spiritual leadership to the rest of the Islamic
world. Among his most lasting traditions was the establishment of the
Muslim calendar, beginning from the year in which Prophet Muhammad
(p.b.u.h) immigrated to Medina.
(6) Caliph Omar (r.a) was mortally wounded in an assassination
attempt by the Persian slave Abu Lulu Fieroz, during morning prayers
in 644. Before he died, Omar appointed a committee of six men to
decide on the next caliph. The committee narrowed down the choices
to Hazrat Othman (r.a) and Hazrat Ali (r.a). The choice was hard but
ultimately Hazrat Othman (r.a) was selected as the third Caliph.
(7) Caliph Othman (r.a) reigned for twelve years as caliph, during
the first half of his reign he enjoyed a position of the most popular
caliph among all the Rashiduns, while in the later half of his reign he
met increasing opposition. Unrest grew steadily and precipitously. In
656, rebels entered Medina, and a riot broke out there. The rebels then
laid siege to Caliph Othman's (r.a) house. The Caliph refused to initiate
any military action to avoid civil war between Muslims, and preferred
negotiations. Polite attitude of Caliph Othman (r.a) towards the
rebels emboldened them and they broke into his house and killed
him while he was reciting the Holy Qur'an.
(8) After the assassination of Caliph Othman (r.a) in 656, the
Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) in Medina
selected Hazrat Ali (r.a) to be the fourth Caliph. Soon thereafter,
Caliph Ali dismissed several provincial governors and transferred his
capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq.
(9) Following the assassination of Caliph Othman (r.a), the first
Muslim civil war started, which continued during the brief
caliphate of Hazrat Ali (r.a). This civil war is often called “Fitna”,
and marked as the end of the early unity of the Islamic Ummah.
Demand for revenge of the blood of Caliph Othman grew, and a large
army of the Muslims led by eminent companions of the Prophet
Mohammad (p.b.u.h), Hazrat Zubayr (r.a) and Hazrat Talha (r.a), and
 28

the widow of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), Hazrat Ayesha (r.a) set
for revenge from the rebels. Two armies battled near Basra (Iraq).
Though neither Caliph Ali (r.a) nor the leaders of the opposing army
wanted to fight, a fight broke out suddenly at night between two armies.
Sunni Muslim traditions maintain that the rebels, who were involved in
the assassination of Caliph Othman (r.a), triggered the combat as they
were afraid of the consequences, in case the negotiations were
successful. The battle thus fought was the first battle between
Muslims and is known as the Battle of the Camel. After the
Caliphate had won and the dispute was settled, Caliph Ali (r.a)
sent his son Hazrat Hassan (r.a) to escort Hazrat Ayesha (r.a) back
to Medina. Hazrat Talha (r.a) and Zubayr (r.a) were killed in the battle
when they withdrew from the battlefield refusing to fight against
Muslims.
(10) Following this dark episode of Islamic history, another cry for
revenge for the blood of Caliph Othman (r.a) arose. This time it was by
Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah, kinsmen of Caliph Othman (r.a) and governor
of province of Syria. Some of the historians even regard this move as
an attempt of assuming the caliphate by Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah than
to take revenge for the murder. Caliph Ali (r.a) fought against Hazrat
Ameer Muawiyah at the Battle of Siffin to a stalemate and then lost
a controversial arbitration that confronted him with his own
mutinous soldiers (the first Kharijites).
(11) Caliph Ali (r.a) was assassinated in the Mosque of Kufa in
661, by a relative of one of the rebel soldiers who was defeated
and then killed by Caliph Ali (r.a). His last words were "The Lord of
the Ka'bah, I have succeeded”. His son Hazrat Hassan (r.a), the
grandson of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), briefly assumed the
caliphate, but soon realized that he could not prevail. He came to an
agreement with Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah, of which various accounts
are given. Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah assumed control of the empire
and founded the Umayyad Dynasty, with it the Rashidun Caliphate
dismantled in 661.
 29

(12) Military Expansion Under Rashidun Caliphate

(a) Rashidun Caliphate was the time of great military
expansion and with that the expansion of the faith. Muslim army
maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess,
organization along with motivation and self initiative of the officer
corps. For much of its history this army was one of the most
powerful and effective military forces in all of region. The rule of
caliphate expanded gradually and within a time span of 24 years
of conquest a vast territory was occupied by the Muslims.
(b) Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a) sent his most brilliant general
Hazrat Khalid ibn Walid to conquer Iraq, the richest province of
Persian Empire in 633. After completing the conquest of Iraq, he
was transferred to the Syrian front in 634 for a decisive operation
there.
(c) Caliph Omar (r.a) pressed into the Sassanid Persian
Empire itself, but he also headed north into Syria and Byzantine
territory and west into Egypt. These were some of the most
powerful states of the time. Muslim armies easily prevailed in
war. Jerusalem was seized in 637 and by 640, the conquest had
brought all of Iraq, Syria and Palestine under the control of
Rashidun Caliphate. Egypt was conquered by 642 and the entire
Persian Empire by 643. Arab trade with sub-Saharan Africa led
to a gradual spread into Africa that led to a small number of
West African cities developing Arab quarters.
(d) Despite internal troubles, Caliph Othman (r.a) continued
the wars of conquest so brilliantly carried out by his predecessor.
The Rashidun army conquered North Africa from the Byzantines
and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the
Iberian peninsula, as well as the islands of Rhodes, Sicily and
Cyprus. Its eastern frontiers reaching the lower Indus river in the
Indian subcontinent and western frontiers reaching up to the
Atlantic Ocean, the caliphate controlled the Middle East, North
Africa, Transoxiana (Central Asia), the Caucasus (Chechnya),
most of Anatolia (Turkey), the whole of the Sassanid Persian
 30

Empire, the Greater Khorasan (the region now shared by

Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan), number of islands in
Mediterranean Sea and Baluchistan.
(e) During the civil war under Caliph Ali (r.a), large sections of
the new empire created during the conquests of 24 years (632-
656) were lost. Sicily, North Africa, coastal areas of Spain and
some forts in Anatolia were lost to the Byzantine Empire, which
to some extent allowed the empire to recover.
(13) Legacy of Rashidun Caliphate
(a) Rashidun Caliphate offered a true manifestation of Islamic
rule. With regards to political administration, Dar al-Islamiyyah
(The abode of Islam) was already laid down in the days of the
Prophet. Caliph Abu Bakr (r.a) stated in his sermon when he was
elected "If I order any thing that would go against the order
of Allah (s.w.t) and his Messenger (P.B.U.H); then do not
obey me". This is considered to be the foundation stone of the
caliphate.
(b) Most significant characteristic of the Rashidun
Caliphate was just treatment of the non-Muslims. The non-
Muslims were given entire freedom to follow their own religions
and there has been no mention in history about forced
conversions to Islam. Caliph Omar (r.a) was the first caliph to
provide allowance to non-Muslims after they reached old age.
The very first non-Muslim to receive pension from the
Rashidun Administration was a Jew. This is how non-Muslims
were being given relief from Jizya, though Jizya was not
abolished. Caliph Omar (r.a), with brilliant and dazzling
administrative qualities, could establish the most of the
administrative structure of the empire. Twelve provinces and
over 100 districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were
administered by a Governor or Wali, who was in most cases the
Commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province.
General instructions from Caliph Omar (r.a) to his officers were:
"Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and
 31

tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead,

so that the people may follow your example. Give the
Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become
abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the
error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces,
lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And
do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is
tyranny over them."
(c) The state was on its way to economic prosperity,
therefore Caliph Omar (r.a) treated the officers very strictly so as
to prevent the possible greed of money that may lead them to
corruption. The principal officers were required to come to
Makkah on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were
free to present any complaint against them. Caliph Omer (r.a)
also established a department of accountability to
investigation of the complaints against the officers of the
State. Window for impeachment of the ruler was also kept open.
In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Caliph Omar (r.a)
made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff.
(d) In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the
people, an effective system of judicial administration was set up;
hereunder justice was administered according to the
principles of Islam. Caliph Omar (r.a) was the first ruler in
history to separate judiciary from the executive. High
salaries were fixed for the Qazis so that there was no temptation
to bribery. Men of high social status were appointed as Qazis so
that they might not have the temptation to take bribes, or be
influenced by the social position of any body.
(e) Institutes of Majlis-e-Shura (Parliament) for
consultation on decision making and Bait-ul-Maal to deal
with the revenues and all other economical matters of the state
were also established and successfully functioned during the
caliphate. System of allowances was also introduced by Caliph
 32

Omar (r.a) for the family of Prophet Mohammad (p.b.u.h) and

other Muslims according to their merit with reference to Islam.
(f) Caliph Othman's (r.a) greatest and most lasting
achievement was the completion of formal rescension of the
Holy Qur'an. Until that time, the Holy Qur'an was largely an oral
text that was recited by followers who had memorized it. It is this
definitive version which became the central text of Islam and the
bedrock on which all Islamic history would be built.
(g) Caliph Ali (r.a) is respected for his courage, knowledge,
belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to the
Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h), equal treatment of all Muslims
and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies. Moreover,
Caliph Ali (r.a) holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders
which trace their lineage through him to the Prophet Muhammad
(p.b.u.h). Caliph Ali (r.a) retains his stature as an authority on
Quranic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.
c. Umayyad Dynasty (661 – 750)
(1) According to tradition, the Umayyad family and Prophet
Muhammad (p.b.u.h) both descended from a common ancestor, Abd
Manaf ibn Qusai and they are originally from the city of Makkah.
Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) descended from Abd Manaf via his son
Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different
son, Abd-Shams, whose son was Umayya. The two families are
therefore considered to be different clans of Quraish Tribe.
(2) While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had
bitterness between the two clans before Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h),
the rivalry turned into a severe case of tribal animosity after the Battle
of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Ummayyad clan (Utba
ibn Rabi'ah, Walid ibn Utba and Shaybah) killed by Hashimites, namely
Hazrat Ali (r.a), Hazrat Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib (r.a) and Hazrat
Ubaydah (r.a) in a three-on-three melee. This fueled the opposition of
Abu Sufyan, the grandson of Umayya, to Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h)
and to Islam. However, on the eve of the conquest of Makkah and
impressed by Prophet Mohammad’s (p.b.u.h) show of magnanimity,
 33

Abu Sufyan embraced Islam and so did his wife Hind and their son
Muawiyah. The conquest of Makkah while overwhelming for the
Umayyads for the time being, further fueled their hatred towards the
Hashimites; the reflection of which could also be seen in battle between
Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah and Caliph Ali (r.a), another battle between
Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah with Caliph Ali’s (r.a) son Hazrat Hassan (r.a)
and then killing of Hazrat Hussain Ibn Ali (r.a) along with his
companions on the orders of Yazid Ibn Muawiyah at the battle of
Karbala. Shia Muslims hold this tribal rivalry to be one of the main
reasons for the divide.
(3) After the assassination of Caliph Ali (r.a) in 661, Hazrat Ameer
Muawiyah marched to Kufa, where he persuaded a number of Caliph
Ali's (r.a) supporters to acclaim him as caliph instead of Caliph Ali's (r.a)
son, Hazrat Hassan (r.a). Following his elevation as a result of a truce
with Hazrat Hassan (r.a), Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah moved the capital
to Damascus (Syria) which remained the base of Umayyad power
until the end of the dynasty in 750. However, this dynasty became
reborn in Cordoba (Andalus or today's Iberian Peninsula i.e. Portugal
and Spain) in the form of an emirate and then a caliphate, lasting until
early 11th century. Muslim rule in Iberia, however, continued in several
forms until the 16th century.
(4) Following Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah's death in 680, he was
succeeded by his son, Yazid. The hereditary accession of Yazid was
opposed by a number of prominent Muslims, including Hazrat Husain
(r.a), grandson of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) and younger son of
Caliph Ali (r.a). The resulting conflict is known as the Second Fitna
in the history of Islam. While Hazrat Ibn al-Zubayr (r.a) decided to
defend the strongholds of Makkah and Medina, Hazrat Husain (r.a)
decided to travel on to Kufa to rally support. However, on the
instructions of Yazid, a large Umayyad army intercepted and
mercilessly slaughtered Hazrat Husain (r.a), his family members
and companions including women, children and the elderly, at the
Battle of Karbala, in 680. The massacre is mourned by the Shia
Muslims till to date. Following the massacre, Yazid dispatched an army
 34

to suppress Hazrat Ibn al-Zubayr (r.a) and his followers in Makkah and
Medina. The Ka’aba was badly damaged during the protracted siege.
However, Umayyad army was unable to conquer Makkah until 692.
Hazrat Ibn al-Zubayr (r.a) embraced martyrdom in the attack.
(5) In 750, the Abbasides overthrew the Umayyads, but were not
completely annihilated. The remnants of the family ultimately made
their way to Spain where they established an independent emirate.
Later, Umayyad rulers established a caliphate at Andalus from Cordoba
as a rival to Baghdad as the legitimate capital of the Islamic Empire.
(6) Legacy of the Umayyad Dynasty
(a) The Umayyad Dynasty was marked both by territorial
expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that
such expansion created. Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah waged
unceasing war against the Byzantine Empire. During his reign,
Rhodes and Crete were occupied, and several assaults were
launched against Constantinople. Hazrat Ameer Muawiyah also
oversaw military expansion in North Africa and in Central Asia
including the conquest of Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand.
(b) The dynasty continued and successive rulers strengthen
their position across the empire. Abd al-Malik (685-705) is
credited with centralizing the administration of the Umayyad
dynasty, and with establishing Arabic as its official language.
Another major event of the early reign of Abd al-Malik was
the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Al-
Walid succeeded Abd al-Malik; he was also active as a
builder, sponsoring the construction of Masjid al-Nabawi in
Medina and the Great Mosque of Damascus. A major figure
during the reigns of both al-Walid and Abd al-Malik was the
Umayyad governor of Iraq, Hajjaj bin Yusuf (661-714), notorious
for his tough, cruel, draconian or even savage rule. However,
another Umayyad ruler, Omar ibn Abd al-Aziz (717-20), is
commonly recognized by subsequent Islamic tradition as a
genuine caliph and not merely as a worldly king.
 35

(c) In the year 710, Muhammad bin Qasim, an Umayyad

general sailed from the khaleej into Sindh and conquered
both the Sindh and the Punjab regions along the Indus
River. The conquest of Sindh and Punjab were major gains for
the Umayyad Dynasty. This also proved to be the introduction of
Islam in mainland Indian subcontinent, though certain Muslim
quarters already existed in the coastal areas, owing to the
influence of Muslim traders.
(d) Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads
tended to favor the rights of the old Arab families, and in
particular their own, over those of newly converted
Muslims, who often were better educated and more civilized
than their Arab masters. Traditional feud between Syria and
Iraq further weakened the empire. Modern Arab nationalists
regard the period of the Umayyads as part of the Arab Golden
Age which it sought to emulate and restore. This is particularly
true of Syrian nationalists and the present-day state of Syria,
centered like that of the Umayyads on Damascus.
(e) This was the time of Tabi’in, the generation after the
companions of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h). These men of
character and knowledge suffered worst oppression at the hands
of some of the Umayyad Caliphs like Hajjaj bin Yusuf. However,
justice and education began to make a comeback under famous
Umayyad Caliph Omar ibn Abd al-Aziz, during the later years of
the dynasty. Imam Abu Hanifah, (699 - 767) was one of the
most prominent scholar of the time and the founder of the
Sunni Hanafi school of thought. He embarked on a prolific
quest for knowledge that would in due course have a profound
impact on the history of Islam. Imam Abu Hanifah first formulated
the teachings of Islam into Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) for the
generations to come. The Imam studied from some great Muslim
scholars of the time including Hazrat Hammad Bin Abi Suleiman
whose educational linage is linked with Hazrat Abdullah Ibn
 36

Masood (r.a), a prominent companion of Prophet Muhammad

(p.b.u.h). Among other respected teachers, Imam Abu Hanifah
was also tutored by Imam Baqir and Imam Jafar Sadiq, 5th and
6th Imam of Shia Islams, respectively.
d. Abbasid Dynasty (750 – 1258)
(1) The Abbasid rulers descended from Hazrat Abbas ibn Abd al-
Muttalib (566–662), one of the youngest uncles of Prophet Muhammad
(p.b.u.h), because of which they considered themselves as the true
successor of the prophet as opposed to the Umayyads. The Abbasid
revolt was also supported largely by aggrieved Arabs and non-Arab
Muslims, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs
and were perceived of as a lower class within the Umayyad Empire.
The Hashimiyya movement (a Shia sub-sect), led by the Abbasid
family, overthrew the Umayyad Dynasty. Kufa fell to the
Hashimiyya in 749 followed by defeat of the Umayyads and fall of
Damascus to the Abbasids by 750.
(2) Immediately after their victory, the Abbasides sent their forces to
North Africa and Central Asia, to halt the expansion of neighboring
dynasties. After the successful battle in Central Asia, many captive
Chinese craftsmen introduced the world's first recorded paper mill in
Baghdad, thus beginning a new era of intellectual rebirth in the Abbasid
domain. Within 10 years, the Abbasids built another renowned paper
mill in erstwhile Umayyad capital of Cordoba (Spain).
(3) The first change the Abbasids made was to move the empire's
capital from Damascus (Syria) to Baghdad (Iraq). This was to both
appease as well to be closer to the Persian support base that existed in
this region. A new position of the vizier was also established to
delegate central authority, and even greater authority was
delegated to local Ameers. Eventually, this meant that many Abbasid
rulers were relegated to a more ceremonial role than under the
Umayyads, as the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role
of the old Arab aristocracy was slowly replaced by a Persian model.
(4) Once in power, the Abbasids embraced Sunni Islam and
disavowed any support for Shia beliefs. This led to numerous
 37

conflicts, culminating in an uprising in Makkah in 786, followed by

widespread bloodshed and the flight of many Shia Muslims to the
province of Maghreb (Morocco), where the survivors established
an independent kingdom. The Abbasids also executed some of the
direct descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) who were also
the Shia Imams including Imam Jafar Sadiq. Abbasid Caliph Mamun al-
Rashid (born to a Persian mother) tried to reconcile with the Shia
brethren and named Shia Imam Ali Raza, his successor. However,
Imam Ali Raza died in 818, while accompanying Caliph Mamun in
Persia. Shia scholars argue that he was poisoned by Caliph Mamun,
who never wanted the Imam to outlive him to be his successor.
(5) By the start of the 9th century, former supporters of the Abbasids
started to brake away to create a separate kingdom around Khorasan
(Persia). Caliph Harun al-Rashid turned against Barmakids, a Persian
family that had grown significantly in power within the administration of
the state, and killed most of the family. But the Abbasids continued to
lose control of Iraq to various Ameers. Outside Iraq, all the autonomous
provinces slowly took on the characteristic of de facto states with
hereditary rulers, armies and revenues, and operated under only
nominal dynastic control. The dynasty further weakened with the loss of
the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political
domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks
(1055–1135). In 1058, The Ismaili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested
the Abbasids for even the titular authority of the Islamic Ummah. The
Abbasids only maintained the presence of authority, mostly confined to
religious matters, under the Mamluks; an army, mostly from Turkish
slaves, created by the Abbasids in order to be loyal only to their
dynasty.
(6) By the mid of 12th century, the Abbasid Dynasty made its come
back to regain the full military independence of the dynasty. After nearly
250 years of subjection to foreign dynasties, they successfully
defended Baghdad against the Seljuks, thus securing Iraq for the
Abbasids. Nevertheless, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized
court in Baghdad and the city remained one of the cultural and
 38

commercial hubs of the Islamic world until 1258, when it was

sacked by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan during the sack and
subsequent destruction of Baghdad. The Abbasside dynasty finally
ended its ceremonial role in 1543.
(7) Legacy of Abbasside Dynasty
(a) In the era of Caliph Harun al-Rashid (786–809) and his
brothers and successors Mamun (813–833) and Mutasim (833–
842), Arab Muslims saw their golden age. They studied
astronomy, alchemy, medicine and mathematics with such
success that, during the 9th and 10th centuries, more scientific
discoveries had been achieved in the Abbasid Empire than in
any previous period of history. During this period the Muslim
world became the unrivaled intellectual center for science,
philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids
championed the cause of knowledge and established the House
of Wisdom in Baghdad; where both Muslim and non-Muslim
scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge
into Arabic. During this period the Muslim World was a cauldron
of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly
advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Roman,
Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and
Byzantine civilizations.
(b) These recovered mathematical methods were later
enhanced and developed much further by other Islamic scholars,
notably by Persian scientists Al-Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur.
Algebra was also pioneered by Persian Scientist, Muhammad
ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi during this time in his landmark text,
Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala. The terms algorism and algorithm
are also derived from the name of al-Khwarizmi. Ibn al-Haytham
(Alhazen) developed an early scientific method in his Book of
Optics. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics,
especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of
light. The most important development of the scientific method
was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing
 39

scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation,

which began among Muslim scientists.
(c) Medicine in medieval Islam was an area of science that
advanced particularly during the Abbasids' reign. During the 9th
century, Baghdad housed over 800 doctors, and great
discoveries in the understanding of anatomy and diseases were
made. The clinical distinction between measles and smallpox
was discovered during this time. Famous Persian scientist Ibn
Sina (known to the west as Avicenna) produced treatises and
works that summarized the vast amount of knowledge that
scientists had accumulated, and is often known as the father of
modern medicine for his encyclopedias. The work of him and
many others directly influenced the research of European
scientists during the Renaissance and even later. Muslim
chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the
foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars regard Muslim
chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Jabir ibn
Hayyan (Geber) is considered the "father of chemistry".
(d) Astronomy in medieval Islam was advanced by Al-Battani,
who improved the precision of the measurement of the
precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the
geocentric model by Al-Battani, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi,
Moayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into
the Copernican heliocentric model.
(e) Philosophy and literature also prospered during this time.
Muslim philosophers’ works on Aristotle was a key step in the
transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Muslim
World and the West. They often corrected the philosopher,
encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of Ijtihad. They also
wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking
was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle
Ages. Three speculative thinkers, Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, and
Avicenna, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with
other ideas introduced through Islam, and Avicennism was
 40

later established as the outcome. Other influential Muslim

philosophers include Al-Jahiz, a pioneer in evolutionary thought,
and Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhacen), a pioneer of phenomenology and
the philosophy of science.
(f) Metaphysics so developed from Avicennism, gave rise to
Sufism, defined as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. Hazrat
Junaid Baghdadi (830-910) was one of the great early Muslim
Sufis and is a central figure in the chain of many Sufi orders.
Hazrat Rabia Basri (717–801) was a female Muslim Sufi who is
also known in Sufi orders as Half-Qalander. Mansur Al-Hallaj
(858–922), another Muslim Sufi, was executed after a long
drawn-out investigation against his proclamation of Anal-Haqq (I
am The Truth).
(g) Knowledge of Fiqh and Hadees also flourished during this
time. Abbasid Caliph Mansur offered Imam Abu Hanifah the post
of Chief Judge of the State, but he declined to accept the offer.
Imam Abu Hanifah was imprisoned as a result where he died in
767. It was said that so many people attended his funeral that
the funeral service was repeated six times for more than 50,000
people who had amassed before he was actually buried.
Muslims of Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Central
Asia, the Muslim areas of Southern Russia, the Caucasus, most
of the Muslim areas of the Balkans and Turkey and parts of Iraq,
all follow this school of jurisprudence. It is also the dominant
school of Muslims in the United Kingdom and Germany.
(h) Imam Abu Hanifah was followed by another three Sunni
Imams during the Abbasid Dynasty. Imam Malik (711 - 795), who
was also tutored, among other accomplished teachers, by Imam
Abu Hanifah's eldest student, Imam Muhammad, founded the
Maliki school of thought. The Maliki school of thought has been
adopted by most North African and West African countries like
Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Nigeria and others except Egypt, Horn
of Africa and Sudan. Also, the Maliki school of thought is the
state Madhhab of Kuwait, Bahrain and the UAE. Imam Malik was
 41

one of the teachers of Imam al-Shafi`i (767 - 820), founder of the

Shafi’i school of thought. Muslims in Indonesia, Lower Egypt,
Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Jordan,
Lebanon, Syria, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Palestine, Yemen and
Kurds in the Kurdish regions follow the Shafi'i school of thought.
Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal (780 - 857), the namesake of the
Hanbali school of thought learned extensively from Imam al-
Shafi'i. This school of jurisprudence is followed predominantly in
the Arabian Peninsula.
(i) On literary side, the most well known fiction from the
Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One
Nights. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian
Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they
appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights.
Various characters from this epic have themselves become
cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad
and Ali Baba. Story of Romeo and Juliet, is said to have been
inspired by a Latin version of Layla and Majnun.
(j) Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until
the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. There was also
a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along
which Muslim countries traded with each other and with
European powers. The famous Silk Route crossing Central Asia
also passed through Muslim states between China and Europe.
Along with trade, came the Muslim knowledge and skilled
manpower to rest of the world, especially to medieval Europe.
First glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11 th century
by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece.
e. Fatimid Dynasty (909 – 1171)
(1) The Fatimid Caliphate was an Arab Shia Muslim Caliphate
centered in Egypt that ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb (Algeria,
Morocco), Sicily, Malta, Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria and the
Arabian Peninsula from 909 to 1171. The Fatimid rulers established
their legitimacy due to their claimed descent from Prophet Muhammad
 42

(p.b.u.h) by way of his daughter Hazrat Fatima (r.a). The Fatimids ruled
from their base in the Tunisian city of Mahdia, before establishing the
Egyptian city of Cairo in 969, which thereafter became their capital.
This constitutes a rare period in history in which some form of the
Shia Imamate and the Caliphate were united to any degree,
excepting the final period of the Rashidun Caliphate under Caliph
Ali (r.a) himself. Fatimid Dynasty was, however, viewed with suspicion
by the orthodox Muslim communities, giving rise to power struggle
among Muslims in Fatimid controlled territories.
(2) The Fatimid Caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of
religious tolerance towards various sects of Islam as well as towards
Jews and Christians. Religious tolerance was set into place in a way
that other branches of Islam including the Sunnis as well as Christians
and Jews occupied high levels in government posts.
(3) Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that
included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the
Red Sea coast of Africa, Hejaz, and Yemen. Egypt flourished, and the
Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the
Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic
ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which
eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High
Middle Ages. Famous Al Azhar University was the first university in
the East and perhaps the oldest in history. It was also founded by
the Fatimids and was one of the highest educational facilities of
the time.
(4) In the 1040s, the governors of North Africa under the Fatimids
declared their independence from the Fatimids and their recognition of
the Sunni Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Subsequently, Fatimid territory
shrank until it consisted only of Egypt. After the decay of the Fatimid
political system in the 1160s, a Seljuk ruler Nur ad-Din Zengi seized
Egypt in 1169. He was succeeded by one of his Kurdish general
Shirkuh, who died two months after taking power, and the rule
went to his nephew, Saladin. This began the Ayyubid Sultanate of
Egypt and Syria. North Africa also changed hands with several Muslim
 43

dynasties till the time they were finally consolidated by the Ottoman
Empire in the following centuries.
(5) Ibn Khaldoun (1332–1406) was a North African polymath -
an astronomer, economist, historian, Islamic jurist, Islamic lawyer,
Islamic scholar, Islamic theologian, hafiz, mathematician, military
strategist, nutritionist, philosopher, social scientist and statesman. He is
considered a forerunner of several social scientific disciplines e.g.
demography, cultural history, historiography, the philosophy of history,
and sociology. He is also considered one of the forerunners of modern
economics, alongside the earlier Indian scholar Chanakya. Ibn Khaldun
is considered by many to be the father of a number of these disciplines,
and of social sciences in general, for anticipating many elements of
these disciplines centuries before they were founded in the West.
f. Establishment of the Ottoman Empire (1299 – 1922)
(1) By 1300, Anatolia (Turkey) was divided into a patchwork of
independent states, the so-called Ghazi emirates. One of the Ghazi
emirates in western Anatolia was led by Ameer Othman (from which the
name Ottoman is derived). In 1299, Othman extended the frontiers
of Ottoman settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire.
He moved the Ottoman capital to Bursa, and shaped the early
political development of the nation. In this period, a formal Ottoman
government was created whose institutions would change drastically
over the life of the empire. The government used the legal entity known
as the millet, under which religious and ethnic minorities were allowed
to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central
control.
(2) Following centuries witnessed Ottoman’s rule extending over the
Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. The Turkish victory at the
Battle of Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian
power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into
Europe. The Ottoman invasions into Europe, widely regarded as the
last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance
of the victorious Ottomans. With the extension of Turkish dominion into
the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial
 44

objective. The Empire controlled nearly all former Byzantine lands

surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when
Tamerlane invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Part of the
Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Macedonia and Kosovo)
were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered between the
1430s and 1450s.
(3) Mohammad the Conqueror (Sultan Mohammad Fateh),
reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his
martial prowess by capturing Constantinople in 1453, at the age of
only 21. He made the city the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, and
assumed the title of Kayser-i Rum. He wanted to gain control over the
Western capital, Rome. Ottoman forces occupied parts of the Italian
peninsula and started with further invasions in 1480 but the campaign
in Italy was cancelled and Ottoman forces retreated after his death in
1481. However, the empire emerged as a preeminent power in
southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. Besides, the
Ottoman Empire took control of the Muslim world and became a great
empire of the time till its breakup in the aftermath of the World War-I.
3. Europe
a. Middle Age. The Middle Ages in Europe are commonly dated from the
fall of the Western Roman Empire in 5th century to the beginning of the Early
Modern Period in 16th century, marked by the rise of nation-states, the
division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the
Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion
which allowed for the Columbian Exchange. The Middle Age witnessed the
first sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Many
modern European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle
Age. Present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of
the military and dynastic achievements during this tumultuous period.
b. Early Middle Age (500 - 1000). The Holy Roman Empire emerged
around 800. The empire based in modern France, the Low Countries and
Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, Lower Saxony and
Spain. To the east, Bulgaria was established in 681 and became the first
Slavic country. In the 10th century, independent kingdoms were established in
 45

Central Europe. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further
growth of feudalism, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire. During this
period, most of Europe was Christianized, and the "Dark Ages" following
the fall of Rome took place. Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire's borders
were also shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion and powerful
Bulgarian Empire. Europe remained a backwater compared to the rising
Muslim world with its vast network of caravan trade, or India with its Golden
Period under the Gupta Empire, and world's most populous empire under the
Song Dynasty or Pratiharas China. London and Paris were small cities while
the Muslim world had over a dozen major cities stretching from Cordoba to
central Asia, with Spain being the world's largest city. It is estimated that in the
years 541–542, the Plague killed as many as 100 million people across the
world, causing Europe's population to drop by half between 541 and 700.
c. High Middle Age (1000 – 1300). The slumber of the Dark Ages was
shaken by renewed crisis in the Church, an insoluble split, between the two
remaining Christian seats in Rome and Constantinople. It is remembered in
history as Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Western
Roman Catholic Church. The 11th, 12th and 13th centuries show a rapidly
increasing population of Europe, which caused great social and political
change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase
greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some
areas until the 19th century. From about the year 1000 onwards, Western
Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically
organized. William the Conqueror, a Duke of Normandy invaded England
in 1066 and created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and
engendered a sophisticated governmental system. Being based on an
island, moreover, England was to develop a powerful navy and trade
relationships that would come to constitute a vast part of the world including
India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many key naval strategic points
like Bermuda, Suez, Hong Kong and especially Gibraltar. These strategic
advantages grew and were to prove decisive in the times to come. The High
Middle Age also witnessed the rise of modern nation-states in Europe
with Christianity adopted by newly created kingdoms. The Roman
Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts
 46

between the Pope and Emperor. The Church also called armies from
across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuk Turks, who had
occupied the Holy Land.
d. Last Middle Age (1300 – 1500). Centuries of European prosperity and
growth came to a halt in around 1300. A series of famines and plagues
reduced the population by as much as half according to some estimates.
Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. France and
England experienced serious peasant risings. To add to the many problems of
the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Great
Schism. Collectively these events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late
Middle Age. The growth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall of
Constantinople in 1453, severed trading possibilities with the east. Europeans
were forced to discover new trading routes, as happened with Columbus’s
travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama’s circumnavigation of
India and Africa in 1498. During the 14th century, the Baltic Sea became one of
the most important trade routes giving rise to prosperous Eastern European
states.
e. Crusades
(1) The Holy Land of Jerusalem is significant for the Muslims,
Christians and Jews alike. The Muslim presence in the Holy Land
began with the initial Muslim conquest of Syria in the 7th century under
the Rashidun Caliphs. The Muslim armies' successes put increasing
pressure on the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire which had
originally claimed the region. However, western attitude changed
towards the holy land in the year 1009, when the Fatimid Caliph Al-
Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy
Sepulcher. Though, his successor, permitted the Byzantine Empire to
rebuild the Church in 1039, but damage was already done.
(2) The origins of the Crusades lie in developments in Western
Europe earlier in the Middle Age, as well as the deteriorating situation
of the Byzantine Empire in the east caused by a new wave of Turkish
Muslim attacks. Recovering from the Dark Ages of 700-1000,
throughout the 11th century Western Europe continued to push the
boundaries of its civilization. Moreover, Christianization of the erstwhile
 47

invaders had produced a large class of armed warriors, whose energies

were misplaced, fighting one another. The Church tried to stem this
violence, which was somewhat successful. But trained warriors
always sought an outlet for their skills.
(3) In 1063, Pope had given his blessing to Iberian Christians in
their wars against the Muslims. Subsequently, Pope honored the calls
for help from the Byzantine Emperors, threatened by the Seljuks. Long
history of losing territories to a religious enemy created a powerful
motive to respond to the Byzantine Emperors’ call for holy war to
defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands starting with
Jerusalem. One of the Byzantine Emperors is reported to have
even sent an envoy to Chinese Song Dynasty, late in the 11th
century, asking for Chinese aid in the fight against the Muslims.
(4) A crusader would, after pronouncing a solemn vow, receive a
cross from the hands of the Pope, and was thenceforth considered a
"soldier of the Church". There was an awakening of intense
Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs, and was
further strengthened by religious propaganda, which advocated
Just War in order to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims. Most
believed that by retaking Jerusalem they would go straight to
heaven after death.
(5) A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades totals nine
during the 11th to 13th centuries. This division is however arbitrary and
excludes many important expeditions from 14th to 17th centuries and
further in the Mediterranean Sea around Malta until their defeat by
Napoleon in 1798.
(a) First Crusade (1095 – 1099). Call for the crusaders
was made in 1095 and in early 1096, the official crusader armies
set off from France and Italy. The armies besieged and cleared
the Muslim strongholds en-route followed by massacre of the
Muslim inhabitants, destruction of mosques and looting of
the cities. The starving and badly depleted crusader army
marched southward, reaching the walls of Jerusalem in 1099.
The Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem
 48

against the invading Franks. They remained unsuccessful

and the crusaders entered the city. After gaining control of
Jerusalem the Crusaders created four Crusader States in the
occupied cities. Initially, Muslims did very little about the
Crusader states due to internal conflicts. They could however,
withstand another wave of the Crusaders in 1101. Eventually,
the Muslims began to reunite under the leadership of Imad
al-Din Zangi. He began by re-taking one of the Crusader
States in 1144. This led the Pope to call for a second
Crusade.
(b) Second Crusade (1147 – 1149). The Crusaders
marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to win any major
victories. Christian army launched a failed pre-emptive siege of
Damascus, an independent city that would soon fall into the
hands of Nur ad-Din Zangi, the main enemy of the Crusaders.
(c) Rise of Saladin. Saladin laid the foundation of the
Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt and Syria in 1169. Towards the end
of 1169, Saladin defeated a massive Crusader-Byzantine force.
After establishing himself in Egypt, Saladin launched a campaign
against the Crusaders. He captured Gaza, built a fleet to attack
Beirut in 1182 and twice besieged Raynald's fortress after he
threatened to attack the Muslim holy cities and reportedly
insulted Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h) before murdering and
torturing a captured Muslim caravan. In 1187 Saladin captured
the Kingdom of Jerusalem after nearly a century under
Christian rule. Upon the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin
summoned the Jews and permitted them to resettle in the
city. Saladin captured Raynald and executed him personally. He
spared the civilians and for the most part left churches and
shrines untouched. Saladin is remembered respectfully in
both European and Islamic sources as a man who always
stuck to his promise and was loyal.
(d) Third Crusade (1187 – 1192). The reports of Saladin's
victories and fall of Jerusalem shocked Europe, prompting the
 49

Third Crusade which was financed in England by (Richard the

Lionhearted). Before his arrival in the Holy Land, Richard
captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191.
Cyprus would serve as a Crusader base for centuries to
come, and would remain in Western European hands until the
Ottoman Empire conquered the island in 1571. Richard the
Lionhearted defeated the Muslim armies at number of fronts
but when they reached very close to Jerusalem, Richard thought
he would not be able to hold Jerusalem, if captured, as the
majority of Crusaders would then return to Europe. Richard left
the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin.
(e) Fourth Crusade (1202 – 1204). The Fourth Crusade was
initiated in 1202 with the intention of invading the Holy Land
through Egypt. The Crusader army was however, redirected to
Constantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile
on the throne. The Crusaders sacked the city in 1204 and
established the so-called Latin Empire. Series of Crusader states
were also established in the territories of the Greek Byzantine
Empire. This is often seen as the final breaking point of the
Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and
(Western) Roman Catholic Church. In 1212, Pope incited
children to replace their unworthy elders. Thousands of children
from France and Germany marched towards the Holy Land but
none of them actually reached there.
(f) Fifth Crusade (1217 – 1221). By processions, prayers,
and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade
afoot, and formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. In
the first phase, a crusading force from Austria and Hungary
linked up to take back Jerusalem. In the second phase, crusader
progressed towards Egypt and launched a foolhardy attack on
Cairo in 1221. A night-time attack by the ruler of Egypt, the
powerful Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil, resulted in a great number of
crusader losses and eventually in the surrender of the Christian
army. During 1219, Saint Francis of Assisi crossed the battle
 50

lines, in order to speak to Al-Kamil. Sultan was impressed by

Francis and was given safe passage. Although he was offered
many gifts, all he accepted was a horn for calling the faithful to
prayer. This act eventually led to the establishment of the
Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. Al-Kamil agreed to an
eight-year peace agreement with Europe.
(g) Sixth Crusade (1228 – 1229). Emperor Frederick of the
Holy Roman Empire had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed
to live up to his words. He nonetheless achieved unexpected
success through diplomacy. In 1229, after failing to conquer
Egypt, Frederick made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil, the ruler of
Egypt. This treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of
Jerusalem, while the Muslims were given control of the
Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa mosque. Many of the
Muslims though were not happy with Al-Kamil for giving up
control of Jerusalem and in 1244, the Muslims regained
control of the city.
(h) Seventh Crusade (1248 – 1254). Capture of Jerusalem
provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as against the fall of
Jerusalem in 1187. There was however, a pressing requirement
for securing Western European control of the Red Sea trade
region, which was not possible without neutralizing the power
base of Egypt. Another crusade was organized against Egypt
from 1248 to 1254, which proved to be a complete failure. In
later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian Mamluks, the
Crusaders' hopes rested with a Franco-Mongol alliance as
Mongols were thought to be sympathetic to Christianity.
Although the Mongols successfully attacked as far south as
Damascus on these campaigns, the ability to effectively
coordinate with Crusaders from the west was repeatedly
frustrated during 1260.
(i) Eighth Crusade (1270). The eighth Crusade was
organized in 1270. Battle plan of seventh Crusade was repeated
with no change with regards to its end.
 51

(j) Ninth Crusade (1271 – 1272). King Edward of England

undertook another expedition against the Muslim army in 1271.
The Ninth Crusade was deemed a failure, too and ended the
Crusades in the Middle East. The Mamluks eventually made
good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the
Franks. With a string of victories, last traces of Christian rule in
the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean Region) disappeared by
the end of 13th century.
(k) Aftermath of Crusades. Spirit of crusades was
optimized by the Pope to battle Mongols and Ottoman Empire,
but to no gain. Critiques argue that the Crusades were not
effective because, the Holy War was nothing more than a
long act of intolerance in the name of God. However, the
Crusades had an enormous influence on the European Middle
Ages. Initially, much of the continent was united under a
powerful Papacy, but by the 14th century, the development of
centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern nation-
state) was well on its way. Although Europe had been exposed
to Islamic culture for centuries through contacts in Spain and
Sicily, much knowledge in areas such as science, medicine,
and architecture was transferred from the Islamic to the
western world during the crusade era. Arab advances made
their way west and sped the course of advancement in European
universities that led to the Renaissance in later centuries. In
addition, the Crusades are seen as having opened up
European culture to the world, especially Asia. The need to
raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of
trade throughout Europe and later re-establishing traffic between
the East and West. This also aided in the beginning of the
Renaissance in Italy, as various Italian city-states from the very
beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the
crusader states. Later, these routes were once again dominated
by the Muslim empire during 14th and 15th century.
 52

4. Indian Subcontinent. This was the period of Muslim rule in India.

Sporadic princely Hindu states existed during this time but no significant part was
played by the Hindus during this time. Most of Hindu dominions declined with the
rising Muslim Sultanate, except for Marathas who were subsequently sorted out by
Ahmed Shah Abdali in third Battle of Panipat.
a. Hindu Kingdoms - The Classical Age. The Classical Age in India
began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the north during Harsha's
conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagar
Empire (South India) in the 13th century. This period produced some of India's
finest art. It is also considered the epitome of classical development including
the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which
continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. After the collapse of the
Gupta dynasty, King Harsha succeeded in reuniting northern India during his
reign in the 7th century. Harsha kingdom also collapsed after his death. Later,
a series of Rajput kingdoms managed to survive in some form for almost a
millennium until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded
Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century. Prithvi Raj Chauhan
was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic Sultanates. The
Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian Subcontinent, parts of
the Sri Lanka, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Southeast Asia. The
Kabul Shahi Dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan,
and Kashmir from the mid 7th century to the early 11th century. By 1343, all
these dynasties had ceased to exist, giving rise to the Vijayanagar Empire.
The ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, with the
Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. The Hindu
Vijayanagar Dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rulers of South India
(Deccan) and was eventually declined due to pressure from the Delhi
Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north by that
time.
b. Advent of Islam in Indian Subcontinent
(1) Rashidun Caliphate. Participation of armies from Sindh
fighting alongside the Persians in battles against the Muslim armies,
pirate raids on Arab shipping and power flux in Punjab and Sindh
exerted a pull on the Muslim armies to gain a foothold in the area.
 53

During Rashidun Caliphate, significant conquests were made in

north western and south western subcontinent (now Pakistan), as
an extension of Islamic conquest of Persia in 643. Islamic forces first
entered Sind and Baluchistan during the reign of Caliph Omar (r.a) in
644, when the Muslim army defeated a Hindu king, along the western
banks of Indus River. This was the time Caliph Omar (r.a) went on
consolidating his already overstretched rule before conquering more
land. Muslim conquests across Oxus River in Central Asia and North
Africa were also ceased for the time being. The whole of what is now
Baluchistan province of Pakistan was under the rule of Rashidun
Caliphate except for the well defended mountain town of QaiQan (now
Kalat), which was conquered during Caliph Ali’s (r.a) reign. The region
saw many revolts followed by a recapture by locals. Muslim forces
ultimately re-gained the control of the area during the Umayyads’ reign
and continued to be the part of Abbasid Empire.
(2) Muhammad bin Qasim. In 711, the Umayyad Caliph in
Damascus sent two punitive expeditions in response to raids carried
out by pirates on Arab shipping, operating around Debal. After the
failure of both the expeditions, another expedition was led by a 17
year old Arab chieftain named Muhammad bin Qasim. Bin Qasim's
armies defeated Raja Dahir at what is now Hyderabad in Sind in
712. The expedition went as far North as Multan, then called the "City
of Gold". He then proceeded to subdue the lands from Karachi to
Multan with an initial force of only six thousand Syrian tribesmen. Soon
he was called back leaving a weak control of his newly established rule
in the region. Ismaili missionaries found a receptive audience among
both the Sunni and non-Muslim populations and in 985, a group around
Multan declared themselves an independent Ismaili Fatimid State.
From this period, the conquered area was divided into two parts:
the Northern region comprising the Punjab remained under the
control of Hindu Rajas, while the Southern coastal areas
comprising of Baluchistan, Sind and Multan came under Muslim
control.
 54

(3) Muslim Sufis. Along with the Muslim invaders came some
great Muslim Sufis, contributing a great deal in the spread of Islam in
the Indian Subcontinent. There was a mass conversion to Islam,
especially amongst the Buddhist majority. Some of the prominent Sufis
who influenced the local population were Hazrat Ali Hijveri (90-1070),
Hazrat Khawaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti Ajmeri (1141-1230), Hazrat
Khawaja Bakhtyar Kaki (1173-1235) and Hazrat Baba Farid Gunj
Shakar (1188-1280). Teachings of Ghaus-e-Azam, Hazrat Abdul Qadir
Jilani (1077–1166) also inspired the newly converted Muslims of India.
(4) Mahmud Ghaznavi. Mahmud Ghaznavi ascended the
throne of the Muslim Ghaznavid State (Afghanistan) in 998 and found
itself in conflict with Hindu Rajas. In the early 11th century, Mahmud
launched seventeen expeditions into the Indian sub-continent. In
1001, he reached till Peshawar and, in 1005, made it the center for his
forces. The Ghaznavid conquests were initially directed against the
Ismaili Fatimids in on-going struggle of the Abbasid Caliphate
elsewhere. However, once this aim was accomplished, he turned
against Hindu states. Ghaznavi raided every second year after 1005
and by 1027, had defeated most of Northern India and obtained formal
recognition of Ghazni's sovereignty from the Abbasid Caliphate.
Desecrating and damaging of indigenous temples was also a part of the
conquest by Ghaznavi. Ghaznavid rule in North India lasted over 175
years (1010 to 1187). It was during this period that Lahore assumed
considerable importance apart from being the second capital, and later
the only capital of the Ghaznavid Empire. At the end of his reign,
Mahmud's Empire extended from Kurdistan in the west to Samarkand
in the Northeast, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna. Although
his raids carried his forces across Northern and Western India, only
Punjab came under his permanent rule whereas rest of the dominions
remained under the control of the local Rajput dynasties.
(5) Muhammad Ghori. Muhammad Ghori, a Turkic-Afghan
conqueror from the region of Ghor (Afghanistan) was made governor of
Ghazni after overpowering the Ghaznavid Empire in 1173. In 1186-87
he conquered Lahore in alliance with a local Hindu ruler, and seemed
 55

to be the first Muslim ruler seriously interested in expanding his domain

in the sub-continent. Like his predecessor Mahmud, he started off
against the Ismaili Fatimids and then onto booty and power. In 1191, he
invaded the territory of Prithvi Raj of Ajmer, who ruled much of present-
day Rajasthan and Haryana, but was defeated. Finally Muhammad
assembled 120,000 horsemen and once again invaded the Kingdom of
Ajmer. He defeated Prithvi Raj and advanced onto Delhi. Within a year,
Muhammad controlled Northern Rajasthan and Northern Ganges-
Yamuna Doab. Muhammad established his capital in Delhi,
incorporated Multan into his empire and by 1200, his armies reached
up to Bengal. Upon his death his most capable general, Qutb-ud-din
Aybak took control of Muhammad's Indian conquests and
declared himself the first Sultan of Delhi.
(6) The Delhi Sultanate. Mamluks, Muhammad Ghori's
successors established the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.
Mamluk means "slave" and referred to the army of Turkic slave
soldiers, created by the Abbasids in 9th century in order to be loyal only
to their dynasty. The territory controlled by the Muslim rulers in Delhi
expanded rapidly. By mid of 13th century, Bengal and much of central
India was under the Delhi Sultanate. Several Turko-Afghan dynasties
ruled from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211–1290), the Khilji (1290–1320),
the Tughlaq (1320–1413), the Syed (1414–51), and the Lodhi
(1451–1526). Muslim Kings extended their domains into Southern
India, the kingdom of Vijayanagar resisted until falling to the Deccan
Sultanate in 1565. The Sultans of Delhi enjoyed cordial, if superficial,
relations with Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no
allegiance. They based their laws on the Quran and the Islamic Shariah
and permitted non-Muslim subjects to practice their religion only if they
paid the jizya. Perhaps the most significant contribution of the Sultanate
was its temporary success in insulating the subcontinent from the
potential devastation of the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the
13th century, which nonetheless led to the capture of Afghanistan and
western Pakistan by the Mongols. The Sultanate suffered significantly
from the sacking of Delhi in 1398 by Timur, but revived briefly under the
 56

Lodi Dynasty, the final dynasty of the Sultanate before it was

conquered by Zahiruddin Babur in 1526 to lay the foundation of great
Mughal Empire.
(7) Timurids. Timur, known in the west as Tamerlane, was a 14th
century warlord of Turko-Mongol descent and founder of the Timurid
dynasty (1370–1405) in Central Asia. Informed about civil war in the
Indian subcontinent, Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade
Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. His campaign was
politically pretexted that the Muslim Delhi Sultanate was too
tolerant toward its Hindu subjects, but that could not mask the
real reason being to amass the wealth of the Delhi Sultanate. Timur
crossed the Indus River at Attock. Clearing the pockets of resistance,
Timur was able to continue his relentless approach to Delhi, arriving in
1398 to combat the Tughlaq army which was already weakened due to
an internal battle for ascension within the royal family. Timur entered
Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins. Reportedly,
Timur executed more than 100,000 captives before the battle for Delhi.
Timur left Delhi in 1399 and took away with him immense quantities of
spoils to erect a mosque at Samarkand.
(8) Impact of Islam and Muslims in India
(a) Islam's impact was the most notable in the expansion of
trade. A significant aspect of the Muslim period in world history
was the emergence of Islamic Shariah Courts capable of
imposing a common commercial and legal system that
extended from Morocco in the West to Mongolia in the North
East and Indonesia in the South East.
(b) While southern India was already in trade with the Muslim
world, northern India found new opportunities. Sher Shah Suri
took initiatives in improvement of trade by abolishing all
taxes which hindered progress of free trade. He built large
networks of roads and constructed Grand Trunk Road
(1540–1544), which connected Calcutta to Kabul.
(c) Muslim rulers promoted a system in which there was a
revolving door between the clergy, the administrative nobility and
 57

the mercantile classes. This led world trade to expand to the

maximum extent possible in the medieval world. Travels of
explorer Muhammad Ibn-Abdullah Ibn-Batuta were eased
because of this system. He served as an Imam in Delhi, as a
judicial official in Maldives, and as an envoy and trader in
Malabar. There was never a contradiction in any of his positions
because each of these roles complemented the other.
(d) Muslim rule ushered in a period of Indian cultural
renaissance and saw a greater urbanization of India and the rise
of many cities and their urban cultures. The languages brought
by Islam were modified by contact with local languages leading
to the creation of several new languages, such as Urdu (literally
meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects),
which uses the modified Arabic script, but with mingling of
Sanskritic Hindi, Persian and Turkish.
c. Rise of Sikhism. With popular acceptance of Islam by the Hindus,
another monotheistic religion emerged in the 15th century on the teachings of
Guru Nanak Dev Ji and ten successive Sikh Gurus (the last one being their
sacred text Guru Granth Sahib Ji). The principal belief of Sikhism is faith in
Waheguru, represented by one God. Sikhism advocates the pursuit of
salvation through disciplined, personal meditation on the name and message
of one God.
 58

PART - 4
EARLY MODERN HISTORY (16TH TO 19TH CENTURY)

1. Europe
a. Early Modern Europe. The Early Modern period spans the
centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, roughly from
the discovery of the New World (Americas) in 1492 to the French Revolution in
1789. The period is characterized by the rise to importance of science and
increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics and the
nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise, beginning in northern
Italian republics. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and
eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism and
the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Protestant
Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) between the
Protestants and the Catholics, European witch-hunt (1480 to 1700) and
colonization of the Americas.
b. Renaissance. The Renaissance was a cultural movement that
profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period.
Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north and west during a cultural lag of
some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art,
politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry. In
the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was
reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was
a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. The Renaissance
was a new age where learning was very important. The Renaissance was
inspired by the admiration of the Greco-Roman era as a golden age. Many
Roman and Greek texts were already in existence in the European Middle
Ages, while others came from Islamic sources, who had inherited these texts
and knowledge through conquest, even attempting to improve upon some of
them. Important political precedents were also set in this period. Political
thoughts and writings of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), influenced
later absolutism and real-politick. In all, the Renaissance could be viewed
as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular thought, both
through the revival of ideas from antiquity and through novel approaches.
 59

c. Reformation and Enlightenment. During this period

corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the
Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther, a German priest and professor of
theology initiated the Protestant Reformation. His translation of the Bible
into the language of the people (instead of Latin) made it more
accessible, causing a tremendous impact on the church and on German
culture. His hymns influenced the development of singing in churches
and his marriage set a model for the practice of clerical marriage,
allowing Protestant priests to marry. It gained many followers especially
among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of
the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform
movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation, so as to
keep Eastern Europe within the Catholic fold. Still, the Catholic Church was
somewhat weakened by the Reformation. France suffered this fate in the 16 th
century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion.
England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under Elizabeth to a
moderate Anglicanism. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was fought on
the territory of today's Germany, and involved most of the major
European powers. Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and
Catholics, the war lasted for thirty years, but the conflicts that triggered it
continued to be unresolved for a much longer time.
d. Exploration and Conquest. These religious wars did not prevent
European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world,
from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. In the 15th century,
Portugal led the way in geographical exploration along the coast of
Africa in search for a maritime route to India, followed by Spain in the
early 16th century, dividing their exploration of world according to a
treaty in 1494. They were the first states to set up colonies in America and
trading posts (factories) along the shores of Africa and Asia, establishing the
first direct European diplomatic contacts with Southeast Asian states in 1511,
China in 1513 and Japan in 1542. Oceanic explorations were soon followed by
France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and
Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606 and
New Zealand in 1642. Colonial expansion continued in the following centuries.
 60

Spain had control of part of North America and a great deal of Central and
South America, the Caribbean and the Philippines; Britain took the whole of
Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North
America. France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost
to Britain in 1763), Indochina, large parts of Africa and Caribbean islands.
Netherlands gained the East Indies (now Indonesia) and islands in the
Caribbean. Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia.
Later, other powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia also stepped
in and acquired further colonies. This expansion helped the economy of the
countries owning them. Capitalism (through Mercantilism) replaced feudalism
as the principal form of economic organization, at least in the western half of
Europe and expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a Commercial Revolution.
The European countries fought wars that were largely paid for by the money
coming in from the colonies.
e. Peace of Westphalia. The term Peace of Westphalia denotes the
two peace treaties signed by almost all important stakeholders in Europe
during 1648, that ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman
Empire, and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the
Netherlands. Moreover, peace treaty to end the Franco–Spanish War (1635–
59), is considered part of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the European
wars of religion. This allowed the rulers of the Imperial States to
independently decide their religious worship. Protestants and Catholics
were redefined as equal before the law. Also, princes of the Holy Roman
Empire were given equal authority to that of the Emperor, de-centralizing the
government and effectively ending the power of the Holy Roman Empire.
f. European military conflict did not however cease completely, but had
less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced northwest,
the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new
outlook, and the continued spread of literacy created new secular forces
in thought. Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination between
Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. This
period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually
replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies, Russia, Prussia and
Austria. By the turn of the 19th century they became new powers, having
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divided Poland between them, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced
substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively. From 1789 to
1914, Europe witnessed a drastic social, political and economic change
initiated by the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the
Napoleonic Wars, resulting in re-organization of the political map of
Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
g. Industrial Revolution. The period of exploration and conquest
is also noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its
findings to technological improvements, which culminated in the
Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th
and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing,
and transport affected socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain and
subsequently spread throughout Europe and North America and eventually
the world. It started with the mechanization of the textile industries, the
development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal.
Once started it spread with a phenomenal pace. Trade expansion was
enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways.
h. French Political Revolution. French intervention in the American
Revolutionary War had bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at
financial reform, a representative body of the country assembled in the palace
of Versailles in 1789 and declared itself to be a National Assembly and swore
an oath not to dissolve until France had a constitution. At the same time the
people of Paris revolted. Subsequently, the National Convention passed
various laws including the abolition of feudalism and a fundamental change in
the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king agreed to these
changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people, but as anti-
royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king, stripped of
his power, decided to flee along with his family. He was recognized and
brought back to Paris. In 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was
executed. In 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy and
declared France a republic. Convention created the Committee of Public
Safety, that initiated the Reign of Terror, during which up to 40,000 people
were executed in Paris, mainly nobles, and those convicted by the
Revolutionary Tribunal, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Elsewhere in the
 62

country, counter-revolutionary insurrections were brutally suppressed. Finally,

the regime was overthrown in the coup of 1794, setting the precedence
for rest of the Europe.
i. Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon Bonaparte was most successful
general in French revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy
and forcing the Austrians to sue for peace. Bonaparte knew that his naval
power was not yet strong enough to confront the Royal Navy in the English
Channel, thus proposed a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby
undermine Britain's access to its trade interests in India. Bonaparte also
wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with the
ultimate dream of linking up with a Muslim enemy of the British in India,
Tipu Sultan. General Bonaparte and his expedition landed at Alexandria in
1798, and successfully fought against the Mamluks, an old power in the
Middle East. However, British fleet captured and destroyed French vessels
and frustrated Bonaparte's goal of a strengthened French position in the
Mediterranean Sea. In early 1799, he moved the army into the Ottoman
province of Damascus and conquered some important coastal towns followed
by massacre of men, women and children. In 1799, Napoleon returned to
France and overthrew the government, replacing it with the Consulate, in
which he was First Consul. In 1804, after a failed assassination plot, he
crowned himself Emperor. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but
a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria (Third Coalition), forced him
to turn his attention towards the continent. Later, Napoleon defeated a
numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austria's
withdrawal from the coalition and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806,
a Fourth Coalition was set up against Napoleon. Napoleon defeated the
Prussians, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians in 1807. In
1812, he occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian
Army. By 1813, the tide had begun to turn against Napoleon. Having been
defeated by a seven nation army at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, he was
forced to abdicate. Napoleon was exiled to the Island of Elba, but he managed
to escape and returned to France in 1815. He raised an army, but was
comprehensively defeated by a British and Prussian force at the Battle of
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Waterloo in 1815. He was again exiled to the Island of Saint Helena till his
death, reportedly by poisoning him by his captives.
j. Rise of Nationalism. After the defeat of revolutionary France, the
other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. In
1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to
produce a peaceful balance of power among the empires after the Napoleonic
wars. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of
revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply
influenced by the ideals of democracy of the French revolution. Industrial
Revolution brought important economical and social changes, the lower
classes started to be influenced by socialist, communist and anarchistic ideas
and preference of the new capitalists became Liberalism. Further instability
came from the formation of several nationalist movements seeking national
unification and liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between
1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and
independence wars. Even though the revolutionaries were often defeated,
most European states had become constitutional (rather than absolute)
monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy had developed into nation states.
The 19th century also saw the British Empire emerge as the world's first
global power after the Industrial Revolution and victory in the
Napoleonic Wars.
k. Colonial Empires
(1) Colonial empires were the product of the European Age of
Exploration in the 15th century. The initial impulse behind these
dispersed maritime empires and those that followed was trade, driven
by the new ideas and the capitalism that grew out of the European
Renaissance. Agreements were also done to divide the world. Portugal
began establishing the first global trade network and empire from
Brazil, in South America, to several colonies in Africa, in Portuguese
India (Bombay and Goa), in China (Macau), and Oceania (East Timor).
The Spanish Empire had possession of the Netherlands, Luxembourg,
Belgium, most of Italy, parts of Germany, parts of France, and many
colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. With the conquest of inland
Mexico, Peru, and the Philippines in the 16th century, Spain
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established world largest overseas dominion of the time.

Subsequent colonial empires included the French, Dutch, and British
empires. The British Empire consolidated during the 19th century
and became the largest empire in history because of the improved
transportation technologies of the time. At its height, the British Empire
covered a quarter of the Earth's land area and comprised a quarter of
its population. By the 1860s, the Russian Empire, continued as the
Soviet Union, became the largest contiguous state in the world.
The peace would only last until the Ottoman Empire had declined
enough to become a vulnerable target for the others. This led to the
Crimean War (1854), a long-running contest between the major
European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman
Empire. From 1870, Bismarck, Prime Minister, of Prussia,
embarked upon his endeavor for unification of Germany. He
designed the German Empire in 1871, becoming its first
Chancellor. His charismatic diplomatic maneuvers and hegemony on
Europe put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its
relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain, to control the
growing power of Germany. Two opposing sides thus formed in
Europe, improving their military forces and alliances year-by-year.
(2) In the 19th century, all the major European powers had gone
to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout
Europe, resulting by 1900 in a complex network of political and
military alliances throughout the continent. It began with the Holy
Alliance between Prussia, Russia and Austria in 1815. Then, in October
1873, German Chancellor Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three
Emperors between the monarchs of Austria–Hungary, Russia and
Germany. This agreement failed because Austria–Hungary and Russia
could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria–
Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879. This was seen as a method of
countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire
continued to weaken. In 1882, this alliance was expanded to include
Italy in what became the Triple Alliance. By the end of 19th century,
another European conflict was averted largely due to a carefully
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planned network of treaties between the German Empire and the

remainder of Europe orchestrated by Chancellor Bismarck. He
especially worked to hold Russia at Germany's side to avoid a two-front
war with France and Russia. With political changes in Germany,
Bismarck's system of alliances was gradually de-emphasized. Germany
refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1890. It led to
the Franco-Russian Alliance (1892), in order to counteract the force of
the Triple Alliance. Moreover, in 1904, the UK sealed an alliance with
France (Entente Cordiale), and in 1907, the UK and Russia also signed
the Anglo-Russian Convention. This system of interlocking bilateral
agreements formed the Triple Entente among the UK, France and
Russia. Stage was now set for the World War-I.
2. North America
a. Colonial Period. Spanish explorer Christopher Columbus is
credited as the first European to set foot on what would one day become
the US territory when he came to Puerto Rico in 1493. After a period of
exploration by people from various European countries i.e. Spanish, Dutch,
English, French, Swedish, and Portuguese settlements were established in
America. The Spanish sent some settlers, creating the first permanent
European settlement in the continental US at Florida in 1565 and some more
along the California coast. New Netherland was the 17th century Dutch colonial
province on the eastern coast. Its capital, New Amsterdam, was located at the
southern tip of the island of Manhattan and was renamed New York. French
reached America by 1534 and colonized an area called New France,
extending from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Last one to enter the new
land was the British Empire. In 1607, the Virginia Company of London
established the Jamestown Settlement on the James River. America was
named after Americo Vespuccio in 1507, who was the first European to
suggest that the lands newly discovered by Europeans were not India,
but a New World unknown to Europeans.
b. Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that gave
birth to slavery and by a British policy of benign neglect that permitted the
development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders.
These colonies languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in
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the late 17th century and established commercial agriculture, based on

tobacco. Reportedly, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 convicts to its
American colonies during this time. Methodism and Baptism became the
prevalent religions among colonial citizens after the First Great Awakening in
early 18th century, a religious revival led by evangelical Protestants of America
that influenced the whites and the blacks alike.
c. Political Integration and Autonomy. Influence of the main rivals of
the British Crown in the American colonies, the French and North American
Indians, was significantly reduced as a result of French and Indian War (1754–
1763). Following Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America, a
Royal Proclamation was issued in 1763, with the goal of organizing the new
North American empire and stabilizing relations with the native Indians. The
British government felt that the colonies were the primary beneficiaries of their
military presence, and should pay at least a portion of the expense. In 1773,
the colonists protested against the taxes levied by the British government
followed by promulgation of the Coercive Acts, which sparked outrage and
resistance in the Thirteen Colonies. Colonists convened the First Continental
Congress to coordinate their resistance to the Coercive Acts. The Congress
called for a boycott of British trade and petitioned the king for redress of those
grievances. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second
Continental Congress was convened in 1775 to organize the defense of the
colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War.
d. Formation of the United States of America (1776–1789). The
Thirteen Colonies began a rebellion against British rule in 1775 and
proclaimed their independence in 1776. They subsequently constituted the
first thirteen states of the United States of America (USA), which became a
nation state in 1781. The 1783 Treaty of Paris represented the Kingdom of
Great Britain's formal acknowledgment of the US as an independent nation.
The US defeated the UK with help from France, the United Provinces and
Spain in the American Revolutionary War. After the war finally ended in 1783,
there was a period of prosperity, with the entire world at peace. The new
government reflected a radical break from the normative governmental
structures of the time, favoring representative, elective government with a
power-sharing executive, rather than the monarchical structures common
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within the western traditions of the time. The system of republicanism

borrowed heavily from the Enlightenment ideas and classical western
philosophy; primacy was placed upon preserving individual liberty and upon
constraining the power of government through a system of separation of
powers.
e. Early National Era (1789–1848). George Washington, a renowned
hero of the American Revolutionary War and commander-in-chief of the
Continental Army, became the first President of the United States. The major
accomplishments of the Washington Administration were creating a strong
national government that was recognized without question by all Americans. In
1794, USA reestablished good relations with Britain. During 1796, relations
with France deteriorated and USA built up a large army for a French invasion.
However, situation stabilized after a successful peace mission to France. In
1803, USA purchased French settlements on its western borders. Relations
once again deteriorated with the UK and the Congress declared war on Britain
in 1812. The War ended in a draw after bitter fighting that lasted until 1815.
The war was a major loss for Native American tribes in the Northwest and
Southeast who had allied themselves with Britain. In 1830, Congress passed
the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties
that exchanged Native American tribal lands in the eastern states for lands in
the west. The act resulted most notably in the forced migration of several
native tribes to the west, with several thousand people dying en-route. The US
army defeated Mexico in 1848 during the Mexican-American War and ceded
California, New Mexico, and adjacent areas to the USA.
f. American Civil War (1849–1865). After 1840 the abolitionist
movement redefined itself and mobilized its supporters, especially among
religious people in the Northeast affected by the Second Great Awakening.
They proclaimed slave ownership a sin, not just an unfortunate social evil. The
issue of slavery in the new territories was discussed in the Congress and new
rules made during 1850 and 1854. By 1860, there were nearly four million
slaves residing in the US nearly eight times as many from 1790. There
were some slave rebellions in early 19th century but they all failed and led to
tighter slave oversight in the south. After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860
Election, eleven Southern states seceded from the union between late
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1860 and 1861, establishing a new government. This was the beginning of
the American Civil War. Lincoln called on the states to send troops to
recapture forts, protect the capital, and preserve the Union. The two armies
clashed with surprising Union defeat, but more importantly, proved to both the
Union and Confederacy that the war was going be much longer and bloodier
than they had originally anticipated. A protracted war ensued in the east and
the west till 1864, when Lincoln launched the final offensive against
Confederates. The following two years of the war ended up being bloody
for both sides with Union’s victory in 1856. American Civil War is
considered to be the deadliest war in American history. Its legacy includes
ending slavery in the United States, restoring the Union, and
strengthening the role of the federal government. The social, political,
economic and racial issues of the war decisively shaped the reconstruction
era and brought about changes that would eventually help make the country a
united superpower during following century.
g. Gilded Age. Late 19th century is known as the "Gilded Age", when
there had been a dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity.
American industrial production and per capita income exceeded those of all
other world nations and ranked only behind Great Britain. An unprecedented
wave of immigration served both to provide the labor for American industry
and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. More than
22 million people migrated to the United States from 1880 to 1914.
3. South America
a. In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers
of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west,
signed a Treaty and agreed, with the support of the Pope, to divide all the land
outside Europe between the two countries. As accurate measurements were
impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a
Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian.
b. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South
America were repeatedly exploited by the Spanish and later by the
Portuguese. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources
as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases
decimated the native population under Spanish control and therefore African
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slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly

brought in to replace them.
c. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western architectural style to
the continent as well as they helped to improve infrastructures like bridges,
roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered, conquered or
found. They also significantly improved economic and trade relations, not just
between the old and new world but between the different South American
regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and
Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became
united through that of Latin American.
d. The South American possessions of the Spanish Crown won their
independence between 1804 and 1826 in the Spanish American wars of
independence. Venezuela and Argentina were the leaders of the
independence struggle. The two armies finally cornered the Royal Army of the
Spanish Crown and forced its surrender. Portuguese colony of Brazil
proclaimed its independence in 1822. Attempts were made to unify politically
the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent but they rapidly became
independent states without political connections between them. However, a
few countries did not gain independence until the 20 th century e.g. French
Guiana is still a region of France while the Falkland Islands, South Georgia
and South Sandwich Islands remain to be sovereign territory of the UK.
4. Africa
a. Early modern history was the time of classic colonization of the African
continent. Early European expeditions concentrated on colonizing previously
uninhabited islands, or establishing coastal forts as a base for trade. These
forts often developed areas of influence along coastal strips, but the vast
interior of Africa was not colonized and indeed little-known to Europeans until
the 19th century. Later, established empires, notably Britain, Portugal and
France claimed for themselves vast areas of Africa and Asia, and emerging
imperial powers like Italy and Germany did likewise on a smaller scale. The
1885 Berlin Conference, initiated by German Chancellor Bismarck to
establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory,
formalized this "New Imperialism". Between the Franco-Prussian War
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(1870) and the World War-I, Europe added almost one-fifth of the land area of
the globe to its overseas colonial possessions.
b. With regards to administrative styles, the French, the Portuguese, the
Germans and the Belgians exercised a highly centralized type of
administration called 'direct rule. The British, in contrast, sought to rule by
identifying local power holders and encouraging or forcing these to administer
for the British Empire, an indirect rule. All colonial powers exercised significant
attention to the economics of the situation. This included acquisition of land,
enforced labor, introduction of cash crops (even to the neglect of food crops),
halting inter-African trading patterns of pre-colonial times, introduction of
laborers from India and the continuation of Africa as a source of raw materials
for European industry. The continent was not to be developed and
industrialized; it was only to be ruled. Black men were mostly used for slave
trade and to fight for their colonial masters.
5. China
a. The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) succeeded the Ming Dynasty in China
and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing
Dynasty. The Qing emperors adopted the Confucian norms of traditional
Chinese government and created the most complete dictionary of Chinese
characters ever put together at the time. The Qing Dynasty also set up the
"Eight Banners" system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military
organization. The bannermen were prohibited from participating in trade and
manual labor. They were considered a form of nobility and were given
preferential treatment in terms of annual pensions and lands.
b. Direct maritime trade between Europe and China began with the
Portuguese in the 16th century, other European nations soon followed suit.
European traders inserted themselves into the existing Asian maritime intra-
regional trade network, competing with Arab, Chinese, and Japanese traders.
Foreign merchants and traders dealt with low level bureaucrats while the
official contact between China and foreign governments was organized around
the tributary system. Foreign rulers were required to present tribute and
acknowledge the superiority of the imperial court. In return, the emperor
allowed them to trade for short periods of time during their stay within China.
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c. British ships began to appear around the coasts of China from 1635,
without establishing formal relations through the tributary system. Official
British trade was conducted through the auspices of the British East India
Company (BEIC). The BEIC gradually came to dominate Sino-European trade
from its position in India. Following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which
Britain annexed Bengal to its empire, the BEIC pursued a monopoly on
production and export of Indian opium to China. For the next fifty years
opium trade would be the key to the BEIC’s hold on the subcontinent.
d. Low Chinese demand for European goods, and high European demand
for Chinese goods, including tea, silk, and porcelain, forced European
merchants to purchase these goods with silver, the only commodity the
Chinese would accept. In the 18th century, despite ardent protest from the
Qing government, British traders began importing opium from India. Because
of its strong mass appeal and addictive nature, opium was an effective
solution to the trade problem. An instant consumer market for the drug was
secured by the addiction of thousands of Chinese, and the flow of silver was
reversed.
e. The Qing government, seated in Beijing in the north of China, was
unable to halt opium smuggling in the southern provinces. A porous Chinese
border and rampant local demand only encouraged the all-too eager BEIC,
which had its monopoly on opium trade recognized by the British government,
which itself wanted silver. By the 1820s China was importing 900 tons of
Bengali opium annually.
f. The Opium Wars, also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, were
the climax of trade disputes and diplomatic difficulties between China
and the British Empire after China sought to restrict illegal British opium
trafficking. It consisted of the First Opium War (1839 – 1842) and the
Second Opium War (1856 – 1860). China was defeated in both wars leaving
its government having to tolerate the opium trade. Britain forced the Chinese
government to sign some Unequal Treaties, which included provisions for the
opening of additional ports to unrestricted foreign trade and for the cession of
Hong Kong to Britain. Many Chinese found these agreements humiliating and
these sentiments contributed to the rebellion and the downfall of the Qing
Dynasty in 1912, putting an end to dynastic China.
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6. Muslim World. This is the time of decline in the Muslim world. The
Ottoman Empire lost control of their dominion during this time and other Islamic
states persisted weak and dormant. No worthwhile contribution was made by the
Muslims for the world and humanity during this time. This time is sometimes
referred to as period of intellectual holiday in the Muslim world.
a. The Ottoman Empire
(1) Founded in 1299, the Ottoman Empire saw its territorial,
economic, and cultural growth during the15th century followed by an era
of relative military and political stagnation. The Ottoman conquest of
Constantinople in 1453 cemented the status of the empire as the
preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern
Mediterranean. During this time, the Ottoman Empire entered a long
period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into
Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the
discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the
Ottoman navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also
contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with
the Italian city states in the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea, and with
the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. The empire thus
flourished economically and prospered under the rule of a line of
committed and effective sultans.
(2) Sultan Selim (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's
eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid
Persia, established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval
presence on the Red Sea. Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent
(1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing
Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman established Ottoman rule in the territory of
present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. In the
east, the Ottomans took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining
control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. Under
Selim and Suleiman, the Empire became a dominant naval force,
controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea. The exploits of the Ottoman
Admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Ottoman
Navy, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. After
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this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the

Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the
dominant power in the region. France and the Ottoman Empire,
united by mutual opposition to Central Europe, became strong allies
during this period. However, by this time, the Ottoman Empire was a
significant and accepted part of the European political sphere.
(3) As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was
challenged by the growing sea powers of Western Europe, particularly
Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands.
During later half of 16th century, the effective military and
bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under
strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in
spite of these difficulties, the empire remained a major expansionist
power until late 17th century. European states initiated efforts to curb
Ottoman control of overland trade routes. Western European states
began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own
naval routes to Asia.
(4) In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers formed
an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the
Mediterranean Sea. However, Ottomans were able to expand and
consolidate their position in North Africa with a rapidly recovered
Ottoman naval fleet, after attrition by the Catholic powers. On the
battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in
military technology as the innovation which fed the empire's
forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and
intellectual conservatism. Moreover, changes in European military
tactics and weaponry in the military revolution caused infantry to be
equipped with firearms. It proved deadly against the massed infantry in
close formation used by the Ottomans.
(5) The Sultanate of women (1648–1656) was a period in which the
political influence of the Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers
of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This period
gave way to the highly significant Koprulu (1656–1703), during which
effective control of the empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand
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Viziers from the Koprulu family. Fiercely conservative disciplinarian,

they successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's
military impetus. The Koprulu Vizierate saw the conquest of Crete
completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine in 1676.
This period of renewed assertiveness came to an end with Ottomans
defeat at Vienna and 15 years of see-saw warfare in the region without
any gain. In 1699, the belligerents signed a peace which ended the
Great Turkish War and for the first time saw the Ottoman Empire
surrender control of significant European territories. The Empire
had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive,
expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced
from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this
theatre.
(6) Stagnation and Reforms. The 17th century was not simply
an era of stagnation and decline, but also a key period in which
the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new
pressures and new realities, internal and external. During this
period much territory in the Balkans was ceded to Austria. Certain
areas of the empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent,
and later came under the influence of Britain and France. Centralized
authority gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed
by local governors. A series of wars were fought between the
Russian and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century and
the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans. The
long period of Ottoman stagnation is typically characterized by
historians as an era of failed reforms. In the latter part of this period
there were educational and technological reforms, but of no major
significance. The region was peaceful between 1718 and 1730, after
the Ottoman victory against Russia. The Empire began to improve the
fortifications of cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defense against
European expansionism. Other tentative reforms were also enacted
e.g. taxes were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of
the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and
entrepreneurship occurred. Ottoman military reform efforts also began
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in late 18th century, to modernize the army along European lines. These
efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements from
within. During the Tanzimat (Reorganization) period (1839-1876),
series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army,
banking system reforms, and the replacement of guilds with modern
factories. The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called
the Kanun-ı Esasi (Basic Law), promulgated in 1876, and
established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before
the law. A group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily
educated in western universities and reportedly sponsored by the Jews,
believed that a constitutional monarchy would give an answer to the
empire's growing social unrest. Constitutional monarchy was declared
in 1876 but only to be abolished. In nut shell, introduction of
increased cultural rights, civil liberties and a parliamentary system
during the Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the nationalistic
and secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since
the early 19th century.
(7) Beginning of the End. During this period, the empire faced
challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and began to
forge alliances with European powers. During the Crimean War
(1853), the Ottomans fought against the Russian Empire on the side of
the UK and Ireland, the Second French Empire, and the Kingdom of
Sardinia. With the rise of nationalism in Europe during the 19th century,
it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire, too. It was forced to
deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. While this era
was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to
have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.
Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of
national awakening in the Balkans, which started breaking up from
the Ottoman Empire by 1821 and continued till 1860s and 1870s.
Despite the presence of occupying Ottoman soldiers, Bosnia
gained independence and profiting from the civil strife, Austria-
Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The
empire leased Cyprus to the British in 1878 in exchange for the UK's
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favors at the Congress of Berlin (held in 1878 to recognize Balkan

States). In 1882 British forces occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing
order. However, Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces
until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of
World War-I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces
and Cyprus in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa
were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by
France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya
(occupied by Italy in 1912). Economically, the empire had difficulty in
repaying the Ottoman public debt to European banks. By the end of the
19th century, the main reason the empire was not overrun by the
western powers was that they never wanted to disturb a balance of
power in the region.
(8) Legacy of the Ottoman Empire
(a) The Ottoman Empire deliberately pursued a policy of
developing major commercial and industrial centers by making
the productive classes prosperous. They even encouraged and
welcomed migration of the Jews who were suffering
persecution at the hands of Christians in different parts of
Europe.
(b) The economic structure of the Empire was defined by
its geopolitical structure; an economic power that extended
over three continents, dominating all prevalent land and sea
routes. The organization of the treasury and chancery were
developed under the Ottoman Empire and until the 17th century,
they were the leading organization among all their
contemporaries.
(c) With regards to the governance, The "Ottoman dynasty"
was unprecedented and unequaled in the Muslim world for its
size and duration. The rapidly expanding empire used loyal,
skilled subjects to manage the empire, whether Albanians,
Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Bosnians, Hungarians or others.
It revolutionized the administrative system.
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(d) One of the successes of the social structure of the

Ottoman Empire was the unity that it caused among its highly
varied populations through the concept of Millets. It was only rise
of nationalism in 19th century that caused the dissolution of the
empire based on ethnic differentiation (balkanization) and
brought an end to it.
(e) The capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople
also had a unique culture, mainly because before Ottoman
rule it had been the seat of both the Roman and Byzantine
Empires.
(f) The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced
fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets
and cannons. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed
and mobility rather than heavy armor, using bows and short
swords on fast Turcoman and Arabian horses. Ottomans built
the largest naval fleet after those of Britain and France. The
Ottoman Air Force was one of the first combat aviation
organizations in the world with the world's first specialized Air
Reconnaissance Division.
b. Safavid Dynasty
(1) Founded by warlords and military chiefs (Qizilbash, extremist
Shia and mostly Turcoman militant groups) in 1501, one of the unique
aspects of the Safavids in the Muslim Iran was their origin in the Islamic
Sufi order called the Safaviyeh. This uniqueness makes the Safavid
dynasty comparable to the pre-Islamic Sassanid Dynasty, which made
Zoroastrianism into an official religion, and whose founders were from a
priestly class. Safaviyeh order was not originally Shia but it was from
the Shafi’i Sunni Islam. Later, the dynasty transformed from a Sunni
Sufi order into a politico-military grouping espousing a heterodox
version of Shiaism. The Safavid Dynasty was Azerbaijani speaking by
the time of their ascent but they were a mixed ancestry of ethnic
Georgian, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, and Greek lines, hailing from Persian
Kurdistan.
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(2) After the decline of the Timurid Empire (1370–1506), there were
many local states before Shah Ismail of Safavid order established the
Iranian state in 1501. Even Ottoman sultans addressed him as: the king
of Persia. Hamadan fell under his power in 1503, Shiraz and Kerman in
1504, Najaf and Karbala in 1507, Van in 1508, Baghdad in 1509, and
Herat, as well as other parts of Khorasan, in 1510.
(3) By 1511, the Uzbeks in the north-east drove across the Oxus
River where they continued to attack the Safavids. Ismail's decisive
victory over the Uzbeks, who had occupied most of Khorasan, ensured
Iran's eastern borders, and the Uzbeks never since expanded beyond
the Hindukush. But more problematic for the Safavids was the powerful
Ottoman Empire. In 1514, a decisive war was fought between the
Safavid and the Ottoman army, with the Ottomans being victorious.
Later, the Safavid made peace with the Ottomans in 1555 and in 1590,
giving away territory in the north-west, and ultimately retook the area
lost to the Ottomans by 1602.
(4) The Safavids ultimately succeeded in establishing a new Persian
national monarchy. They first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing Herat and
Mashhad in 1598. Then turned against the Ottomans recapturing
Baghdad, eastern Iraq and the Caucasian provinces by 1622. They
also dislodge the Portuguese from Bahrain in 1602 and, with British
help, from Hormuz in 1622. At its zenith, the empire's reach comprised
Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Azerbaijan Republic, Georgia, and parts of
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. The Safavids
expanded commercial links with the English East India Company and
the Dutch East India Company. The Ottoman Turks and Safavids
fought over the fertile plains of Iraq for more than 150 years during
which Baghdad changed hands number of times. Henceforth a treaty
delineated the border between Iran and Turkey in 1639, a border which
still stands in northwest Iran and southeast Turkey. The 150 year tug-
of-war accentuated the Sunni and Shia rift in Iraq that continues
even till to date.
(5) Beginning of the 17th century saw the power of the Qizilbash
decline, the original militia that had helped the Safavid to gain power
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and which had gained many administrative powers over the centuries.
Power was shifting to a new class of merchants, many of them ethnic
Armenians, Georgians and Indians. On the other hand the Safavid had
to face new challenges; Russian influence into the Caucasus
Mountains and Central Asia, expansion of the Mughal Empire of India
into Khorasan with losing financial health as the trade routes between
the East and West had shifted away from Iran.
(6) Reportedly, some Safavid rulers tried to forcibly convert their
Afghan subjects in eastern Iran from Sunni to the Shia sect of Islam. In
response, Ghilzai Pashtun began a rebellion and defeated the Safavid
forces in the 1722. Later, Nadir Shah defeated the Ghilzai forces in the
1729 and removed them from power. In 1738 he conquered their last
stronghold in Qandahar and continued to occupy Ghazni, Kabul,
Lahore, and as far as Delhi in India. However, these cities were later
inherited by one of his military commander, Ahmad Shah Durrani.
(7) Even though Safavids were not the first Shia rulers in Iran, they
played a crucial role in making Shia Islam the official religion in the
whole of Iran. As a result of the Mongol conquest and their relative
religious tolerance, Shia dynasties were re-established in Iran. Despite
the Safavid's Sufi origins, most Sufi groups were prohibited and Iran
became a feudal theocracy. The Shah was held to be the divinely
ordained head of state and religion. In the following centuries, this
religious stance cemented both Iran's internal cohesion and national
feelings and provoked attacks by its Sunni neighbors. It was the
Safavids who made Iran the spiritual bastion of Shiaism against
the onslaughts of Sunni Islam.
7. Indian Subcontinent
a. The Mughal Empire. The Mughals dominated Indian politics from
the 16th century through the 19th century, lasting until the British took colonial
control in 1857. India in the 16th century presented a fragmented picture of
rulers, both Muslim and Hindu, who lacked concern for their subjects and
failed to create a common body of laws or institutions. Outside developments
also played a role in shaping events. Power shift in Central Asia and
Afghanistan, pushed Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan,
 80

southward towards Kabul and then to India. In 1526, Babur, swept across
the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire after his victory in
the First Battle of Panipat. However, his son Humayun was defeated by the
Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in the year 1540, to cause a temporary
disruption to Mughal rule. Akbar's forces defeated Suri’s and their Hindu
allies in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 and restored the Mughal
Empire, which ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for about three centuries.
The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever
existed in India. It went into a slow decline during the 18 th century and was
finally defeated during the 1857 War of Independence. This period marked
vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority was ruled over by
the Muslim Mughal emperors; most of them showed religious tolerance,
liberally patronizing Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, the grandson
of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus and even
compromised some of the basic Islamic principles for the accommodation of
his Hindu subjects. The Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied
themselves with local Maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian
culture with ancient Indian styles. However, later emperors such as
Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance including
imposition of Jizya on non-Muslims and exercising relatively non-pluralistic
policies on the general population that often inflamed the majority Hindu
population. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak
occupied an area similar to the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller
empires rose to fill the power vacuum.
b. Contemporaries of Mughal Empire in India
(1) The Marathas posed the biggest challenge to the Mughals. The
Maratha Kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji and by the
18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire. By 1760,
the empire had stretched across the entire subcontinent. Shah
Waliyullah Dehlvi (1703-1762), an eminent scholar and politically aware
Muslim revivalist, invited Ahmed Shah Abdali from Afghanistan to save
the Muslim rule in India. Maratha Empire was thus brought to an end
after their defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third
Battle of Panipat in 1761.
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(2) Western Punjab was under Sikh rule in the 18th century. Ranjit
Singh was crowned in 1801 only at the age of 18. Gujranwala served
as his capital before it was shifted to Lahore in 1802. Ranjit Singh
quickly expanded his domain and within a very short period, become
the Maharaja of Punjab. He then spent the following years fighting the
Afghans, driving them out of the Punjab. He also captured Pashtun
territory including Peshawar and the Tribal Areas in 1818. This was
the first time that Pashtuns were ruled by Punjabis. He captured the
province of Multan (southern parts of Punjab) followed by Jammu and
Kashmir in 1819. Thus Ranjit Singh put an end to more than a
thousand years of Muslim rule in the region. However, Ranjit Singh's
Empire was secular, none of the subjects were discriminated against on
account of their religions. The Maharaja never forced Sikhism on his
subjects. The Maharaja was succeeded by his son, Khrak Singh in
1939. He however, could not manage the domain and Ranjit Singh's
Empire was defeated in 1845 after the First Anglo-Sikh War. In the
aftermath of the war, the British persuaded Raja Gulab Singh of the
state of Jammu and Kashmir to sell off the state for 75 lakhs rupees.
Later, Hari Singh ascended to power in 1925 and reined the monarch
till the conclusion of British rule in the subcontinent in 1947.
(3) Syed Ahmed (Shaheed), a radical Muslim leader and a disciple
of Shah Waliullah Dehelvi through his son Shah Abdul Aziz, proclaimed
jihad against the Sikhs in the Punjab. Syed Ahmad toured Afghanistan
and the areas occupied by the Sikhs raising the banner of jihad and
rallying the Pashtun tribes to his banner. Syed Ahmed established
Shariah rule in Peshawar and surrounding areas in 1830, but the locals
did not welcome the change. Conspiracy was hatched by the locals and
all the Qazi (judges), appointed by Syed Ahmed throughout his domain,
were assassinated at one time. Syed Ahmad made his way out and
was killed by the Sikhs along with hundreds of his troops and followers
at Balakot in 1831. His defeat ended the dream of establishing an
Islamic state in Peshawar.
(4) Mysore, a kingdom of southern India, was ruled by Hyder Ali and
his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu Sultan fought a series of wars sometimes
 82

against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but

mostly against the British. He was even promised aid from the
Napoleon to fight against the common enemy but Napoleon’s plan
could never materialize in India. Hyderabad was ruled by a hereditary
Nizam from 1724 until 1948.
(5) Some of the descendents of Abbasids immigrated to Southern
Punjab and established a princely state at Bahawalpur in 1802. Nawab
Bahawal made agreements with Ranjit Singh and restricted him to the
right bank of Sutlej River. The Nawab also supported the British in first
Afghan War (1837). Bahawalpur State comprising most of present day
Southern Punjab retained its independent status till 1955, though the
Nawab opted to join Pakistan in 1947. Graceful palaces of Bahawalpur
stand witness to the glory of Nawab’s rule in the region.
c. Colonial Era. Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for
Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-
European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in the coastal
areas. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the British and the French during the
17th century. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave
opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political
influence and appropriate locals’ lands. British East India Company (BEIC)
took the lead and continued to strengthen its foothold in the Indian
Subcontinent. Mughals allowed BEIC to establish forts, maintain an
independent army and use their own currency. Starting its business in 1617,
BEIC gradually increased their influence and persuaded the Mughal emperors
to grant them permits for duty free trade in Bengal by 1717. The Nawab of
Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the ruler of the Bengal province, opposed
British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in
1757, in which army of BEIC defeated the Nawab's forces in connivance with
traitors like Mir Jaffar. This was the first political foothold with territorial
implications that the British acquired in India. This was combined with British
successes during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India.
After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of
administration in Bengal from the Mughals that marked the beginning of BEIC
formal rule. The Company monopolized the trade of Bengal and by the 1850s,
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it controlled most of the Indian sub-continent. The first major movement

against BEIC’s high handed rule resulted in the Indian War of Independence
of 1857. After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the Company's troops
with British soldiers, the Company overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader
of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to
Burma, his children were beheaded and the Mughal line abolished. In the
aftermath all power was transferred from BEIC to the British Crown, which
began to administer most of India as a colony. Their policy was sometimes
summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering
between various princely states and social and religious groups.
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PART - 5
MODERN HISTORY (20TH CENTURY)

1. The 20th century was the century of change. Great duels were contested both
on battle field as well as on proxy and diplomatic fronts. Two world wars involving
almost all parts of the world, cold war with its proxy campaigns and ultimate rise of
the USA as sole super power of the world has all been witnessed during the century.
The Muslim world remained at the lower ebb in these changing times, first during the
colonization by the European powers and later being used during the Cold War era.
These great events of the 20th century shaped the world, as we see it today.
2. World War-I Era (1900-1938)
a. Background of the Conflict
(1) World War-I was a military conflict centered on Europe that
began in the summer of 1914. The fighting ended in late 1918 in
Western Europe and by 1922 in Eastern Europe. This conflict
involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two
opposing alliances: the Allies (centered around the Triple Entente
i.e. The UK, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (Germany,
Austria-Hungry and Italy). More than 70 million military personnel,
including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest
wars in history. More than 15 million people were killed, making it also
one of the deadliest conflicts of all times.
(2) The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the
heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, is seen as the immediate trigger
of the war, though long-term causes, such as imperialistic foreign
policies of the great powers of Europe such as the German Empire, the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire,
the British Empire, France, and Italy played a major role.
(3) In June 1914, a Bosnian-Serb student and member of Young
Bosnia, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne,
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo (Bosnia). This began
a period of diplomatic maneuvering between Austria-Hungary,
Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Wanting to end Serbian
interference in Bosnia conclusively, Austria-Hungary delivered an
 85

ultimatum to Serbia through which a series of ten visibly unacceptable

demands were made with the intention of deliberately initiating a war
with Serbia. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in July 1914.
(4) The Russian Empire, unwilling to allow Austria–Hungary to
eliminate its influence in the Balkans, and in support of its long time
Serbian partners, ordered a partial mobilization in response. When the
German Empire also began to mobilize in July 1914, France, sporting
significant animosity over the German conquest of Alsace-Lorraine
during the Franco-Prussian War, ordered French mobilization in August
1914. Germany declared war on Russia immediately followed by the
UK declaring war on Germany. To summarize, several alliances that
had been formed over the past decades were invoked, so within weeks
the major powers were at war; as all had colonies, the conflict soon
spread around the world.
b. Conduct of War
(1) Weapons and Tactics
(a) Military tactics before World War-I had failed to keep pace
with advances in technology. These changes resulted in the
building of impressive defense systems, which out of date tactics
could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a
significant hindrance to massed infantry advances. Artillery,
vastly more lethal than before, coupled with machine guns,
made crossing open ground very difficult. Commanders on both
sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions
without heavy casualties.
(b) The belligerents used new technologies like tanks, railway
guns, submarines, aircrafts and aircraft carriers but nothing
could prove to be decisive. Most of the duration of war in various
theaters was stalemate and naval blockades at seas. Chemical
and biological attacks were also mounted from both sides but to
no use again. Its effects were brutal, causing slow and painful
death, and thus became one of the most-feared and worst
remembered horrors of the war.
 86

(2) Outbreak of Hostilities. The strategy of the Central Powers

suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support
Austria-Hungary’s invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this
meant differed. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would
cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned
Austria-Hungary directing her main effort against Russia, while
Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the Austro-
Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian
fronts.
(3) German forces in Belgium and France. At the outbreak
of the war, the German army quickly attacked France through neutral
Belgium. Initially, the Germans were very successful but by September
1914, the French with assistance from the British forces halted the
German advance east of Paris. In the east, a weaker German army
defended East Prussia and when Russia attacked in this region, it
diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. Germany
defeated Russia in a series of battles but this diversion of forces
checked the speed of advance not foreseen by the Germans. The
Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight
a war on two fronts.
(4) War in the Balkans. Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary
could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. The Austrians
briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade before losing it again by
the end of 1914. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats persuaded
Bulgaria to join in attacking Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of
Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia responded to the call and provided troops
for the attack. Serbia was conquered for its virtual division between
Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.
(5) Ottoman Empire
(a) The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in the
war, the secret Ottoman-German Alliance having been signed in
August 1914. It threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and
Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal. The
British and French opened overseas fronts against the
 87

Ottomans. In Gallipoli (Turkey), the Ottomans successfully

repelled the British and French, but in Iraq, after the
disastrous Siege of Kut (1915–16), British Imperial forces
captured Baghdad in March 1917. In the Sinai and Palestine
Campaign, initial British setbacks were also overcome and
Jerusalem fell in December 1917.
(b) Turkish forces made bold advances to conquer Central
Asia but suffered heavy losses. The Russians drove the Turks
out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories
from 1915 to 1916. Russian commanders endeavored to push
ahead, however, in March 1917, (February in the pre-
revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar was overthrown in the
February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to
fall apart.
(c) Along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, the
Senussi tribe, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-
scale guerilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced
to dispatch heavy reinforcement to deal with the Senussi. Their
rebellion was finally crushed in mid 1916.
(d) The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the
British Foreign and Commonwealth Office and cunningly
executed by the notorious Lawrence of Arabia, was a major
cause of the Ottoman Empire's defeat. The revolts started
with the Battle of Makkah by Sherif Hussein of Makkah with the
help of Britain in June 1916, and ended with the Ottoman
surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha the Ottoman commander
of Medina showed stubborn resistance for over two and half
years during the Siege of Medina.
(6) Italian participation. Italy had been allied with the German
and Austro-Hungarian Empires since decades, but the nation refused to
commit troops, arguing that their alliance was defensive in nature, and
that Austria–Hungary was an aggressor. The Austro-Hungarian
government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the
French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-offer in
 88

which Italy would receive part of captured territories after the defeat of
Austria-Hungary. Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey,
Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary in
May 1915. By mid 1916, Italy also declared war on Germany.
(7) Romanian participation. Romania was in alliance with the
Central Powers but it declared its neutrality, arguing that Austria-
Hungary was an aggressor. When the Entente Powers promised
Romania large territories of eastern Hungary, the Romanian
government renounced its neutrality. In August 1916, the Romanian
army launched an attack against Austria-Hungary. The Romanian
offensive was initially successful, but the Central Powers defeated the
Romanian army by the end of December 1916. An armistice was
signed between the Central Powers and Romania in December 1917.
(8) Fighting in India. The war began with an unprecedented
outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards the Britain from within the
mainstream political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an
Indian revolt. The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at
the beginning of the war. India under British rule contributed greatly to
the British war effort by providing men and resources. This was done by
the Indian Congress in hope of achieving self-government. However,
the Indians were disappointed at the end of war.
(9) Asia and the Pacific. New Zealand, Australian and
Japanese forces seized all the German territories in the Pacific
including the German coaling port of Qingdao in the Chinese Shandong
peninsula.
(10) African Campaigns. The British, French and German
colonial forces clashed in Africa. In August 1914, French and British
troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland. German forces in
Southwest Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting
continued for the remainder of the war.
(11) Russian Front
(a) While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war
continued in East Europe. Although Russia's initial advance into
Austrian territories was largely successful, they were driven back
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from East Prussia in September 1914. By the spring of 1915, the

Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough in Poland
capturing Warsaw and forcing the Russians to withdraw from
Poland.
(b) In March 1917, Russia witnessed a revolution followed by
confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The
Bolsheviks started negotiations with Germany. Initially, they
refused the German terms, but when Germany resumed the war
and marched across Ukraine with impunity, the new government
acceded to the Treaty in March 1918.
(12) Germans Attempt to Negotiate Peace. In December 1916,
after months of unsuccessful fighting, the Germans attempted to
negotiate a peace with the Allies, effectively declaring themselves the
victors. Soon after, the USA attempted to intervene as a peacemaker,
asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. While the Allies
debated a response to Wilson's offer the Germans chose to rebuff it in
favor of a direct exchange of views between the rivals. On the other
hand, Austrians pursued a secret peace deal without the knowledge of
Germany. When the negotiations failed and the attempt was revealed
to Germany, it led to a diplomatic catastrophe.
(13) Entry of the USA. The USA originally pursued a policy of
isolationism, avoiding conflict while trying to broker peace. Britain
initially feared that should the US participate in the war, it would be on
the side of the Central Powers, given US anti-colonial stance on the
British Empire. However, the USA finally joined the war against the
Germans in April 1917, after few suspected German sabotage activities
in mainland America and decrypted German messages to Mexico to
declare war against the USA. The USA had a small army, but soon it
could generate a huge force that was not anticipated by the Germans.
(14) German Spring Offensive of 1918
(a) Germans drew up plans for the 1918 offensive on the
Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British
and French forces with a series of feints and advances starting
from Amiens (Northern France). The German leadership hoped
 90

to strike a decisive blow before significant US forces arrived. The

German forces achieved unprecedented advances penetrating
Allies’ defenses using novel infiltration tactics. They swiftly
attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of
serious resistance to be neutralized by heavily armed infantry.
German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.
(b) The front moved to almost 100 kilometers of Paris. Many
Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting,
however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorized
artillery and logistics, the Germans were unable to consolidate
their gains.
(c) Germans launched another operation against the northern
English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive with limited
territorial gains for Germany. Later, the German army again
conducted few operations towards Paris but without any gain.
Following this last phase of the war in the west, the German
army never again regained the initiative.
(15) Allied Victory in Summer and Autumn of 1918. The Allied
counteroffensive began at Amiens in August 1918. In nearly four weeks
of fighting, the Germans realized the war was lost and made attempts
for a satisfactory end. They thought that they cannot win the war any
more, but they must not lose it either. Austria and Hungary also could
not continue the war. In September 1918, Germany appealed to
Holland for mediation and made a peace offer to Belgium. Austria sent
a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace
talks on neutral soil. Both peace offers were rejected and armistice
talks seemed inevitable.
(16) Armistices and Capitulations. The collapse of the Central
Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice in
September 1918 and the Ottoman Empire capitulated in October 1918.
In November 1918, Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices
following the breakup of the empire. Imperial Germany also broke up
and an armistice was signed by the new republic in November 1918.
Final armistice was signed in a railroad carriage. Interestingly,
 91

same railroad carriage was later used by the Germans to get the
surrender documents signed by the French after they occupied
France during the World War-II. A formal state of war between the
two sides persisted for another seven months, until signing of the
Treaty of Versailles with Germany in June 1919. Later, treaties with
Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire were also signed.
However, treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the
Turkish Independence War) and a final peace treaty was signed
between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become
the Republic of Turkey in July 1923.
c. Aftermath of the World War-I
(1) After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of
peace treaties on the Central Powers. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles
officially ended the war. The Treaty of Versailles also brought into
being the League of Nations in June 1919. However, League of
Nations could not ensure its desired objective of an enduring peace.
The European nationalism spawned by the war, repercussions of
Germany's defeat and of the Treaty of Versailles would eventually lead
to the beginning of World War-II.
(2) In signing the treaty, Germany acknowledged responsibility for
the war, agreeing to pay enormous war reparations and award territory
to the victors. Germany did so by borrowing from the USA. However,
the reparations were suspended in 1931 due to inflation of 1920s and
resultant economic collapse of the German Republic. The Treaty of
Versailles caused enormous bitterness in Germany, which
nationalist movements, especially the Nazis exploited with a
conspiracy theory they called stab-in-the-back legend. Out of
German discontent, Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity and power.
World War-II was in part a continuation of the power struggle that was
never fully resolved by the World War-I.
(3) By the war's end, four major imperial powers; the German,
Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires had been
militarily and politically defeated with the last two ceased to exist.
The revolutionized Soviet Union emerged from the Russian Empire,
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whereas the map of central Europe was completely redrawn into

numerous smaller states.
(4) Austria–Hungary was also partitioned, largely but not entirely
along ethnic lines, into several successor states including Austria,
Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, as well as adding
Transylvania from Hungary to Romania, Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia. Hundreds of thousands Hungarians fled former Hungarian
territories.
(5) The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in the
aftermath of successive revolutions in 1917, lost much of its western
frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia,
Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Communist and socialist
movements around the world gained strength and enjoyed a level of
popularity they had never known before. These feelings were most
pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war.
(6) The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its non-
Anatolian territory was awarded as protectorates of various Allied
powers, while the remaining Turkish core was reorganized as the
Republic of Turkey. The new countries created from the former
territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 40 (including
the disputed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus). This treaty was
never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish republican
movement, leading to the Turkish Independence War and, ultimately, to
the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.
(7) In the aftermath of World War-I, Greece fought against Turkish
nationalists led by Mustafa Kamal, a war which resulted in a massive
population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of
Lausanne. The conflict gave rise to the problem of Cyprus Island that
remains to be settled till to date.
(8) Poland re-emerged as an independent country after more than a
century. Kingdom of Serbia became the backbone of the new
multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later
renamed Yugoslavia). Czechoslovakia became a new nation.
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(9) In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of

nationalism. Australia and New Zealand for the first times fought as
Australians. Canadian divisions also fought together for the first time
and emerged with a greater measure of independence from British
Empire. While other dominions were represented by Britain, Canada
was an independent signatory of the Treaty of Versailles.
(10) Middle East Crisis. Establishment of the modern state of Israel
and the roots of the continuing Israeli-Palestinian conflict are partially
found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East which were
born at the end of the World War-I. Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann
(President of Zionist Organization and first President of the State
of Israel) and fear that American Jews would encourage the USA
to support Germany culminated in the Balfour Declaration of 1917
by the British government. This endorsed the creation of a Jewish
homeland in Palestine. Before the end of the war, the Ottomans had
maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle
East. However, with the end of the war and the fall of Ottoman
government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land
and nationhood began to emerge. Political boundaries were drawn and
quickly imposed by the victors of the World War-I after only cursory
consultation with the local population. In many cases these boundaries
are still problematic in the 21st century struggles for national identity.
The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War-I can
therefore be termed as the corner stone in creation of the modern
political situation of the Middle East, especially the Arab-Israeli conflict.
The end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over
water and other natural resources in the region.
d. Russian Revolution
(1) Despite initial successes in the war, dissatisfaction grew among
the Russian public with regards to the Russian government's conduct of
the war. The unrest grew in the country, as the Czar remained
committed at the front while the empress was incompetent enough to
handle the situation at home. The protests also resulted in the murder
of her favorite advisor, Rasputin, at the end of 1916.
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(2) In March 1917, demonstrations in Russia culminated in the

abdication of Czar and the appointment of a weak provisional
government. The movement and the consequences are commonly
termed as the February Revolution. This arrangement led to
confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became
increasingly ineffective.
(3) The war and the government became increasingly unpopular.
Discontent led to a rise in popularity of the Bolshevik party, led by
Vladimir Lenin. He promised to pull Russia out of the war and was able
to gain power. After the triumph of the Bolsheviks in November
1917 (October Revolution), the new administration settled for an
armistice and negotiations with Germany in December 1917.
(4) Socialist regime of Vladimir Lenin provided the basis for the
formation of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922; A
future super power that had to play a major role in the conflict spectrum
spanning over the complete 20th century.
e. Muslim World
(1) Demise of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey witnessed the Young
Turk Revolution in 1908. The Young Turk government signed a secret
treaty establishing the Ottoman-German Alliance in 1914, aimed
against the common Russian enemy. The empire was thus dragged
into war on the side of the Central Powers, in which it took part in the
Middle Eastern theatre. There were several important Ottoman
victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of
Gallipoli (led by Mustafa Kamal Pasha), but there were setbacks as
well. The Arab Revolt in 1916, conspired and executed by
notorious Lawrence of Arabia, turned the tide against the
Ottomans. When the Armistice was signed in 1918, only parts of the
Arabian Peninsula, Syria and Iraq were still under Ottoman control,
which were eventually handed over to the British forces in 1919. The
Ottomans were also ordered to evacuate the parts of the former
Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day Georgia, Armenia and
Azerbaijan) which they had gained towards the end of the war. With the
defeat of the Central Powers and resultant turmoil in Turkey, Turkish
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National Movement (Young Turks) won the Turkish War of

Independence (1919–1922) under the leadership of Mustafa Kamal
Pasha. Reportedly, the nationalist movement was sponsored by the
Jews. Sultanate was abolished in 1922 and the Sultan and his family
were exiled. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished in 1923.
(2) Establishment of Saudi Arabia. Despite its spiritual
importance, in political terms Arabia remained a peripheral region of the
Islamic world during various dynasties, most of which were based at
various times in such far away cities as Cairo, Damascus, Delhi,
Esfahan, and Istanbul. From the 10th century to the early 20th century
Makkah and Medina were under the control of the Sharif of Makkah, but
at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major
Islamic empires based elsewhere. The First Saudi State was
established in 1744, when Sheikh Muhammad Ibn Abd al Wahhab
and Prince Muhammad Ibn Saud formed an alliance to establish a
religious and political sovereignty determined to cleanse the
Arabian Peninsula of perceived heretical practices and deviations
from orthodox Islam. The state saw periods of make and break before
the Saud family again took power in 1932 as a consequence of the
World War-I. Subsequently, Kingdome of Saudi Arabia (KSA) became
the spiritual center for the Muslim World. However, pro-west policies
adopted by the kingdom greatly dismayed the Muslim communities
across the world and diminished any possibility of KSA assuming
leadership role for the Muslim Ummah.
(3) Ikhwan-ul-Muslimeen (Muslim Brotherhood). Breakup of the
Ottoman Empire and handing over of the Muslim territories to colonial
powers brought great depression among the Muslim communities
across the glob. They were militarily defeated and politically orphaned.
With this deplorable state of affairs, many independence and revivalist
movements were launched by the Muslim leaders across the world.
Ikhwan-ul-Muslimeen founded by Egyptian religious scholar, Hassan Al
Bannah, was one such transnational movement that received a big
following, especially in the Arab World. The Brotherhood's stated goal
was to instill the Qur'an and Sunnah as the sole reference point
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for ordering the life of the Muslim individuals, families, communities and
states. Since its inception in 1928 the movement has officially opposed
violent means to achieve its goals. However, one of the influential
members of the group and the author of one of Islamism's most
important books, Syed Qutb (Shaheed) called for the restoration of
Islam by re-establishing the Sharia and by using physical power (Jihad)
for abolishing the organizations and authorities of the prevalent system
governing the entire Muslim world. Ikhwan-ul-Muslimeen inspired many
revolutionary and independence movements in Arab world including
North Africa. Creation of Jama’at-e-Islami in Indian Subcontinent was
also to some extent an extension of the same school of thought.
f. Indian Subcontinent
(1) Gandhi Struggle. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (commonly
known as Muhatama Gandhi), was a legendry figure in the Indian
independence movement. On his return from South Africa in 1915, he
started raising his voice for the Indians’ rights. As a staunch
proponent of Ahimsa (total non-violence) he could rally a big
Indian community belonging to different castes and religions.
Launching of Khilafat Movement for restoration of the caliphate in
erstwhile Ottoman Empire, together by the Muslims and Hindus, is a
classic example of Gandhi’s undisputed character. Later, his political
struggle earned him the leadership of Indian National Congress in
1921. Famous 400 km Salt March in 1930 and Quit India Civil
Disobedience Movement of 1942 are the marvels of his political
leadership. Mohammad Ali Jinnah (commonly known as Quid-e-Azam),
one of his contemporary, differed with him on the future of the Muslims
of the Indian Subcontinent.
(2) Pakistan Movement. By the start of 20th century, fear grew
among the Muslims that they are likely to lose in a big way if left at the
disposal of Hindu majority. Partition of Bengal in 1905, to the utter
disregard to the interest of the Bengali Muslim population, proved to be
the boiling point. Muslim leaders from Central India took the initiative
and formed All India Muslim League in 1906, on the basis of Two
Nation Theory. Newly founded Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College
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(MAO College) in Aligarh in 1869 by an eminent Muslim leader Sayed

Ahmed Khan provided the leadership to this movement which later
transformed into Pakistan Movement. Allama Muhammad Iqbal gave
the idea of an independent Muslim nation in 1930 and the name
“Pakistan” was proposed by Chaudhry Rehmat Ali in 1933. Despite all
out efforts by pro independence leaders, Muslim League could not gain
the confidence of majority of the Muslims till late 30s. However,
Congress rule of 1937 helped in changing perception among the
Muslim communities. All India Muslim League under the charismatic
leadership of Quid-e-Azam succeeded in convincing the Muslim
majority to create an independent homeland for the Muslims of the
Indian Subcontinent. The popular demand of the Muslims of the Indian
Subcontinent was manifested by the Lahore Resolution (later known as
Pakistan Resolution) in 1940.
(3) Revival of Islamic Identity. After the introduction and
popular acceptance of Islam by inhabitants of the Indian Subcontinent
at the hands of Muslim preachers, mystics and traders, efforts to revive
the authentic and pristine Islam began with Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi
(1564-1624) and gained momentum with Shah Waliyullah Dehlvi (1703-
1762) and Syed Ahmed Shaheed (1786-1831). The stage was thus set,
at the beginning of the 20th century, for Allama Muhammad Iqbal to play
his momentous role in laying down the intellectual foundation of Islamic
Renaissance. Moreover, Islamist sentiment of the society was
seriously threatened by the introduction of new bilingual
education system maliciously designed by the British
parliamentarian Lord Macaulay. They rightly feared that the Islamic
identity of the Muslims will vanish with the passage of time. Moreover,
Hindu revivalist movements were also feared to impact simple and non
practicing Muslims of the Indian Subcontinent. This gave rise to
formation of various Islamic institutions and societies to be able to face
the emerging challenges.
(a) Islamic Schools (Darul Uloom). Islamic scholars of the
time established number of Darul Uloom as a parallel to the
British education system so as to impart Islamic knowledge to
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the Muslim youth. One such movement began at Darul Uloom

Deoband in May 1866. Darul Uloom Deoband gained significant
traction in the early 1900s mainly due to the activities of its
graduates. Deobandis follow Sunni Islam and in fiqah (Islamic
jurisprudence) they primarily follow the Hanafi school of thought.
However, they accept the validity of the remaining three schools
of Sunni Islam, namely the Shafi’i, Maliki and the Hanbali
schools. In the spiritual science of Tasawwuf (Sufism) they follow
the Chishti, Naqshbandi, Qadiri and Suhrawardi orders. Ahmed
Reza Khan (1856–1921), a graduate of Darul Uloom
Deoband, became a famous Sunni Islamic scholar and Sufi,
whose works influenced the Barelvi movement of South
Asia. Followers of both the movements have serious difference
of opinion on the Barelvis’ exaggeration in loving the Prophet
Mohammad (p.b.u.h) and advocating the practice of asking from
deceased Muslims. Shia Muslims continued to practice their
faith and drew aspiration and religious knowledge from the
Islamic School at Qom (Iran).
(b) Tableeghi Jama’at. It was founded in 1926 by Mulana
Muhammad Ilyas with a primarily aim of Islamic spiritual
reformation by working at the grass roots level, reaching out to
the Muslims across all social and economic spectra and to bring
them closer to the practices of Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h).
Originally an off shoot of Deoband Movement, Tableeghi
Jama’at gradually expanded from local to national and to a
transnational movement with a sizable following across the
world. It maintains a non-affiliating stature in matters of politics
and fiqah (Islamic jurisprudence) so as to avoid any
controversies.
(c) Jama’at-e-Islami. When Allama Iqbal wrote to Quid-e-
Azam to provide political leadership to the Muslims of the Indian
Subcontinent, he invited an eminent Muslim Scholar Abul A’ala
Mududi for the religious guidance of the nation. Abul A’ala
Mududi later founded Jama’at-e-Islami in 1941, on the principles
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of creating a purely Muslim state governed by Shariah Laws. In

the following years, Iqamat-e-Deen through mass penetration
and an active political struggle for creation of a truly Muslim state
remained the hallmark of the party. Though Mulana Mududi
differed with Quid-e-Azam on the issue of partition, Jama’at-e-
Islami and its variants played a major role in creating political
awareness among the masses and mobilizing the educated
class to launch an organized struggle for establishing a truly
Islamic state, after the creation of Pakistan. Jama’at-e-Islami’s
leadership was also instrumental in the passage of Objective
Resolution in 1949, so as to ensure definite Islamic character of
the newly established state and later forming it an essential part
of the constitution.
3. World War-II Era (1939-1945)
a. Background of the Conflict
(1) World War-II was a global military conflict lasting from 1939 to
1945 which involved most of the world's nations. All of the great powers
of the time were organized into two opposing military alliances: the
Allies (Britain, France and the USA) and the Axis (Germany, Italy and
Japan). It was the most widespread war in history, with more than 100
million military personnel mobilized. In a state of "total war," the major
participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific
capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction
between civilian and military resources.
(2) World War-I and events following the conflict radically altered the
diplomatic and political situations in Eurasia and Africa with the defeat
of the Central Powers. Meanwhile the success of the Allied Entente
powers resulted in a major shift in the balance of power from Central
and Eastern Europe to the Atlantic littoral.
(3) In the interwar period, domestic civil conflict occurred in
Germany and Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler pursued establishing a
fascist government in Germany. With the onset of the worldwide great
depression and resultant collapse of German economy, Nazi support
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rose and in 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. Soon

after taking over power, Hitler began a massive rearmament campaign.
(4) A similar scenario occurred in Italy. Although Italy as an Entente
ally made some territorial gains, Italian nationalists were angered that
the terms of the Treaty of London upon which Italy had agreed to wage
war on the Central Powers, were not fulfilled with the peace settlement.
Italian fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in 1922,
with an aggressive foreign policy aimed at forcefully forging Italy as a
world power, and promising to create a New Roman Empire.
(5) In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had
long sought influence in China, invaded Manchuria, as the first step of
its right to rule Asia. Too weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the
League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations
after being condemned for its incursion. The two nations then fought
several minor conflicts till second Sino-Japan War of 1937. Japan
captured the capital city of Nanjing and committed notorious Nanking
Massacre. Memories of the massacre continue to be the biggest irritant
in Sino-Japan relations even today.
(6) On the other hand, France in order to secure its alliance, allowed
Italy a free hand in Ethiopia (Italo–Abyssinian War - 1935-36), which
Italy desired as a colonial possession. In October 1935, Italy invaded
Ethiopia, with Germany the only major European nation supporting the
invasion. Italy, in response, revoked objections to Germany's goal of
absorbing Austria. Hoping to contain Germany, the UK, France and
Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935. The USSR, concerned due
to Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, also
concluded a treaty of mutual assistance with France. However, in June
1935, the UK made an independent naval agreement with Germany,
easing prior restrictions. The USA, concerned with events in Europe
and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August 1935.
(7) When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, Hitler and
Mussolini supported fascist nationalist forces in this civil war against the
Soviet-supported Spanish Republic. Both sides used the conflict to test
new weapons and methods of warfare. In October 1936, Germany and
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Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan
signed the Anti-Comintern (Anti-Communist) Pact, which Italy would
join in the following year.
(8) With the progress of events, Germany and Italy grew bolder. In
March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, provoking little response from
other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German
claims on the territories of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic
German population. Soon France and Britain conceded this territory to
Germany, against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in
exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands by Hitler.
However, in March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of
Czechoslovakia. Alarmed, and with Hitler making further demands on
Danzig (North Poland), France and Britain guaranteed their support for
Polish independence. When Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the
same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece. Shortly after
the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalized their
own alliance with the Pact of Steel.
(9) In August 1939, Germany and the USSR signed a non-
aggression treaty with a secret protocol. The parties gave each other
rights to “spheres of influence” (western Poland and Lithuania for
Germany, and eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia
for the USSR), in the event of a territorial and political rearrangement.
b. Conduct of War
(1) Weapons and tactics
(a) During the World War-II, land warfare changed drastically
from the static front lines to become much more fluid and mobile.
An important change was the concept of combined arms
warfare, wherein tight coordination was sought between the
various elements of military forces. Germany's use of
combined arms was among the key elements of their highly
successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. By
the late 1930s, tank design was considerably advanced in
speed, armor protection and firepower. Many means of
destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns,
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mines and short-ranged infantry antitank weapons were also

utilized by all sides during the war. Small arms witnessed a
transition to semi-automatic rifle followed by a widespread
incorporation of portable machine guns by various forces. The
assault rifle, a late war development, which incorporated many of
the best features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the
standard postwar infantry weapon for nearly all armed forces.
(b) Aircrafts were assigned two important additional roles;
the airlift capability and of strategic bombing, the targeted use of
bombs against civilian areas in the hopes of hampering enemy
industry and morale. Jet aircrafts also experienced their first
operational use during the World War-II, though their late
introduction and limited numbers meant that they had no real
impact during the war itself. Anti-aircraft weaponry also
continued to advance, including such as radar and greatly
improved anti-aircraft artillery e.g. German 88 mm flak gun.
(c) At sea, the two primary areas of development were
focused around aircraft carriers and submarines. In the Atlantic,
escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys,
increasing the effective protection radius dramatically. In
submarine warfare, the British focused development on anti-
submarine weaponry and tactics, while Germany focused on
improving its offensive capability.
(d) Other important technological and engineering feats
achieved during, or as a result of the war include the world's first
programmable computers, guided missiles and the Manhattan
Project's development of nuclear weapons.
(2) Outbreak of Hostilities. The start of the war is generally held
to be in September 1939 beginning with the German invasion of
Poland; Britain and France immediately declared war on Germany.
There was another conflict in the east that included Japanese invasion
of China in second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 and a futile attack on
the USSR and Mongolia in 1938. The two wars merged in 1941,
becoming a single global conflict that continued until 1945.
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(3) War Breaks Out in Europe

(a) Simultaneous with declaration of war by France and
Britain against Germany, the USSR also invaded Poland after
signing a nonaggression pact with Japan. By early October
1939, Poland was divided among Germany, the USSR, Lithuania
and Slovakia, although Poland never officially surrendered and
continued the fight outside its borders.
(b) Following the invasion of Poland and a German-Soviet
treaty governing Lithuania, the USSR forced the Baltic countries
to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts
of mutual assistance. In June 1940, the Soviet forces invaded
and occupied the neutral Baltic States. Finland rejected similar
territorial demands and was invaded by the USSR in November
1939. France and the UK treating the Soviet attack on Finland as
tantamount to entering the war on the side of the Germans,
responded by supporting the USSR's expulsion from the League
of Nations.
(c) The USSR and Germany entered a trade pact in February
1940, pursuant to which the Soviets received German military
and industrial equipment in exchange for supplying raw materials
to Germany to help circumvent a British blockade. In April 1940,
Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secure shipments of
iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies would try to disrupt.
Despite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two
months.
(4) Axis Advances
(a) In May 1940, Germany invaded France, Belgium, the
Netherlands and Luxembourg. The Netherlands and Belgium
were overrun in a few days. French fortified Maginot Line was
circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly
wooded Ardennes region, mistakenly perceived by the French
planners, as an impenetrable natural barrier against armored
vehicles. By early June 1940, Italy also invaded France,
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declaring war on both France and the UK. France surrendered

within few weeks time and was soon divided into German and
Italian occupation zones. British troops were forced to evacuate
the continent at Dunkirk by the end of June 1940.
(b) With France neutralized, Germany began an air
superiority campaign over Britain (Battle of Britain) to prepare for
an invasion. The campaign failed, and the invasion plans were
cancelled by September 1940. Using newly captured French
ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-
extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in
the Atlantic. Italy began operations in the Mediterranean,
initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland
in August, and making an incursion into British held Egypt in
September 1940. Japan also increased its blockade of Chinese
bases in the north. At the end of September 1940, the
Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy, and Germany to formalize
the Axis Powers. The Axis expanded in November 1940
when Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania also joined the Pact.
(c) In October 1940, Italy invaded Greece but within days
was repulsed and pushed back into Albania. In December 1940,
British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against
Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa, and by early 1941,
Italian forces were pushed back into Libya. The Italian Navy also
suffered significant defeats, at the hands of the Royal Navy. The
Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German
forces to Libya where by the end of March 1941, they launched a
successful offensive against the Commonwealth forces.
(d) In early April 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the
Tripartite Pact, the Germans intervened in the Balkans by
invading Greece and Yugoslavia. Here too, they made rapid
progress, eventually forcing the Allies to evacuate. Germany
conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May 1941.
(e) By October 1941, the USA covertly supported the UK by
creating a security zone spanning roughly half of the Atlantic
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Ocean. As a result, Germany and the USA found themselves

engaged in sustained naval warfare in the North and Central
Atlantic, even though the USA remained officially neutral.
(5) Eastern Theatre
(a) In June 1941, Germany, along with other Axis members
and Finland, invaded the USSR (Operation Barbarossa). The
primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region,
Moscow and Ukraine, with an ultimate goal of ending the
campaign on line connecting the Caspian and White Seas.
Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the USSR as a military
power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum
(living space) by dispossessing the native population, and
guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to
defeat Germany's remaining rivals.
(b) During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into
Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both men and
materiel. By the middle of August 1941, however, the German
Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive and to
divert forces to reinforce troops advancing toward Ukraine and
Leningrad. Later offensive was overwhelmingly successful,
resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies,
and made further advance into industrially developed Eastern
Ukraine possible.
(c) By October 1941, when Axis operational objectives in
Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, a major offensive
against Moscow was renewed. After two months of fierce
battles, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs
of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to
suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by
Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main
objectives; two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet
capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained
a considerable part of its military potential. By early December
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1941, freshly mobilized reserves allowed the USSR to begin a

massive counter offensive and push German troops westwards.
(d) In Southern Russia, Axis launched their main summer
offensive in June 1942, in order to seize the oilfields of the
Caucasus. By mid November the Germans had nearly taken
Stalingrad, when the Soviets began their second winter counter
offensive. The Soviets launched an immediate counter-offensive,
thereby dispelling any hopes of the German army for victory or
even stalemate in the east. By early February 1943, the German
troops at Stalingrad were forced to surrender. Subsequent
German operations in July 1943 were also cancelled partially
due to the Allies' invasion of Sicily.
(e) German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to
increase pressure on European possessions in Southeast Asia.
The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan oil supplies from
the Dutch East Indies and France agreed to a Japanese
occupation of French Indochina. The USA, the UK, and other
western governments reacted to the seizure of Indochina with a
freeze on Japanese assets, while the USA responded by placing
a complete oil embargo. The seizure meant that Japan was
essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions
in Asia or to seize by force, the natural resources it needed. The
Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and
considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.
(f) In December 1941, Japan attacked British and American
possessions with near-simultaneous offensives against
Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an
attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, landings in
Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong.
Meanwhile, by the end of April 1942, Japan had almost fully
conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and
Singapore, inflicting severe losses on Allied forces. Despite a
stubborn resistance, the Philippine was eventually captured in
May 1942. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the
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South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean. These easy
victories over unprepared opponents left Japan overconfident, as
well as overextended.
(g) In early May 1942, Japan initiated few operations in
Southeast Asia, but all her efforts were thwarted by the Allies.
However, Allies were also unable to make any progress either.
In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations
against the Japanese. The first, an offensive in late 1942, went
disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The
second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese
front-lines that achieved dubious results.
(h) In May 1943, the Allies initiated several operations
against Japan and by April 1943, the Allied forces had
neutralized Japanese army in most of its possessions in the
Pacific region.
(6) North African Campaign. In North Africa, the Germans
launched an offensive in January 1941, pushing the British back to
positions at Gazala (Libya) by February 1941. By November 1941,
Commonwealth forces launched a counter-offensive, (Operation
Crusader) in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains, Germans and
Italians had made so far. The front witnessed a see-saw battle in
coming months finally dislodging the Axis forces and pushing them
west across Libya by August 1942. This was followed up shortly after
by an Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa (Algeria), which
resulted in the region joining the Allies. The encircled Axis forces in
Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was finally conquered by the Allies
in May 1943. North African campaign is commonly referred to as a
classical mobile warfare led by two great opposing commanders,
General Montgomery (British) and General Rommel (German).
(7) Allies Counter Strike
(a) In early September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the
Italian mainland, following an Italian armistice with the Allies.
Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military
control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines.
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German Special Forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon

established a new client state in German occupied Italy. The
Allies fought through successive lines of defense until reaching
the main German defensive line in mid November 1943.
(b) German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May
1943, as Allied counter measures became increasingly effective,
the resulting sizable German submarine losses forced a
temporary halt to the German Atlantic naval campaign. In
November 1943, the USA and British leaders met with
Chinese and Russian leaders and determined the post war
return of Japanese territory. They also agreed that the Allies
would invade Europe in 1944 and that the USSR would
declare war on Japan, within three months of Germany's
defeat.
(c) In January 1944, a major Soviet offensive expelled
German forces from the Leningrad region, ending the longest
and most lethal siege in history. In June 1944, the Soviets
launched another strategic offensive that resulted in almost
complete destruction of the German forces in the east.
Subsequently, the Soviet forces were able to expel German
troops from Western Ukraine, Eastern Poland, Eastern Romania
and Yugoslavia, and forced them rapid withdrawal towards
Greece and Albania. In October 1944, the Soviets launched a
massive assault against German occupied Hungary that lasted
until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. In contrast with
impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, the bitter Finnish
resistance to the Soviet offensive denied the Soviets
occupation of Finland and led to the signing of Soviet-
Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions.
(d) The Allies experienced mixed fortunes in mainland Asia.
In March 1944, the Japanese launched an operation against
British and Commonwealth positions in Northeastern Indian
territories of Assam, Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British
forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops
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back to Burma and thus helped Chinese forces to besiege

Japanese troops in late 1943. Another Japanese invasion
attempted to destroy China's fighting forces, secure railways
between Japanese held territories and capture Allied airfields.
(e) On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), the Western Allies
invaded Normandy (Northwestern France). These landings
were successful, and led to the defeat of the German army units
in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by
the Free French forces (lead by General Charles de Gaulle) in
August 1944, and the Allies continued to push back German
forces in Western Europe during the latter part of the year. The
Allied offensives in Italy also succeeded and in June 1944,
Rome was captured. However, an attempt to advance into
northern Germany spear headed by a major airborne operation
in the Netherlands ended with a failure.
(f) In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back
the Japanese perimeter. By end October 1944, American naval
forces scored a decisive victory against Japanese forces in one
of the largest naval battles in history.
(8) Axis Collapse and Allied Victory
(a) In December 1944, Germany attempted its last desperate
measure for success on the Western Front by marshalling
German reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the
Ardennes (Belgium). The counter offensive was launched with
an aim to split the Allies, encircle large portions of Allied troops
and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp (Belgium) in
order to prompt a political settlement. However, by January
1945, the offensive was repulsed with no strategic objectives
fulfilled. On eastern front, the Soviets attacked German positions
in Poland, pushed German forces till mainland Germany, and
overran East Prussia. In February 1945, the US, the UK, and
Soviet leaders agreed on the occupation of post war
Germany.
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(b) In February 1945, the Soviets invaded Germany’s eastern

front while Allied forces entered Western Germany. By early
April, the Allies swept across Western Germany, while Soviet
forces stormed Berlin in late April; the two forces linked up on
Elbe River by end April 1945.
(c) In the Pacific theatre, the US forces accompanied by the
forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the
Philippines and destroyed Japanese forces there. British,
American and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern
Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by
May 1945. American forces also moved toward Japan, American
bombers destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines
cut off Japanese imports.
(d) Several changes in leadership occurred during April
1945. US President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by
Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed and Hitler
committed suicide.
(e) In July 1945, the Allied leaders met in Germany. They
confirmed earlier agreements about post-war Germany, and
reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all
Japanese forces, specifically stating that the alternative for
Japan is prompt and utter destruction. When Japan continued
to reject the terms, the USA dropped atomic bombs on the
Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August.
Meanwhile, the Soviets, pursuant to the agreement, invaded
Japanese held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Japanese
army by mid August 1945.
c. Aftermath of the Conflict
(1) The alliance between the Allies and the USSR had begun to
deteriorate even before the war was over, and both the powers quickly
established their own spheres of influence. Europe was essentially
divided between Western and Soviet spheres by the Iron Curtain
which ran through and partitioned Allied occupied Germany and
Austria.
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(2) The USSR created the Eastern Bloc by directly annexing several
countries it occupied as Soviet Socialist Republics such as Eastern
Poland, the three Baltic countries, part of eastern Finland and
northeastern Romania. Other states that the Soviets occupied at the
end of the war were converted into Soviet satellite states, such as
Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Albania, and later East
Germany from the Soviet zone of German occupation. In Asia, the USA
occupied Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the
Western Pacific. Japanese governed Korea was divided and occupied
between the USA and the USSR.
(3) Mounting tensions between the USA and the USSR soon
evolved into the formation of the American led NATO and the
Soviet-led Warsaw Pact military alliances and the start of the Cold
War between them.
(4) In an effort to maintain international peace, the Allies
formed the United Nations Organization (UNO), which officially
came into existence in October 1945. The organization played its
pivotal role in maintaining a durable peace across the globe but failed
to settle soaring conflicts, especially ones involving direct or indirect
interests of VETO powers. Resultantly, conflicts flared again in many
parts of the world, soon after the end of World War-II.
(5) Following the end of the war, a rapid period of decolonization
also took place within the possessions of the erstwhile colonial powers.
This primarily occurred due to shifts in ideology, the economic
exhaustion from the war and increased demand by indigenous people
for self-determination.
(6) The controversial phenomenon of Holocaust is also
attributed to Nazis’ discredit. Reportedly, Germans killed
approximately six million Jews, as well as two million ethnic Poles and
four million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the
disabled and mentally ill, Soviet POWs, homosexuals, Freemasons,
Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a program of deliberate
extermination. The controversy persists even today and occasionally
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causes bitterness among those who believe in the massacre and the
ones who question its authenticity.
d. Various parts of the world had some lasting impacts of the war’s
outcome, notably in Asia and Africa.
(1) Africa
(a) The 20th century brought a growing realization among the
Africans on the dichotomy between Christian teaching of
universal brotherhood and the treatment they received from the
missionaries and their Christian masters. Africans also noticed
the unequal evidences of gratitude they received for their efforts
to support imperialist countries during the world wars. The
African soldiers, after returning home, were willing to use their
new skills to assist nationalist movements fighting for freedom
that were beginning to take shape in the colonies.
(b) European imposed borders did not correspond to
traditional territories, and such new territories provided entities to
focus their efforts for increased political independence. Britain
sought to follow a process of gradual transfer of power while the
French policy of assimilation faced some resentment, especially
in North Africa. France granted independence to Morocco and
Tunisia in 1956 to allow concentration on Algeria, where there
was a long and bloody armed struggle (1954–1962) to achieve
independence. Belgium's initial opposition to independence led
to the general unrest that swept the colony and a rapid granting
of independence and the civil strife that ensued.
(c) The main period of decolonization in Africa began after
World War-II. Growing independence movements, indigenous
political parties and trade unions coupled with pressure from
within the imperialist powers and the USA ensured the
decolonization of virtually the whole of the continent by 1980.
(2) Middle East
(a) Establishment of the League of Arab States.The Arab
League was established in March 1945, as a regional
organization of Arab states in North and Northeast Africa, and
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Southwest Asia. Decolonization and independence of several

Arab states prior to and after the World War-II compelled the
Arabs to have a joint forum to discuss issues of common
concern. The main goal of the league was to draw closer the
relations between member states and co-ordinate collaboration
between them. The Arab League facilitated to a great degree the
political, economic, cultural, scientific and social programs to
promote the interests of the Arab world. It also provided a forum
for the member states to coordinate their policy positions and to
settle some Arab disputes, but so far the Arab League has failed
to settle any of the contentious issues of the Arab World.
(b) Creation of Israel. Many Jews living in the diaspora had
long aspired to return to Zion (Jerusalem). Small groups of the
Jews continued to settle in Palestine from the time of Crusades.
However, the first large wave of modern immigration (known as
First Aliyah) began in the 19th century. The Jewish population
continued to increase in the region with its final figure of 33%
after the Fifth Ailyah, as a consequence of the holocaust during
the World War-II.
(c) After 1945, Britain found itself in fierce conflict with the
Jewish community, as the Jews initiated an armed struggle
against British rule. In 1947, the British government withdrew
from the Mandate of Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at
a solution acceptable to both the Arabs and the Jews. The newly
created UNO approved the Partition Plan for Palestine in
November 1947, which sought to divide the country into an
independent Arab and a Jewish state. Jerusalem was to be
designated an international city, administered by the UNO.
(d) The Jewish community accepted the plan, but the Arab
League rejected it for being unfair. In December 1947, the Arab
Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike. Civil war broke
out between the two communities and on 14th May 1948, the day
before the expiration of the British Mandate, the Jews
proclaimed independence, naming the country Israel. The
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Palestinian Arab economy collapsed and thousands of

Palestinian-Arabs fled or were expelled. Small Israeli state was
created in 1948, but the map of Greater Israel comprising of all
the Arab territories including Medina was hung in the Israeli
parliament.
(e) Arab-Israel War 1948. The following day, armies of
four Arab countries i.e. Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq, attacked
Israel, launching the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Saudi Arabia sent a
military contingent to operate under Egyptian command. Yemen
also declared war but did not take military action. After a year of
fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known
as the Green Line, were established. Jordan annexed what
became known as the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and
Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. About 700,000 Palestinian
refugees were expelled or fled the country during the conflict.
(f) Independence of Nation States. All the Arab countries
adopted their independent Nation State status. Syria and
Lebanon got independence from France and rest of the Arabs
divorced the British Empire. All these new nations refined their
inter-state boundaries peacefully through accords and treaties.
In North African Arab states, Egypt and Sudan got independence
from Britain, Libya from Italy, while Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco
won liberty from France.
(3) Indian Subcontinent
(a) Partition of Indian Subcontinent. Independence
movement continued during the World War-II, and Muslim
League could convince the Muslim population to vote for
independence. 1946 Elections was a litmus test and Muslim
League passed it positively. Muslim League candidates
prevailed over Congress candidates in the provinces of Bengal,
Punjab, Sind and NWFP. Baluchistan was annexed following
ratification by the tribal Jirga. Indian Subcontinent was finally
divided on night between 14th and 15th August 1947, the 27th
night of Ramadan-el-Karim.
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(b) Distrust Between India and Pakistan. India, dismayed

with the division of Indian Subcontinent, took the opportunity and
connived with the British authorities for manipulation in drawing
the borders. This unwelcoming attitude by the government of
India sowed the seeds of distrust between the two neighbors
right from the inception. There was a mass migration from both
sides of the newly drawn borders that was followed by waves of
killing and looting. Handling of millions of refugees added to the
problems for the newly formed government of Pakistan.
(c) Kashmir Problem. The conflict took its roots when
according to the formula of division, the Muslim majority State of
Jammu and Kashmir was not formed part of Pakistan. Raja Hari
Singh, the prince of the state, maliciously delayed the decision
resulting in deep suspicion by the government of Pakistan,
though it was in no position to take any action. Tribal groups
(Pushtun) from Northwest Pakistan took the initiative and waged
war against the state. Prince responded by immediately signing
the document of annexation with India. Indian forces, waiting for
the opportune moment, intervened and halted the tribal advance
on the ceasefire line (later declared as Line of Control). India
took the matter to the UNO, where a historical resolution was
passed that the future of the state will be decided by the people
of Jammu and Kashmir. India is unwilling to act according to UN
resolution and thus the conflict remains to be solved even after
half a century and two wars between India and Pakistan on the
issue of Kashmir.
4. Cold War Era (1945-1991)
a. The Cold War was the continuing state of political conflict, military
tension, proxy wars, and economic competition existing after World War-II,
primarily between the USSR and its satellite states, and the western powers,
particularly the USA. Although the primary participants' military forces never
officially clashed directly, they expressed the conflict through military
coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states
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deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, nuclear arms race,

and economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race.
b. There is disagreement among historians regarding the starting point of
the Cold War. While most historians trace its origins to the period immediately
following the World War-II, others argue that it began towards the end of the
World War-I. As a result of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (followed
by its withdrawal from the World War-I), Soviet Russia found itself isolated in
international diplomacy. Its leader Vladimir Lenin perceived the USSR to be
surrounded by a hostile capitalist encirclement, and used diplomacy as a
weapon to keep Soviet enemies divided. He began with the establishment
of the Soviet Comintern, which called for revolutionary upheavals
abroad. Subsequent leader Joseph Stalin pursued the USSR’s capitalist
encirclement to be replaced by a socialist encirclement. This initiated a period
of suspicion and distrust between the western powers and the USSR that was
substantiated by repeated interferences in each others internal problems and
occasional severing of diplomatic relations. Soviet–American relations became
a matter of major long-term policy concern for leaders in both countries.
c. Soviet relations with the West further deteriorated when one week prior
to the start of the World War-II, the USSR and Germany signed a pact to split
Poland and Eastern Europe between the two states. For the next year and a
half, both the powers engaged in an extensive economic relationship, trading
vital war materials until Germany invaded the USSR through the territories that
the two countries had previously divided. Resultantly, the USSR joined the
Allies in 1941. However, the suspicion based relations between the USSR and
the west casted its shadow on the conduct of battle with either side reluctantly
supporting the other’s plans.
d. At the end of the World War-II, the Allies disagreed about how the
European map should look like, and how borders would be drawn. The Allies
desired a security system in which democratic governments were established
as widely as possible, permitting countries to peacefully resolve differences
through international organizations. The USSR sought to increase security by
controlling the internal affairs of countries that bordered it. While the Allies
failed to reach a firm consensus on the framework for post-war settlement in
Europe, the Soviets effectively occupied Eastern Europe.
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e. The Cold War between the USSR and the Western powers continued
to deepen with every passing day. Both the sides openly manifested their bias
during the Korean War (1947–53) and the Chinese Civil War (1946-50). In
1947, the US government announced the adoption of containment
policy, the goal of which was to stop the spread of communism. In early
1948, the USA and the UK merged their western German occupation zones
into "Bizonia" (later "Trizonia" with the addition of France's zone), agreeing on
the merger of western German areas into a federal governmental system. The
USSR immediately proclaimed its zone of occupation in Germany as the
German Democratic Republic. It was followed by instituting of Berlin
Blockade by the USSR and huge airlift supplies to West Berlin by the
western powers, one of the first major crises of the Cold War.
f. The UK, the USA, France, Canada and eight other Western European
countries signed the North Atlantic Treaty of April 1949, establishing the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) with an aim to keep the
Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down. A major
propaganda effort begun in 1949 along with the broadcasts of the British
Broadcasting Company (BBC) and the Voice of America (VOA),
dedicated to bringing about a peaceful demise of the Communist
system.
g. In the early 1950s (a period sometimes known as the "Pactomania"),
the US formalized a series of alliances with Japan, Australia, New
Zealand, Thailand and the Philippines (notably ANZUS and SEATO),
thereby guaranteeing the USA a number of long-term military bases. Another
such alliance was also formed in the Middle East with the name of the
Central Treaty Organization (CENTO, also known as the Baghdad Pact).
The pro-Western, anti-communist military alliances of the Mid-east and
Southeast Asia were linked by the membership of Pakistan in both.
h. On the other side, the USSR created a network of mutual assistance
treaties in the Eastern Bloc by 1949 and therefore, situation in Europe
remained an uneasy armed truce. The USSR finally established a formal
alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955. All these developments led to an
Anglo-American alliance against the Soviets, establishing an Iron
Curtain between them. This was manifested by the USSR by
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construction of the Berlin Wall in June 1961, to stop massive emigration

of East Germans towards the west.
5. Developments following the initiation of the Cold War impacted significantly in
shaping the history of remaining part of the 20 th century. Both the rival powers
influenced directly or indirectly to achieve desirable outcome of all these events.

a. Chinese Revolution
(1) The Chinese Revolution in 1949 refers to the final stage of
military conflict (1946–1950) in the Chinese Civil War or according to
Communist Party of China, the War of Liberation. Communist elements
led by Mao Zedong were struggling to over throw the Chinese
government for over a decade, but with the breakdown of peace talks
between the Chinese Nationalist Party and the Communist Party of
China, an all-out war between these two forces started. The USSR
provided limited aid to the communists, whereas the USA assisted the
Nationalists with hundreds of millions of dollars worth of military
supplies and equipment (now surplus PLA munitions).
(2) By late 1948, the Nationalist position was bleak because of the
rampant corruption in government and the accompanying political and
economic chaos including massive hyperinflation. The demoralized and
undisciplined Nationalist troops proved no match for the communist
People's Liberation Army. After numerous operational setbacks in
Manchuria, the communists were ultimately able to seize the region and
capture large Nationalist formations. This provided them with the tanks,
heavy artillery, and other combined-arms assets needed to prosecute
offensive operations south of the Great Wall. In January 1949,
Beiping was taken by the communists without a fight, and its
name was changed back to Beijing. Between April and November,
major cities passed from Nationalist to Communist control with minimal
resistance. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns
had come under Communist influence long before the cities; part of the
strategy of people's war.
(3) Ultimately, the People's Liberation Army was victorious. In
October 1949, Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's
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Republic of China. Nationalist leader, Chiang Kai-Shek along with

600,000 nationalist troops, and about two million nationalist
sympathizer refugees, predominantly from the former government and
business communities of the mainland, retreated to the island of
Taiwan and proclaimed the Republic of China. In December 1949
Chiang proclaimed Taipei (Taiwan) as temporary capital of the
Republic, and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate
authority of all China. The last fighting between nationalist and
communist forces ended with the communist capture of Hainan Island
in May 1950.
b. Korean War (1950 – 1953)
(1) One of the most significant impacts of Russian containment by
the west was the outbreak of the Korean War. In June 1950, Kim Il
Sung's North Korean People's Army invaded South Korea. The UN
Security Council backed the defense of South Korea and a
multinational UN force joined to stop the invasion. Among other effects,
the Korean War galvanized NATO to develop a military structure.
(2) On the other hand, North Korea was backed by the USSR and
China. Even though the Chinese and North Koreans were exhausted by
the war and were prepared to end it by late 1952, Stalin insisted to
continue fighting. The war resulted in essentially a stalemate and
ceasefire along 38th Parallel in July 1953, after Stalin's death. South
Korea progressed with western influence, while the North Korean
leader, Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized dictatorship that
continues till today at the hands of his third generation.
c. East-West Competition. Nationalist movements in some countries
and regions, notably Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina (Southeast Asia)
were often allied with communist groups. In this context, the US and the
USSR increasingly competed for influence by proxy in the Third World as
decolonization gained momentum in the 1950s and early 1960s. The US
utilized the CIA in order to remove a string of unfriendly Third World
governments and to support allied ones. The CIA helped the local military
overthrow civilian governments hostile to the US. Restoration of the Shah
of Iran in 1953 and the military takeover in Guatemala in 1954 are few
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examples of these operations. Between 1954 and 1961, the US also sent
economic aid and military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam's pro-western
regime against communist efforts to destabilize it. The drive continued and the
USA landed its troops in the Dominican Republic in 1966, and the USSR
invaded Czechoslovakia in 1968, to offset any possibility of gaining a foothold
by the rival ideology in their respective domains.

d. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Many emerging nations of Asia,

Africa, and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose sides in the East-
West competition. In 1955, at a conference in Indonesia, dozens of Third
World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War. It led to the
creation of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. However, Moscow
broadened its policy to establish ties with India and other key neutral states.
Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order
into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Asian nations.
e. Nuclear and Space Race. On the nuclear weapons front, the US and
the USSR pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long-range weapons
with which they could strike the territory of the other. In August 1957, the
Soviets successfully launched the world's first intercontinental ballistic
missile (ICBM) and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik.
The launch of Sputnik initiated the Space Race which culminated in the
Apollo Moon landings by the USA in 1969.
f. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). The Soviet Union formed an alliance
with the Cuban leader Fidel Castro after the Cuban Revolution in 1959. In
1962, the USA responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a
naval blockade. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world closer to nuclear
war than ever before. It further demonstrated the concept of Mutually
Assured Destruction (MAD) that neither nuclear power was prepared to
use nuclear weapons fearing total destruction via nuclear retaliation. The
aftermath of the crisis led to the first sincere efforts in the nuclear arms race at
nuclear disarmament and improving relations.
g. Vietnam War (1965-73). The US continued to spend heavily on
supporting friendly Third World regimes in Asia. The USA deployed heavy
troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the National Front for the Liberation of
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South Vietnam and their North Vietnamese allies in the Vietnam War, but his
costly policy weakened the US economy and, by 1975, ultimately
culminated in what most of the world saw as a humiliating defeat of the
world's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world's
poorest nations.
h. Establishment of Sino-American Relations. As a result of the Sino-
Soviet split, tensions along the Chinese-Soviet border reached their peak in
1969, and US President Richard Nixon decided to use the conflict to shift the
balance of power towards the west in the Cold War. The Chinese had also
sought improved relations with the US in order to gain advantage over the
Soviets. In February 1972, US President Nixon announced a stunning
rapprochement with the Peoples Republic of China, by traveling to Beijing and
meeting with President Mao Zedong and Prime Minister Zhou Enlai. Pakistan
mediated the meeting and thus played a vital role in the shaping
international power dynamics at the peak of the Cold War.
i. Normalization of East-West Relations and Detente. Following his
China visit, President Nixon met with Soviet leaders in Moscow. These
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks resulted in two landmark arms control treaties
i.e. SALT-I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two
superpowers, and the Anti Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, which banned the
development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. These
aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic and nuclear missiles. US
President Nixon and Soviet President Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of
"peaceful coexistence" and established the groundbreaking new policy
of Detente (cooperation) between the two superpowers. Between 1972
and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties,
including agreements for increased trade.
j. Late 1970s Deterioration of Relations.Indirect conflicts between the
superpowers continued, even through this period of detente, particularly
during political crises in the Middle East, Chile, Ethiopia and Angola. Although,
the USA and the USSR negotiated further limitation on strategic arms through
SALT-II agreement in 1979, but these efforts were undermined by the other
events that year. Significant events during 1979 included the Iranian
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Revolution and the Nicaraguan Revolution, which both ousted pro-US

regimes, and the US retaliation against Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.
k. Afghanistan War
(1) During December 1979, heavy Soviet troops invaded
Afghanistan in order to support the Marxist government formed by ex-
Prime-minister Nur Muhammad Taraki, assassinated that September
by one of his party rivals. As a result, the USA withdrew the SALT-II
treaty from the Senate, imposed embargoes on grain and technology
shipments to the USSR, demanded a significant increase in military
spending, and further announced that the USA would boycott the 1980
Moscow Summer Olympics. The USA described the Soviet intervention
in Afghanistan as the most serious threat to the peace since the World
War-II.
(2) The Soviets were convinced that the war in Afghanistan would
be brief, but Muslim guerrillas waged a fierce resistance against the
invasion. The successful resistance movement was later exploited by
the USA and other countries. The Soviets sent troops to support its
puppet regime in Afghanistan, but Moscow's quagmire in Afghanistan
proved to be more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for
the Americans. Not only it brought a military defeat for the USSR, but
the conflict coincided with a period of internal decay and domestic crisis
in the Soviet system, eventually leading to the breakup of the USSR.
The USSR withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989.
l. Soviet and US Military and Economic Issues
(1) Moscow had built up a military that consumed as much as
25 percent of the USSR’s gross national product at the expense of
consumer goods and investment in civilian sectors. Soviet spending on
the arms race and other Cold War commitments both caused and
exacerbated deep-seated structural problems in the Soviet system.
(2) The Soviet military became the largest in the world in terms of
the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, in the number of
troops in their ranks, and in the sheer size of their military–industrial
base. By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and
army surpassing that of the USA. Tensions continued to intensify in
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the early 1980s when the USA installed cruise missiles in Europe,
and announced an experimental Strategic Defense Initiative,
dubbed "Star Wars" by the media, a defense program to shoot
down missiles in mid flight.
(3) With the military buildup by the USA, the USSR did not respond
by further building her military because the enormous military expenses
were already a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time,
the USA administration persuaded Saudi Arabia to increase oil
production to create the oil glut of 1980s. The move badly
affected the USSR, as oil was the main source of Soviet export
revenues. Falling oil prices and large military expenditures gradually
brought the Soviet economy to stagnation.
m. End of the Cold War
(1) By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev
became General Secretary in 1985, the stagnant Soviet economy
prompted him to investigate measures to revive the ailing state. An
ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes
were necessary and in June 1987, Soviet President Gorbachev
announced an agenda of economic reform called perestroika
(restructuring). Perestroika relaxed the production quota system,
allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign
investment.
(2) Despite initial skepticism in the west, the new Soviet leader
proved to be committed to reversing the USSR’s deteriorating
economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the
western rivals. Partly, as a way to fight off internal opposition from party
cliques to his reforms, President Gorbachev simultaneously
introduced glasnost (openness), which increased freedom of the
press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost also enabled
increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world,
particularly with the USA, reinvigorating the era of detente between the
two nations.
(3) In response to the USSR's military and political concessions, the
USA administration agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the
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scaling-back of the arms race. There was a series of talks from 1985 to
1987 that led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate-
Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). East–West tensions rapidly
subsided through 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in
1989, when President Gorbachev and President George Bush (senior)
signed the START-I arms control treaty.
(4) In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990
Gorbachev consented to German reunification. In December 1989,
President Gorbachev and President George Bush declared the
end of Cold War at the Malta Summit. A year later, the two nations
were partners in the Gulf War against long time Soviet ally Iraq.
n. Soviet Dissolution
(1) By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse,
and deprived of Soviet military support, the Communist leaders of the
Warsaw Pact states were losing power. In the USSR itself, glasnost
weakened the bonds that held the USSR together and by February
1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party
was forced to surrender its 73-year-old monopoly on state power.
(2) At the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by
glasnost increasingly led the Union's component republics to declare
their autonomy from Moscow. The Baltic States withdrew from the
Union entirely while the revolutionary wave that swept across Central
and Eastern Europe during 1989, overthrew the Soviet style communist
states, such as Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria.
Romania was the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist
regime violently and execute its head of state.
(3) The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup and a growing
number of Soviet republics, particularly Russia, who threatened to
secede from the USSR. The Commonwealth of Independent States,
created in December 1991, is viewed as a successor entity to the
USSR but, according to Russia's leaders, its purpose was to allow a
civilized divorce between the Soviet Republics. The USSR was
declared officially dissolved in December 1991. A similar effort by
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Chinese students in famous Tiananmen Square was crushed by

the Chinese government in April 1989.
(4) Central Asian Republics. With the breakup of former USSR,
seven independent states with a predominant Muslim population
emerged in Central Asia, namely Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. However,
draconian Russian occupation for about three quarters of a century left
deep imprints on the Muslim societies of these states. Moreover,
abundance of natural resources in the region put them highly
vulnerable to external influences. These states are still in the process of
gaining stability along with reverting to their rich Islamic heritage. In
sharp contrast to their understandable secular outlook, Islamist
elements of adjacent mainland Russian territory of Chechnya
revolted against the Federation, and continue to be a hard pill to
swallow for the Russians till to date.
(5) Bosnian Crisis
(a) Yugoslavia was one of the East European states that
witnessed the demise of the communism but failed to retain its
own integrity. Bosnia was a central region of former Yugoslavia
and therefore was peaceful and prosperous, besides being a
strategic base for military concentration and development of the
military defense industry. With the breakup of Yugoslavia, some
of its regions declared independence, putting Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and its three constituent peoples (Bosnian
Muslims, Croatian Catholics and Serbian Orthodox) in an
awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue
of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly
favored among Serbs) or seek independence (mostly favored
among Bosnians and Croats).
(b) Subsequently, Serbs and Croats both tried to lay hands
on the Bosnian territory to be annexed with their independent
states, but Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their sovereignty in
October 1991. It was followed by a referendum for independence
from Yugoslavia in early 1992 which was boycotted by the great
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majority of the Serbs. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared

independence on the basis of public approval in the referendum.
Following a tense period of escalating tensions and sporadic
military incidents, open warfare began in Sarajevo in April 1992.
The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively
ceased to function having lost control over the entire territory.
Bosnian Muslims, the only ethnic group loyal to the Bosnian
government, were an easy target for both the Serbs and the
Croats, because the Bosnian government forces were poorly
equipped and unprepared for the war.
(c) International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina
increased diplomatic pressure for the Yugoslavian forces to
withdraw from the republic's territory which they officially did.
However, in fact, the Bosnian Serb members of the Yugoslavian
forces simply changed insignia and continued fighting as an
irregular militia. Armed and equipped from military stockpiles
already available in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and
paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive
humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbian militia’s offensives in 1992
managed to place much of the Bosnian territory under its control.
(d) Bosnians’ houses and apartments were systematically
ransacked or burnt, Bosnian civilians were rounded up or
captured, and sometimes beaten or killed. Men and women were
separated, with many of the men detained in the camps and
women dishonored. Serbians conducted genocide and a
deliberate ethnic cleansing in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in which
almost 200,000 Bosnians were killed. Croats also unleashed
similar atrocities with the Bosnian Muslims. Over two million
refugees were displaced by the end of the war.
(e) A NATO bombing campaign against Serbian militia began
in August 1995. Meanwhile, a ground offensive by the allied
forces of Croatia and Bosnia, (based on a treaty concluded in
1994), pushed the Serbs away from territories held in Western
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Bosnia which paved the way to negotiations. In December 1995,

the signing of the Dayton Agreement by the presidents of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia brought a halt to the
fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present
day state. Pakistan played a positive role politically as well
as militarily to assist the Bosnian brethren.
6. Though, impressions of the Cold War can be traced in all the happenings of
the later half of the 20th century. However, decolonization and independence
movements across Asia, Africa and South America continued to take its own course.

a. Muslim World / Middle East

(1) Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC)
(a) Since centuries, the Muslims had aspired to have one
singular Ummah to address their common political, economic,
and social interests. Despite presence of many secularist,
nationalist and socialist ideologies, in modern Muslim states, all
of them cooperated together to form OIC in 1969. The formation
of OIC was also triggered by the loss of Muslim holy sites in
Jerusalem during Arab-Israel War of 1967. OIC has 57 member
and few observer states. Few countries like India and Philippine
also aspire to have an access to the organization but is opposed
by the member states.
(b) According to its charter, the OIC aims to preserve Islamic
social and economic values; promote solidarity amongst member
states; increase cooperation in social, economic, cultural,
scientific, and political areas; uphold international peace and
security; and advance education, particularly in the fields of
science and technology.
(c) The Organization has held periodical summits throughout
its history and leaders from across the Muslim World have been
giving some novel ideas to reinvigorate a true Islamic identity
and a due status in the modern world, but the organization has
so far proved to be a dragon without teeth. OIC summit of 1974,
hosted by Pakistan, and the decisions reached at during the
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conference, is considered to be one of its biggest

achievements.
(2) Arab-Israel Conflict
(a) Arab-Israel conflict continued and during the 1950s and
Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, mainly
from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. Arab nationalists led by
Egyptian President Jamal Abdel Nasser refused to recognize
Israel, calling for its destruction. By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations
had deteriorated to the point of actual battles taking place
between official Israeli and Arab forces. In 1967, Egypt
expelled UN peacekeepers, stationed in the Sinai Peninsula
since 1957, and announced a partial blockade of Israel's access
to the Red Sea. Israel launched the Six-Day War in which
Israel achieved a decisive victory and captured the West
Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights.
Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged and the 1949 Green Line
became the administrative boundary between Israel and the
occupied territories.
(b) The failure of the Arab states in the 1967 war led Arab
non-state actors to take the central role in the conflict. Most
important among them is the Palestinian Liberation
Organization (PLO), established in 1964, which initially
committed itself to armed struggle as the only way to
liberate the homeland. In the late 1960s and early 1970s,
Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks against Israeli
targets around the world, including massacre of Israeli athletes
at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich.
(c) On 6th October 1973, as Jews were observing Yom
Kippur, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise
attack against Israel. Egyptian Army made a stunning advance
across Suez Canal but failed to sustain its operations later. The
war ended with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian
forces but suffering great losses.
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(d) In 1977, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip

to Israel and spoke to the Jews’ leaders. It was the first ever
recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state. In the two
years that followed, both the sides signed the Camp David
Accord and the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Israel withdrew from
the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over
autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.
President Anwar El Sadat was later assassinated during a
military parade in October 1981.
(e) In 1982, Israel intervened in the Lebanese Civil War to
destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and
missiles at northern Israel. It initiated the First Lebanon War.
Notorious Sabra and Shatila massacre took place in the
Sabra and Shatila Palestinian refugee camps in Beirut.
Thousands of refugees were massacred in the camps by some
Lebanese Christian groups while the camp was surrounded by
Israeli forces. The Israeli forces occupied Beirut, dominated the
refugee camps of Palestinians and controlled the entrance to the
city. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but
maintained a borderland buffer zone until 2000.
(f) Hamas (Islamic Resistance Movement) emerged as a
Palestinian Islamist socio-political organization, with a
strong military wing. Based largely upon the principles of
Islamic fundamentalism, that were gaining momentum
throughout the Arab world in the 1980s, Hamas was founded
as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1987, during
the First Intifada. Sheik Ahmed Yassin declared in 1987 that
Hamas was founded for the purpose of Jihad, to liberate
Palestine from Israeli oppression and to establish an Islamic
state there. The Hamas affiliated military wing used the tactics
that included rocket attacks and from 1993, until they ceased in
2005, suicide bombings. The group maintains its strong following
in Gaza Strip while the West Bank territory is the stronghold of
PLO-inspired Al-Fatah group.
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(g) In 1992, the government of Israel adapted a policy to

promote compromise with Israel's neighbors. The following year,
the state of Israel and the PLO, signed the Oslo Accord,
which gave the Palestinian National Authority the right to
self govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The
PLO also recognized Israel's right to exist and pledged an end to
terrorism. In 1994, the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was
signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize
relations with Israel. However, Arab public support for the
Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements
and checkpoints. Israeli public support for the Accords also
waned as Israel was struck by Palestinian suicide attacks.
Finally, while leaving a peace rally in November 1995, Israeli
Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a far-right-
wing Jew who opposed the Accords.
(h) At the end of the 1990s, Israel withdrew from Hebron and
signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the
Palestinian National Authority. During 1999, the state of Israel
withdrew forces from Southern Lebanon, to mark the beginning
of the new millennium.
(3) Iranian Revolution (1979)
(a) Religious elements of Iranian society mobilized the
masses and staged a successful revolt against pro-west Iran's
monarchy (Pahlavi Dynasty) under Shah Mohammad Reza
Pahlavi and replaced it with an Islamic republic under Ayatollah
Ruhollah Khomeini. Common Iranians were angered with Shah’s
rule due to continuing economic strife, rampant corruption by the
Shah and his family and deliberate westernization of Iranian
society by the regime.
(b) Shia Muslim leadership led anti government protests,
which started in 1977 and continued to gain pace with every
passing day. No outside support or open use of military could put
a hold on the demonstrations. In September 1978, Shah
imposed Martial Law, but to no avail. On 8 September (Black
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Friday), millions of protestors walked across the streets of

Tehran and accepted several deaths at the hand of military. By
the end of 1978, Shah’s rule was so weak that he was only
looking for stay in Iran, which was never agreed to by the violent
protestors. Shah and his family left Iran in January 1979 and
Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran, after 14 years of exile, in
February 1979. He was given a warm welcome and made
“Supreme Leader” of Theocratic Iran in December 1979.
(c) By the end of 1979, demand for the return of Shah for trial
and execution grew in Iran. In November 1979 youthful Islamists,
invaded the US embassy compound and seized its 52 staff
members. The Hostage Crisis continued for several months
even after Shah’s death, with all the hostages released after
444 days in January 1980.
(4) Iran-Iraq War (1980 - 1988). In September 1980, the Arab
Nationalist and Sunni Muslim dominated regime of Saddam Hussein in
Iraq invaded Iran in an attempt to take advantage of revolutionary
chaos and destroy the revolution in its infancy. However, the cause of
the invasion can also be attributed to the history of border conflicts
between the two countries, Iraq’s urge to replace Iran as a major
Persian Gulf Power, and to prevent dormant Shia majority of Iraq to be
sensitized by the Iranian revolution. Iranians rallied behind their new
government helping to stop and then reversing the Iraqi advance. By
early 1982 Iran regained almost all the territory lost to Iraq. The USA
and other western powers openly came to support Iraq putting aside all
the differences arising from Arab-Israel conflict. War continued till 1988
with no worthwhile gain for any side. It however, ignited Shia-Sunni
strife across the Muslim World, Pakistan being worse hit.
(5) Afghan War and Rise of Jihadist Culture. Afghan resistance
struggle against Russian onslaught was mainly comprised of the local
religious elements. Soon after, the movement drew support from
various religious groups of Pakistan from across the border. These
dedicated volunteers stunned the world by frustrating the Russian
military might. Counting on the favorable prospects of the opportunity,
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the USA and her allies extended an all out support to the Muslim World
to wage Jihad against Russian Forces in Afghanistan. Call for Jihad
attracted many from across the Muslim World, who gathered in
Afghanistan, and stayed there for good. Jihadists were able to push
back Russian Forces by 1989, contributing to its eventual
disintegration, but Jihadist culture left deep imprints on the Muslim
societies across the World. It offered a new weapon to independence
and resistance movements. Jihadists on one hand started to pinch
various occupation forces, while on the other hand it threatened many
non representative governments across the Muslim World, especially in
the Arab World. Aligning themselves with the west, these Muslim rulers
went on to condemn and crush the Jihadists, thus initiating an internal
strife within various segments of the Muslim societies. However, it
goes without saying that some sectarian and frustrated outfits,
possibly supported by some secret agencies, adopted the new
trend to further their vested interests. It brought a bad name for
the sacred phenomena of Jihad, besides creating a near civil war
situation in the effected societies like Pakistan.
b. Africa. Decolonized Africa continued to suffer from the after
effects of the colonial period. Worse hit were resources rich ex-French
colonies in West African, ex-Belgian colony in Congo and ex-Portuguese
colony of Angola. Civil wars broke out in these countries and UNO was
compelled to deploy peace keeping forces to handle the situation. German
and Italian colonies (less Libya) also suffered from instability and economic
strife. British colonies in Africa remained relatively stable except for Sierra
Leone civil war in East Africa, Darfur crisis in Sudan and an anti-apartheid
movement in South Africa, led by Nelson Mandela.
c. South America. The continent became a battlefield of the Cold War
in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced
by the USA aligned military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of
these dictators, genocides and torturers were trained in violation of
human rights by the USA in the infamous School of the Americas. To
curtail opposition, these governments detained tens of thousands of political
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prisoners, many of whom were tortured or killed on inter-state collaboration.

Economically, South America began a transition to neoliberal economic
policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of
"National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and
1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict, Argentina and Britain fought the
Falklands war in 1982 and Colombia still faces an internal conflict at the hands
of private armies of powerful drug lords.
d. Indian Subcontinent
(1) Indo-Pak Wars. History of relations between the two
countries remained distorted. After the initial controversy over Kashmir
and teething problems for the newly formed government of Pakistan,
first to come was the border dispute over Rann of Kach in 1956. Later,
both the countries fought three major wars till to date.
(a) Indo-Pakistan War of 1965. After having failed to
persuade India to settle the Kashmir issue in accordance with
UN resolution, Pakistan decided to sensitize the Kashmiries and
support them to precipitate an insurgency (Operation Gibraltar)
against an unlawful Indian occupation there. India retaliated by
launching an all out war, not at all anticipated by Pakistan. The
five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and
was witness to the largest tank battle in military history since the
World War-II. It ended in a UNO mandated ceasefire and the
subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.
(b) Indo-Pakistan War of 1971. This war was precipitated by
the crisis brewing in erstwhile East Pakistan after 1970 Election
controversy in Pakistan. An ill perceived military operation in
East Pakistan (Operation Searchlight) to quell Indian sponsored
rebellion resulted in mass killings and resultant mistrust between
the two wings. Looking for an opportune moment, India
intervened in the garb of her apprehensions on impending
humanitarian crisis. After a failed pre-emptive strike by Pakistan,
full-scale hostilities between the two countries commenced.
Within two weeks of intense fighting, Pakistani forces
surrendered to India following which the People's Republic of
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Bangladesh was created. This war saw the highest number of

casualties in any of the Indo-Pakistan conflicts, as well as the
largest number of prisoners of war since the World War-II.
(c) Kargil War of 1999. The conflict between the two
countries was mostly limited to border skirmishes along northern
part of Line of Control. Pakistani troops along with Kashmiri
insurgents infiltrated across the Line of Control (Operation Koh-
e-Paima) and occupied Indian Territory mostly in the Kargil
district. Pakistan believed that its newly developed nuclear
weapons would deter a full-scale escalation, but India launched
a major military campaign to flush out the infiltrators. Due to
internal strife between the civil and military leadership and a
successful exterior maneuver by India, Pakistan was forced to
withdraw its forces back to pre-hostility period.
(d) No Peace-No War. Peace between the two nations
remained questionable even when there was no war. The region
always remained in No Peace-No War situation. There have
been quite a few peace initiatives between the two countries at
various occasions, but all these efforts terminated on some
impasse involving directly or indirectly the issue of Kashmir.
Besides, there have been some bitter periods in between,
especially during Sikh liberation movement of mid 1980s,
Kashmir independence movement of 1990s and military
gesturing by India in 1986, 2001 and 2008.
(2) South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation . Towards
the end of the Col War era, in 1984, Pakistan suggested to integrate
seven South Asian nations, namely India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives to form a regional block. The block
so farmed was named as South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC). SAARC played a major role in bringing closer its
member states and foster regional cooperation. Though the association
is not mandated to resolve soaring problems of the region, but it
provides a forum to maintain contact even during periods of high
tension between the member states. Given the member countries
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manage to resolve their mutual differences, the association has an

immense potential to benefit the member states through regional trade.
(3) Economic Cooperation Organization. Pakistan is also
connected with western and northwestern neighbors through Economic
Cooperation Organization (ECO). It is an intergovernmental regional
organization established in 1985 by Iran, Pakistan and Turkey for the
purpose of promoting economic, technical and cultural cooperation
among the member states. It was the successor organization of what
was the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD), founded in
1962, but ceased its activities in 1979. In 1992, the ECO expanded to
include seven new members, namely Afghanistan, Azerbaijan,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The
status and power of the ECO is growing. However, the organization
faces many challenges. Most importantly, the member states are
lacking appropriate infrastructure and institutions which the
Organization is primarily seeking to develop in order to make full use of
the available resources in the region. Pakistan also enjoys observer
status in China led Shanghai Cooperation Organization.
7. New World Order (1991 Onwards). The term "new world order" is
generally used to refer to any new period of history evidencing a dramatic change in
world political thought and the balance of power. The notion has been used with call
for a League of Nations following the devastation of World War-I, and again at the
end of World War-II when describing the plans for the UNO. The most widely
discussed application of the phrase of recent times came at the end of the Cold War,
when Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and President George Bush used the term to try
to define the nature of the post Cold War era, and the spirit of great power
cooperation that they hoped might materialize. Following significant developments
took place as a consequence of the new world order.
a. The USA Emerging as Sole Super Power. It took almost a year
before the notion of the new world order could be progressively redefined.
Throughout this period, the public seemed to expect much more from the
phrase than any politicians did, and predictions about the new order quickly
faded away. Expectations from the new world order included issues like
nuclear disarmament, UN strengthening, implications for NATO and the
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Warsaw Pact, European integration including inclusion of the Soviets in

international system and the polarity of the international system.
However, all this contemplation proved not more than just the rhetoric about
superpower cooperation. In fact, the deeper reality of the new world order was
that the USA emerged as the single greatest power in a multipolar world.
Practically, it was going to be a unipolar world.
b. Clash of Civilizations Theory. The theory was proposed by a
political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, in 1992, that people's cultural and
religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post Cold War
world. He hypnotized that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world
will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions
among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural.
Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the
principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of
different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global
politics and the fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of
the future. He also argued that the Islamic civilization has experienced a
massive population explosion which is fueling instability both on the borders of
Islam and in its interior, where fundamentalist movements are becoming
increasingly popular. Huntington predicted Islamic civilization as a
potential ally to China and likelihood of a Western-Islamic clash that
would represent the bloodiest conflicts of the early 21st century.
c. Gulf War-I (1990-91). One of the biggest surprises during rapidly
reshaping new world order was Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in August 1990.
Saddam Hussein with Iraq’s military might became a security threat, calling for
international support to punish the aggression. It became a litmus test for the
world powers to cooperate for global peace. US President Bush linked the fate
of the new world order on the ability of the US and Russia to respond to
Saddam Hussein’s aggression. Rallying the international support and UN
mandate, President Bush went on to lead the world community to an
unprecedented degree. The USA deployed bulk of the coalition’s troops
(approximately one million soldiers) in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to a great
dismay to the Muslims in general. Moreover, 40 billion USD of the 60 billion
USD cost was paid by Saudi Arabia. The USA emerged as the prime
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beneficiary of the crisis, convincingly establishing its unchallenged primacy.

The idea that the Gulf War would usher in the new world order began to take
shape. President Bush outlined his post Iraq War plan for maintaining a
permanent US Naval presence in the Gulf, for providing funds for Middle
East development, and for instituting safeguards against the spread of
unconventional weapons. The centerpiece of his program, however, was
stated to be the achievement of an Arab-Israeli treaty based on the
territory for peace principle.
d. Overt Nuclearization of South Asia (1998). India and Pakistan
surprised the world in 1998 by conducting nuclear explosions one after the
other. International community became deeply concerned and highly sensitive
to the possibility of nuclear proliferation beyond South Asia. Issues like
safeguarding nuclear assets from falling into the hands of extremists made
media headlines. Dr A.Q.Khan’s so called underground network also came
into lime light during this time. UN nuclear watchdog agency (IAEA) became
proactive giving rise to controversies over nuclear inspections by aspiring
states like Iran, Iraq and North Korea. Iraq’s power potential was decisively
destroyed during Iraq War of 2003, whereas Iran and North Korea continue to
suffer intense international pressure and tight scrutiny. Brazil is yet another
aspirant of the nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and therefore supports
similar stance by Iran. There is a deep suspicion in the west over the security
issues of Pakistan’s nuclear program as well.
e. Al-Qaeda Factor. Unscrupulous world leadership in general and the
Muslim leaders in particular, did not appreciate the need to bring erstwhile
Jihadists’ cadre into main stream, which then turned to concentrate in
Afghanistan and Africa. Later, this element shifted to Afghanistan after US
embassy bombings of 1998 in Nairobi (Kenya) and Dar-es-Salam (Tanzania).
The US launched a bombing campaign against suspected Al Qaeda hideouts
inside Afghanistan and Sudan, but to no gain. Later, USS Cole bombing in
Gulf of Aden in October 2000 and millennium attack plots including an
attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport compelled the
international community to take a serious note of the issue of terrorism.
Western media made Osama Bin Laden, the most wanted person of the
world and his network being the biggest security threat for world peace.
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Non state actors started to gain prevalence and terrorism became the order of
the day, especially in the Muslim societies. Taliban government in Afghanistan
came under heavy criticism from the west, despite its marvelous
achievements in restoring peace and eliminating poppy production. In the
absence of a prudent and bold leadership in the Muslim World, the practicing
Muslims were labeled as fundamentalists as against the westernized segment
of the Muslim societies, who were termed as moderates. It left a big majority of
the Muslims in a state of complete chaos between the two extremes. In
political realm, distinction between the freedom struggles and terrorist groups
diminished and occupation forces consolidated their control over disputed
territories, Kashmir and Palestine being worse effected.
f. Domination of Multinational Enterprise. Globalization of economy
through formal mechanisms like World Trade Organization (WTO) and
invisible forces like multinational corporations took roots towards the end of
the 20th century. Control of comparatively weaker Third World economies was
thus taken over by the strong economic bases in the west and the USA,
mostly dominated by the Jews. Gradually, most of the third world economies
lost their capacity and will to optimize their own resources rather than living on
the resuscitation of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and bailouts provided by
the World Bank (WB) and International Monitory Fund (IMF), against
disastrous conditions. Muslim World with its immense material and vibrant
human resource once again found themselves as the biggest losers in this
globalization drive.
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PART - 6
WORLD IN THE 21ST CENTURY

1. Global War on Terror. The Global War on Terror (also known as the World
War-III) is the ongoing international military campaign led by the USA and Britain with
the support of other NATO and some non-NATO countries like Pakistan. The
campaign was launched in 2001 with the invasion of Afghanistan in response to the
9/11 terrorist strikes on World Trade Centre, New York. Later, another operation was
launched against Iraq, beginning with a 2003 invasion. Both these operations were
originally waged against al-Qaeda and other terrorist organizations with the purpose
of eliminating them. The USA defined the objectives in the War on Terror as to
Defeat terrorists and destroy their organizations, deny sponsorship, support
and sanctuary to terrorists, and to enable weak states, persuade reluctant
states and compel unwilling states to win the war at any cost. The notion of War
on Terror is however, criticized for lacking a defined and identifiable enemy, thus
making it a potential framework for perpetual military action pursuing other goals like
American control of Middle East oil and subsequent domination of the world. US
Strategy of Unilateralism and Pre-emption came into full swing during the campaign.
a. Military Operations – Afghanistan
(1) Operation Enduring Freedom was the official name used by the
Bush administration for the War in Afghanistan. US President Bush
delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban government of Afghanistan
to turn over Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda leaders operating in
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the country or face attack. The Taliban government demanded

evidence of bin Laden's link to the 9/11 attacks. The US refused to
provide any evidence and in October 2001, US forces (with UK and
coalition allies) invaded Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime.
December 2001 saw the creation of the NATO-led International
Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to assist the Afghan Transitional
Administration and the first post-Taliban elected government led by
President Hamid Karzai.
(2) The invasion began with British and US forces conducting
deadly airstrike campaigns. Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan, fell by
mid November 2001. The remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban remnants
fell back to the rugged mountains of Eastern Afghanistan (Tora Bora). It
is believed that Osama bin-Laden escaped into the tribal areas of
Pakistan during the battle.
(3) In March 2002, the USA and other NATO and non-NATO forces
launched another operation with the hope that they will destroy the
remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in the mountains. The Taliban
suffered heavy casualties and partly retreated to the tribal areas of
Pakistan, through the porous border between the two countries, in
order to regroup and unleash an insurgent style offensive against
the US led forces in Afghanistan. Throughout Southern and Eastern
Afghanistan, firefights broke out between the surging Taliban and
Coalition forces. The USA and her allies responded with a series of
military offensives and an increase in the amount of troops in
Afghanistan, but to no avail. Moreover, international support for the US
cooled when America made clear its determination to invade Iraq in late
2002. Lately, coalition forces launched Operation Moshtarak in
February 2010, in Southern Afghanistan with the hope that they
will destroy the Taliban insurgency once and for all. This operation
also met the same fate as was the case before. Presently, peace talks
are underway between Taliban affiliated fighters and the coalition
forces. Force withdrawal plans have also been announced by the USA.
b. Military Operations – Philippines. In January 2002, the US forces
were deployed to the Philippines to advise and assist the Armed Forces of the
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Philippines in combating Filipino Islamist groups. The operations were mainly

focused on removing the Abu Sayyaf Group and Jemaah Islamiyah from their
strongholds.
c. Military Operations - Horn of Africa (Somalia). In October 2002,
the Combined Joint Task Force was established in Djibouti. The primary goal
of the task force was to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments
from entering the Horn of Africa region and affecting the US' Operation Iraqi
Freedom. The task force also monitors the activities of the Islamic Courts
Union, an Islamist faction campaigning on restoration of law and order
in Somalia through Shariah Law, and has rapidly taken control of much
of southern Somalia. Operations of the task force also included the training
of selected armed forces of the regional countries in counter-terrorism and
counter-insurgency tactics. Lately, the program expanded as part of the Trans-
Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative, to assist in training the armed forces of
Chad, Niger, Mauritania and Mali. Surprisingly, the Trans-Saharan
Counterterrorism Initiative does not take into account Sudan, where
hundred of thousands have died in an ongoing civil war.
d. Military Operations – Iraq
(1) Iraq was listed as a state sponsor of international terrorism
by the USA since 1990, when Saddam Hussein fell out of US favor.
After the Gulf War-I, the US, French and British militaries instituted and
began patrolling Iraqi no-fly zones in the garb of protecting Iraq's
Kurdish minority and Shia Arab population, both of which suffered
attacks from the Hussein regime before and after the Gulf War.
Meanwhile, the US forces continued its deployments and launched
another operation against Iraq in 1998 after it failed to meet US
demands of "unconditional cooperation" in weapons inspections. Iraq
responded by resuming its attempts to shoot down US aircrafts.
(2) In 1998, President Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act, which
called for regime change in Iraq on the basis of its alleged possession
of weapons of mass destruction, oppression of Iraqi citizens, and
attacks on other Middle Eastern countries. UN also offered Iraq a final
opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations, or to face
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serious consequences. However, UN resolution did not authorize

the use of force by member states.
(3) In October 2002, after failing to overcome opposition from
France, Russia and China, the USA assembled a Coalition of the
Willing, composed of nations who pledged support for its policy of
regime change in Iraq. Iraq was once again attacked in March 2003.
(4) US President Bush announced that major combat operations in
Iraq had ended. However, an insurgency arose against the US-led
coalition and the newly developing Iraqi military and post-Saddam
government. This insurgency led to far more coalition casualties than
the invasion. Elements of the insurgency were led by fugitive members
of President Saddam’s regime, Iraqi nationalists and Islamists who
claimed to be fighting a religious war to reestablish the Islamic
Caliphate of centuries past.
(5) In April 2004, images from Abu Ghuraib torture cell exposed the
true face of the US policy in Iraq. Third degree interrogation techniques
were used against the Iraqi youth in addition to their humiliation at the
hand of their captives. This episode was a big blow for the US led
Global War on Terror. Inhuman and humiliating treatment at Abu
Ghuraib surpassed that of Guantanamo Bay (Cuba) and Bagram
(Afghanistan) detention centers.
(6) In January 2007, President Bush presented a new strategy
for Operation Iraqi Freedom based upon counter-insurgency
theories and tactics developed by General David Petraeus (later
placed as the commander of US forces in Afghanistan). The Iraq
war troop surge of 2007 and US backing of Sunni groups, it had
previously sought to defeat, was part of this new way forward that has
been credited with a widely recognized dramatic decrease in violence in
Iraq. The war entered a new phase in September 2010, with the
official end of US combat operations. However, 50,000 US troops
remain in an advice and assist role to provide support for Iraqi security
forces.
e. Pakistan’s Involvement
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(1) Following the 9/11 attacks, former President of Pakistan,

General Pervez Musharraf sided with the USA against the Taliban
government in Afghanistan, after an ultimatum by the US President
George Bush. Musharraf succumbed to the pressure and agreed to
allow the use of three airbases for Operation Enduring Freedom.
President Musharraf addressed the people of Pakistan and stated
that, while he opposed military tactics against the Taliban,
Pakistan risked being endangered by an alliance of India and the
US if it did not cooperate. The decision was widely opposed by
various segments of Pakistani society; the political circles blamed
government for its inability to bargain a better deal, while the religious
elements termed it a betrayal to Muslim brethren of Afghanistan.
(2) In 2002, the Musharraf led government took a firm stand
against the jihadi organizations and groups promoting extremism,
and arrested Maulana Masood Azhar (Jaish-e-Mohammed) and Hafiz
Muhammad Saeed (Lashkar-i-Taiba), and took dozens of other activists
into custody. Some of them are still missing. An official ban was also
imposed on these groups. Later that year, the Saudi born Zayn al-Abidn
Muhammad Husain Abu Zubaydah, a high-ranking al-Qaeda official
was arrested by Pakistani officials during a series of joint US-Pakistan
raids. Other prominent al-Qaeda members were arrested in the
following two years, namely Ramzi Binalshibh, a financial backer of al-
Qaeda operations, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the third highest
ranking official in al-Qaeda and allegedly been directly in charge of the
planning for the September 11 attacks. Disappearance of Dr. Afia
Siddiqui also occurred during the same period.
(3) President Musharraf coined a new concept of Enlightened
Moderation. Initially, the concept drew attention of many as it promised
progressivism and multidimensional growth. However, its interpretation
and subsequent manifestation by the Musharraf administration further
deepened the internal strife. It was generally perceived to be a pro-west
strategy to suppress Islamic sentiment and to promote secular element
of the society. Electronic media played instrumental in the propagation
of the concept, but failed to win public approval.
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(4) In 2004 the Pakistani Army launched a campaign (Operation

Al Meezan) in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), to
flush out militants on Pakistani side of the Durand Line. The operation
confronted the religious groups with the military and thus attraction
widespread criticism from across the country. President Musharraf also
survived couple of suicide attempts launched by some of the militant
groups in 2004. The USA initiated a campaign of Drone attacks to
support the operations against so called common enemy, causing
thousands of deaths till today.
(5) Pakistan Army operations in FATA region triggered a near civil
war situation in various parts of the country. Taking advantage of the
situation, a military operation (Operation Destiny) was also
launched in Baluchistan to establish writ of government in the
tribal society. The operation could only worsen the problem, especially
after the tragic assassination of Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti in August
2006. Subsequently, self created judicial crisis and mishandling of Lal
Masjid operation by Musharraf administration triggered a new wave of
terror in the settled areas of Pakistan. Soon, Pakistan Army also found
itself confronted with yet another challenge in Swat Valley. Armed
struggle by Islamist radicals for enforcement of Sharia Law was
somehow hijacked by some foreign spy agencies inviting a military
response by the government. Operation Rah-i-Rast was launched in
2008, followed by Operation Rah-i-Nejat to regain control of the
valley.
f. Israel Taking Advantage of The Global War on Terror
(1) Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak initiated negotiations with the
Chairman of the Palestinian Authority, Yasser Arafat, at the 2000 Camp
David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the
establishment of a Palestinian state, but Yasser Arafat rejected it. After
the collapse of the talks and a controversial visit by Prime Minister
Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount, the Second Intifada began,
during late 2000. Israel employed military might for target killing of
Hamas leadership and to reduce its strongholds.
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(2) In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's

northern border communities and a cross border abduction of two
Israeli soldiers sparked the month long Second Lebanon War. At
the end of the year, Israel entered another conflict as a ceasefire
between Hamas and Israel collapsed. The Gaza War lasted three
weeks ending with Israel’s announcement of ceasefire under
immense international pressure. Hamas also announced ceasefire,
with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of border
crossings with Egypt.
2. Nations, Regions and Organizations in the 21st Century
a. Inefficacy of UNO. Emergence of the new world order and US strategy
of unilateralism exposed the inefficacy of the UNO to address the global
challenges and security concerns of the 21 st century. Reformation of the UNO
by enhancing its relevance and effectiveness for the world’s people in the 21 st
century thus became a priority concern of the member states. However, only a
lip service has been extended by the major powers to address this sensitive
issue. No concrete steps have been initiated so far and UNO is proceeding
with its conventional role. Besides its failure in handling the security issues
world over, much boasted Millennium Development Goals, scheduled to be
completion by 2015, are falling far behind in timeline. Some emerging
nations are also aspiring to join the powerful club of UN Security
Council, namely Germany, Japan, Brazil and India.
b. EU Providing Counter Weight
(1) The European Union (EU) was established in 1993 as an
economic and political union of 27 member states which are located
primarily in Europe. Committed to regional integration, it continued to
expand till 2007. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date
when ten Eastern European nations joined the Union. There are four
official candidate countries, Croatia, Iceland, Macedonia, and Turkey.
EU has also recognized Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Montenegro, and Serbia are as potential candidates.
(2) The EU has devised the common foreign and security policy,
thus developing a limited role in European defense and foreign policy.
Permanent diplomatic missions of the EU are established around the
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world and representation at the UNO, WTO, G-8 and G-20 is

maintained. The union has emerged as a potent political entity and a
counter weight in the unipolar world led by the USA.
(3) The EU has developed a single market through a standardized
system of laws which apply in all member states, and ensures the free
movement of people, goods, services, and capital, including the
abolition of passport controls by the Schengen Agreement
between 22 EU states. 16 member states have adopted a common
currency, the EURO, constituting the eurozone.
c. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) In New World Order.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization has also witnessed unprecedented
expansion during recent years. After the end of the Cold War, there was a
debate in NATO about continued expansion eastward. In 1999, Poland,
Hungary, and the Czech Republic were added to the organization, amid much
debate within the organization and Russian opposition. Another expansion
came in March 2004, with the accession of seven Eastern European
countries. Most recently, Albania and Croatia joined in April 2009. Future
expansion is currently a topic of debate in many countries. With the expansion
of NATO in the aftermath of the Cold War, member nations also debated on
the new role of the organization. After the demise of the Communism,
Islamic Fundamentalism was taken as the common enemy of the free
world.
d. USA on Decline. The USA has lost much more than what she has
gained, as world sole super power, during the first decade of the 21st century.
The USA has lost moral authority by initiating the global war on terror on
falsehood and invading Iraq without a UN mandate. A protracted and
unsuccessful battle in Afghanistan is also responsible for this decline. The
USA is losing support, both at home and abroad, for her ongoing war on
terror. Moreover, malicious US foreign policy has also been exposed to the
international community, especially the Muslim World, by terming the war on
terror as Crusades by US President Bush, deliberately targeting the Muslim
strongholds in the name of war against terrorism and exhibiting double
standards on extremely sensitive international issues. With this downward
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trend, the USA is likely to lose her singular world power status to some other
nation / organization in future.
e. China Gaining Power
(1) One of the defining features of the early 21 st century is the rise of
China. What is extraordinary about this development is the Chinese
assertion that its rise will be peaceful and the apparent willingness of
the international community to accept this claim. Historically, a strong
and dominant China has been a force for stability in the region with no
record of her aspiration to project herself as the dominant power in the
region or at the world stage.
(2) China has seen an extraordinary growth in her GDP at an
average pace of up to 10% during recent years. They now have the 2 nd
largest economy in the world. Sometime between 2030 and 2050,
China is likely to overtake the USA, as the largest economy in the
world. With the exception of Taiwan and to a much lesser extent Japan
and India, the Asian states view their economic inter-dependence with
China as a positive factor that will enable the rise of China to be
mutually beneficial.
(3) China has made a steady progress on the political front as well.
China has integrated herself with the international community through
various economic, political and military alliances. Establishment of
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a case in point. It is
an intergovernmental mutual-security organization which was founded
in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Several regional countries have
observer status in the organization. NATO also views China as a rising
nations and is looking forward for a better understanding with China to
pursue common security interests.
(4) The western powers view the development with skepticism. It is
hard for them to visualize the world, if China gains the status for setting
the global standards for everything from climate change and the
exploration of outer space to human rights and censorship. But the fact
of the matter is that China continues to capture ground as an important
world power.
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f. South America. During the first decade of the 21st century, South
American governments have drifted to the political left, with socialist leaders
gaining power in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay
and Venezuela. Despite the move to the left, South America for the most part
still embraces free market policies, and it is taking an active path toward
greater continental integration. Recently, an intergovernmental entity has
been formed, making it the third-largest trade bloc in the world. This new
political organization known as Union of South American Nations seeks to
establish free movement of people, economic development, a common
defense policy and the elimination of tariffs. South American countries have
also experienced significant economic growth during recent years. Brazil is
the most important nation of the region that has emerged as the seventh
largest economy in the world. However, the economic gap between the rich
and poor in most South American nations is considered to be larger than in
most other continents.
g. Africa. African nations were among the last ones to unite and be
the master of their own destiny. Libyan President Qaddafi took the
initiative in July 2002, and convinced the leaders of 53 African nations to
form the African Union (AU). Among the objectives set forth by the AU are to
accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent; to
promote and defend African common positions on issues of interest to the
continent and its peoples; to achieve peace and security in Africa; and to
promote democratic institutions, good governance and human rights. AU has
also deployed its peace keeping missions, both independently and with UNO,
in some of African countries. Lately, President Qaddafi has advanced the
idea of a United States of Africa (USA). Having since described the AU
as a failure, President Qaddafi has asserted that only a true pan-African
state can provide stability and wealth to Africa.
h. India. India has made considerable progress in strengthening her
economy during the first decade of 21st century. Economic reforms process
initiated in 1990s, has yielded good results making India an economic power
house in the region. India has also made stunning growth in IT sector and has
acquired a world leader status in the field. However, India’s dream of playing a
global role is far from being achieved. Her ever stronger economy is always
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haunted by a big portion of her population living below poverty line and much
boasted political stability is continually challenged by separatist struggles by
the Kashmiries, Maoists and many other peripheral communities. Recently,
Indian credibility has suffered a big blow during the preparation and
organization of Common Wealth games - 2010. Worst to come is the failure of
her back door entry into Afghanistan along with the failing US led war on
terror. However, India has emerged as an important US partner in the region.
i. Muslim World
(1) OIC. OIC with all its potentials remains to be dormant at world
stage. The forum has so far failed to provide leadership to the Ummah,
despite all the destruction and humiliation by the USA and its allies. Iraq
stands destroyed, Afghanistan being punished and Iran and Pakistan
on the list. OIC will have to take its role in the obtaining environments
otherwise it will lose the justification for its existence.
(2) Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia remains to be the undisputed
spiritual centre of the Muslim World with the exception of some
reservations by the Shia Muslims. Saudi Arabia has extended extra
ordinary facilities for the Pilgrims and wholeheartedly hosts millions of
the Pilgrims every year. In the absence of any central political
leadership, Saudi Arabia is likely to continue with its current spiritual
status. Pakistan maintains exemplary relations with KSA.
(3) Iran. Iran has emerged as a strong nation in recent years.
Valiant and prudent leadership of Iran has forced the USA to change
her tone. Iran has been instrumental in the formation of post-Saddam
Iraqi government, and continues to exert her influence in Lebanon and
Afghanistan crises. Besides, Iran’s nuclear program goes unabated
despite all odds. President Ahmadinejad is an outspoken critic of the
USA, Israel, and Britain, and their so called war against terror. Raising
a candid voice for the concerns of the Muslim World, by President
Ahmadinejad, has also been well appreciated by all.
(4) Turkey. Turkey has reverted out of her secular outlook, it
had adopted after the World War-I. With Prime Minister Tayyab
Erdogan’s conservative Islamic party gaining power in 2002 elections,
Turkey has come up as a moderate Muslim state with a strong
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leadership. The new leadership has rejected all the criticism from the
west, introduced amendments through referendum to change the
secular complexion of the constitution and has very vividly pursued
Palestinian issue at the world forum. Turkish support to the Palestinian
brethren came to lime light with Israeli raid on a Turkish flag bearer
flotilla in May 2010, resulting in severing of relations between the two
countries.
(5) Malaysia. Malaysia has made exponential economic
growth during last two decades. Once known as the Asian Tiger,
Malaysia owes a lot to her visionary leader Dr. Mahatir Muhammad.
Malaysia offers a living model of a home grown progressive society for
the entire Muslim World. Lately, Dr. Mahatir Muhammad’s endeavor to
rally the Muslim World at OIC’s platform could not generate a positive
response due to self serving interests of the member states.
(6) Pakistan. Pakistan has entered the 21st century at a decisive
juncture of her history. Pakistan has made a good progress since
independence, but the nation is still in search of its true identity. Time
has finally placed, face to face, various divergent and conflicting
schools of thought with regards to the destiny of Pakistani Nation.
Picking up threads from the history of distrust between the eastern and
western wings, rise of mean and short sighted leadership to mishandle
the 1971 crisis, musical chair between military dictatorships and feeble
political outfits, political arm twisting during short lived democratic
periods, promotion of Jihadist culture and resultant polarization of
society along religious and ethnic lines, frontline status in the
controversial war on terror and so called concept of enlightened
moderation, and last but not the least, a corrupt and inefficient political
government formed after Elections 2008, has compelled a decisive
moment onto the nation. The nation of energetic youth and immense
power potential is itching for a positive change. Recently, the nation has
realized its resolve and commitment during the crises caused by the
natural calamities of 2005 and 2010, as well as the movement for
restoration of Judiciary. The course has already been set and it is only
a matter of time that the nation will steer out of the prevalent chaos and
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rise to the heights of glory. An Islamic and democratic Pakistan is

destined to become a powerful nation of the world and provide much
awaited leadership to the Ummah for a common good.