AERODYNAMIC FORCES

When two solid objects interact in a mechanical process, forces are transmitted, or
applied, at the point of contact. But when a solid object interacts with a fluid, things are
more difficult to describe because the fluid can change its shape. For a solid body
immersed in a fluid, the "point of contact" is every point on the surface of the body. The
fluid can flow around the body and maintain physical contact at all points. The
transmission, or application, of mechanical forces between a solid body and a fluid
occurs at every point on the surface of the body. And the transmission occurs through the
fluid pressure.
Variation in Pressure
The magnitude of the force acting over a small section of an object immersed in a fluid
equals the pressure p times the area A of the section. A quick units check shows that:
p * A = (force/area) * area = force
As discussed on the fluid pressure slide, pressure is a scalar quantity related to the
momentum of the molecules of a fluid. Since a force is a vector quantity, having both
magnitude and direction, we must determine the direction of the force. Pressure acts
perpendicular (or normal) to the solid surface of an object. So the direction of the force
on the small section of the object is along the normal to the surface. We denote this
direction by the letter n.
The normal direction changes from the front of the airfoil to the rear and from the top to
the bottom. To obtain the net mechanical force over the entire solid object, we must sum
the contributions from all the small sections. Mathematically, the summation is indicated
by the Greek letter sigma ( p * A * n
In the limit of infinitely small sections, this gives the integral of the pressure times the
area around the closed surface. Using the symbol S dA for integration, we have:
F = S (p * n) dA
where the integral is taken all around the body. On the figure, that is why the integral sign
has a circle through it.
If the pressure on a closed surface is a constant, there is no net force produced because
the summation of the directions of the normal adds up to zero. For every small section
there is another small section whose normal points in exactly the opposite direction.
F = S (p * n) dA = p * S n dA = 0
For a fluid in motion, the velocity has different values at different locations around the
body. The local pressure is related to the local velocity, so the pressure also varies around
 the closed surface and a net force is produced. Summing the pressure perpendicular to
the surface times the area around the body produces a net force.
F = S (p * n) dA
Definitions of Lift and Drag
Since the fluid is in motion, we can define a flow direction along the motion. The
component of the net force perpendicular (or normal) to the flow direction is called the
lift; the component of the net force along the flow direction is called the drag. These are
definitions. In reality, there is a single, net, integrated force caused by the pressure
variations along a body. This aerodynamic force acts through the average location of the
pressure variation which is called the center of pressure.
Velocity Distribution
For an ideal fluid with no boundary layers, the surface of an object is a streamline. If the
velocity is low, and no energy is added to the flow, we can use Bernoulli's equation along
a streamline to determine the pressure distribution for a known velocity distribution. If
boundary layers are present, things are a little more confusing, since the external flow
responds to the edge of the boundary layer and the pressure on the surface is imposed
from the edge of the boundary layer. If the boundary layer separates from the surface, it
gets even more confusing. How do we determine the velocity distribution around a body?
Specifying the velocity is the source of error in two of the more popular incorrect
theories of lift. To correctly determine the velocity distribution, we have to solve
equations expressing a conservation of mass, momentum, and energy for the fluid passing
the object. In some cases, we can solve simplified versions of the equations to determine
the velocity.
Summary
To summarize, for any object immersed in a fluid, the mechanical forces are transmitted
at every point on the surface of the body. The forces are transmitted through the pressure,
which acts perpendicular to the surface. The net force can be found by integrating (or
summing) the pressure times the area around the entire surface. For a moving flow, the
pressure will vary from point to point because the velocity varies from point to point. For
some simple flow problems, we can determine the pressure distribution (and the net
force) if we know the velocity distribution by using Bernoulli's equation.

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DYNAMIC PRESSURE
An important property of any gas is its pressure. Because understanding what pressure is and how it works is so
fundamental to the understanding of aerodynamics and propulsion, we are including several slides on pressure in the
Beginner's Guide.

There are two ways to look at pressure: (1) the small scale action of individual air molecules or (2) the large scale action
of a large number of molecules. On the the small scale, from the kinetic theory of gases, a gas is composed of a large
number of molecules that are very small relative to the distance between molecules. The molecules of a gas are in
constant, random motion and frequently collide with each other and with the walls of any container. During collisions
with the walls, there is a change in velocity and therefore a change in momentum of the molecules. The change in
momentum produces a force on the walls which is related to the gas pressure. The pressure of a gas is a measure of
the average linear momentum of the moving molecules of a gas. On the large scale, the pressure of a gas is a state
variable, like the temperature and the density. The change in pressure during any process is governed by the laws of
thermodynamics. Although pressure itself is a scalar quantity, we can define a pressure force to be equal to the
pressure (force/area) times the surface area in a direction perpendicular to the surface. If a gas is static and not flowing,
the measured pressure is the same in all directions. But if the gas is moving, the measured pressure depends on the
direction of motion. This leads to the definition of the dynamic pressure.

To understand dynamic pressure, we begin with a one dimensional version of the conservation of linear momentum for
a fluid.

r * u * du/dx = - dp/dx

where r is the density of the gas, p is the pressure, x is the direction of the flow, and u is the velocity in the x direction.
Performing a little algebra:

dp/dx + r * u * du/dx = 0

For a constant density (incompressible flow) we can take the "r * u" term inside the differential:

dp/dx + d(.5 * r * u^2)/dx = 0

and then gather all of the terms:

d(p + .5 * r * u^2)/dx = 0

Integrating this differential equation:

ps + .5 * r * u^2 = constant = pt

This equation looks exactly like the incompressible form of Bernoulli's equation. Each term in this equation has the
dimensions of a pressure (force/area); ps is the static pressure, the constant pt is called the total pressure, and

.5 * r * u^2

is called the dynamic pressure because it is a pressure term associated with the velocity u of the flow. Dynamic
pressure is often assigned the letter q in aerodynamics:

q = .5 * r * u^2

The dynamic pressure is a defined property of a moving flow of gas. We have performed this simple derivation to
determine the form of the dynamic pressure, but we can use and apply the idea of dynamic pressure in much more
complex flows, like compressible flows or viscous flows. In particular, the aerodynamic forces acting on an object as it
moves through the air are directly proportional to the dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure is therefore used in the
definition of the lift coefficient and the drag coefficient. As we have seen, dynamic pressure appears in Bernoulli's
equation even though that relationship was originally derived using energy conservation. By measuring the dynamic
pressure in flight, a pitot tube can be used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft.
_______________________________________________________________________

CENTER OF PRESSURE

As an object moves through a fluid, the velocity of the fluid varies around the surface of
the object. The variation of velocity produces a variation of pressure on the surface of the
object as shown by the the thin red lines on the figure. Integrating the pressure times the
surface area around the body determines the aerodynamic force on the object. We can
consider this single force to act through the average location of the pressure on the
surface of the object. We call the average location of the pressure variation the center of
pressure in the same way that we call the average location of the weight of an object the
center of gravity. The aerodynamic force can then be resolved into two components, lift
and drag, which act through the center of pressure in flight.
Determining the center of pressure is very important for any flying object. To trim an
airplane, or to provide stability for a model rocket or a kite, it is necessary to know the
location of the center of pressure of the entire aircraft. How do engineers determine the
location of the center of pressure for an aircraft which they are designing?
In general, determining the center of pressure (cp) is a very complicated procedure
because the pressure changes around the object. Determining the center of pressure
requires the use of calculus and a knowledge of the pressure distribution around the body.
We can characterize the pressure variation around the surface as a function p(x) which
indicates that the pressure depends on the distance x from a reference line usually taken
as the leading edge of the object. If we can determine the form of the function, there are
methods to perform a calculus integration of the equation. We will use the symbols "S[ ]
dx" to denote the integration of a continuous function. Then the center of pressure can be
determined from:
cp = (S[x * p(x)]dx) / (S[p(x)]dx)
If we don't know the actual functional form, we can numerically integrate the equation
using a spreadsheet by dividing the distance into a number of small distance segments
and determining the average value of the pressure over that small segment. Taking the
sum of the average value times the distance timesthe distance segment divided by the
sum of the average value times the distance segment will produce the center of pressure.
There are several important problems to consider when determining the center of pressure
for an airfoil. As we change angle of attack, the pressure at every point on the airfoil
changes. And, therefore, the location of the center of pressure changes as well. The
movement of the center of pressure caused a major problem for early airfoil designers
because the amount (and sometimes the direction) of the movement was different for
different designs. In general, the pressure variation around the airfoil also imparts a
torque, or "twisting force", to the airfoil. If a flying airfoil is not restrained in some way it
will flip as it moves through the air. (As a further complication, the center of pressure
also moves because of viscosity and compressibility effects on the flow field. But let's
save that discussion for another page.)
To resolve some of these design problems, aeronautical engineers prefer to characterize
the forces on an airfoil by the aerodynamic force, describedabove, coupled with an
aerodynamic moment to account for the torque. It was found both experimentally and
analytically that, if the aerodynamic force is applied at a location 1/4 chord back from the
leading edge on most low speed airfoils, the magnitude of the aerodynamic moment
remains nearly constant with angle of attack. Engineers call the location where the
aerodynamic moment remains constant the aerodynamic center of the airfoil. Using the
aerodynamic center as the location where the aerodynamic force is applied eliminates the
problem of the movement of the center of pressure with angle of attack in aerodynamic
analysis. (For supersonic airfoils, the aerodynamic center is nearer the 1/2 chord
location.)
When computing the trim of an aircraft, model rocket, or kite, we usually apply the
aerodynamic forces at the aerodynamic center of airfoils and compute the center of
pressure of the vehicle as an area-weighted average of the centers of the components.
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AERODYNAMIC CENTER

As an object moves through a fluid, the velocity of the fluid varies around the surface of
the object. The variation of velocity produces a variation of pressure on the surface of the
object. Integrating the pressure times the surface area around the body determines the
aerodynamic force on the object. We can consider this force to act through the average
location of the pressure on the surface of the object. We call the average location of the
pressure variation the center of pressure in the same way that we call the average location
of the weight of an object the center of gravity. In general, the pressure distribution
around the object also imparts a torque, or moment, on the object. If a flying airfoil is not
controlled in some way it will tumble as it moves through the air.
If we consider an airfoil at angle of attack, we can (theoretically) determine the pressure
variation around the airfoil, and calculate the aerodynamic force and the center of
pressure. But if we change the angle of attack, the pressure distribution changes and
therefore the aerodynamic force and the location of the center of pressure and the
moment all change. So determining the aerodynamic behavior of an airfoil is very
complicated if we use the center of pressure to analyze the forces. We can compute the
moment about any point on the airfoil if we know the pressure distribution. The
aerodynamic force will be the same, but the value of the moment depends on the point
where that force is applied. It has been found both experimentally and theoretically that,
if the aerodynamic force is applied at a location 1/4 chord back from the leading edge on
most low speed airfoils, the magnitude of the aerodynamic moment remains nearly
constant with angle of attack. Engineers call the location where the aerodynamic moment
remains constant the aerodynamic center (ac) of the airfoil. Using the aerodynamic
center as the location where the aerodynamic force is applied eliminates the problem of
the movement of the center of pressure with angle of attack in aerodynamic analysis.
(For supersonic airfoils, the aerodynamic center is nearer the 1/2 chord location.)
For symmetric airfoils, the aerodynamic moment about the ac is zero for all angles of
attack. With camber, the moment is non-zero and constant for thin airfoils. For a positive
cambered airfoil, the moment is negative and results in a counter-clockwise rotation of
the airfoil. With camber, an angle of attack can be determined for which the airfoil
produces no lift, but the moment is still present. For rectangular wings, the wing ac is the
same as the airfoil ac. But for wings with some other planform (triangular, trapezoidal,
compound, etc.) we have to find a mean aerodynamic center (mac) which is the
average for the whole wing. The computation of the mac depends on the shape of the
planform.
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SIMILAR PARAMETERS

As an object moves through the atmosphere, the gas molecules of the atmosphere near the
object are disturbed and move around the object. Aerodynamic forces are generated between the
gas and the object. The magnitude of these forces depend on the shape of the object, the speed
of the object, the mass of the gas going by the object and on two other important properties of the
gas; the viscosity, or stickiness, of the gas and the compressibility, or springiness, of the gas.
To properly model these effects, aerodynamicists use similarity parameters, which are ratios of
these effects to other forces present in the problem. If two experiments have the same values for
the similarity parameters, then the relative importance of the forces are being correctly modeled.
Representative values for the properties of air are given on another page, but the actual value of
the parameter depends on the state of the gas and on the altitude.

Aerodynamic forces depend in a complex way on the viscosity of the gas. As an object moves
through a gas, the gas molecules stick to the surface. This creates a layer of air near the surface,
called a boundary layer, which, in effect, changes the shape of the object. The flow of gas reacts
to the edge of the boundary layer as if it was the physical surface of the object. To make things
more confusing, the boundary layer may separate from the body and create an effective shape
much different from the physical shape. And to make it even more confusing, the flow conditions
in and near the boundary layer are often unsteady (changing in time). The boundary layer is very
important in determining the drag of an object. To determine and predict these conditions,
aerodynamicists rely on wind tunnel testing and very sophisticated computer analysis.
The important similarity parameter for viscosity is the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number
expresses the ratio of inertial (resistant to change or motion) forces to viscous (heavy and
gluey) forces. From a detailed analysis of the momentum conservation equation, the inertial
forces are characterized by the product of the density r times the velocity V times the gradient of
the velocity dV/dx. The viscous forces are characterized by the viscosity coefficient mu times the
second gradient of the velocity d^2V/dx^2. The Reynolds number Re then becomes:

Re = (r * V * dV/dx) / (mu * d^2V/dx^2)

Re = (r * V * L) / mu

where L is some characteristic length of the problem. If the Reynolds number of the experiment
and flight are close, then we properly model the effects of the viscous forces relative to the inertial
forces. If they are very different, we do not correctly model the physics of the real problem and
predict incorrect levels of the aerodynamic forces.

Aerodynamic forces also depend in a complex way on the compressibility of the gas. As an
object moves through the gas, the gas molecules move around the object. If the object passes at
a low speed (typically less than 200 mph) the density of the fluid remains constant. But for high
speeds, some of the energy of the object goes into compressing the fluid and changing the
density, which alters the amount of resulting force on the object. This effect becomes more
important as speed increases. Near and beyond the speed of sound (about 330 m/s or 700 mph
on earth), shock waves are produced that affect the lift and drag of the object. Again,
aerodynamicists rely on wind tunnel testing and sophisticated computer analysis to predict these
conditions.

The important similarity parameter for compressibility is the Mach number - M, the ratio of the
velocity of the object to the speed of sound a.

M=V/a

The Mach number appears as a scaling parameter in many of the equations for compressible
flows, shock waves, and expansions. When wind tunnel testing, you must closely match the Mach
number between the experiment and flight conditions. It is completely incorrect to measure a drag
coefficient at some low speed (say 200 mph) and apply that drag coefficient at twice the speed of
sound (approximately 1400 mph, Mach = 2.0). The compressibility of the air alters the important
physics between these two cases.

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REYNOLDS NUMBER

As an object moves through the atmosphere, the gas molecules of the atmosphere near the
object are disturbed and move around the object. Aerodynamic forces are generated between the
gas and the object. The magnitude of these forces depend on the shape of the object, the speed
of the object, the mass of the gas going by the object and on two other important properties of the
gas; the viscosity, or stickiness, of the gas and the compressibility, or springiness, of the gas.
To properly model these effects, aerodynamicists use similarity parameters which are ratios of
these effects to other forces present in the problem. If two experiments have the same values for
the similarity parameters, then the relative importance of the forces are being correctly modeled.
Representative values for the properties of air are given on another page, but the actual value of
the parameter depends on the state of the gas and on the altitude.

Aerodynamic forces depend in a complex way on the viscosity of the gas. As an object moves
through a gas, the gas molecules stick to the surface. This creates a layer of air near the surface,
called a boundary layer, which, in effect, changes the shape of the object. The flow of gas reacts
to the edge of the boundary layer as if it was the physical surface of the object. To make things
more confusing, the boundary layer may separate from the body and create an effective shape
much different from the physical shape. And to make it even more confusing, the flow conditions
in and near the boundary layer are often unsteady (changing in time). The boundary layer is very
important in determining the drag of an object. To determine and predict these conditions,
aerodynamicists rely on wind tunnel testing and very sophisticated computer analysis.

The important similarity parameter for viscosity is the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number
expresses the ratio of inertial (resistant to change or motion) forces to viscous (heavy and
gluey) forces. From a detailed analysis of the momentum conservation equation, the inertial
forces are characterized by the product of the density r times the velocity V times the gradient of
the velocity dV/dx. The viscous forces are characterized by the dynamic viscosity coefficient mu
times the second gradient of the velocity d^2V/dx^2. The Reynolds number Re then becomes:

Re = (r * V * dV/dx) / (mu * d^2V/dx^2)

The gradient of the velocity is proportional to the velocity divided by a length scale L. Similarly,
the second derivative of the velocity is proportional to the velocity divided by the square of the
length scale. Then:

Re = (r * V * V/L) / (mu * V / L^2)

Re = (r * V * L) / mu

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number. High values of the parameter (on the order of
10 million) indicate that viscous forces are small and the flow is essentially inviscid. The Euler
equations can then be used to model the flow. Low values of the parameter (on the order of 1
hundred) indicate that viscous forces must be considered.

The Reynolds number can be further simplified if we use the kinematic viscosity nu that is euqal
to the dynamic viscosity divided by the density:

nu = mu / r

Re = V * L / nu

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BOUNDARY LAYER

As an object moves through a fluid, or as a fluid moves past an object, the molecules of the fluid
near the object are disturbed and move around the object. Aerodynamic forces are generated
between the fluid and the object. The magnitude of these forces depend on the shape of the
object, the speed of the object, the mass of the fluid going by the object and on two other
important properties of the fluid; the viscosity, or stickiness, and the compressibility, or
springiness, of the fluid. To properly model these effects, aerospace engineers use similarity
parameters which are ratios of these effects to other forces present in the problem. If two
experiments have the same values for the similarity parameters, then the relative importance of
the forces are being correctly modeled.

Aerodynamic forces depend in a complex way on the viscosity of the fluid. As the fluid moves
past the object, the molecules right next to the surface stick to the surface. The molecules just
above the surface are slowed down in their collisions with the molecules sticking to the surface.
These molecules in turn slow down the flow just above them. The farther one moves away from
the surface, the fewer the collisions affected by the object surface. This creates a thin layer of
fluid near the surface in which the velocity changes from zero at the surface to the free stream
value away from the surface. Engineers call this layer the boundary layer because it occurs on
the boundary of the fluid.

The details of the flow within the boundary layer are very important for many problems in
aerodynamics, including wing stall, the skin friction drag on an object, and the heat transfer that
occurs in high speed flight. Unfortunately, the physical and mathematical details of boundary
layer theory are beyond the scope of this beginner's guide and are usually studied in late
undergraduate or graduate school in college. We will only present some of the effects of the
boundary layer at this time.

On the slide we show the streamwise velocity variation from free stream to the surface. In reality,
the effects are three dimensional. From the conservation of mass in three dimensions, a change
in velocity in the streamwise direction causes a change in velocity in the other directions as well.
There is a small component of velocity perpendicular to the surface which displaces or moves the
flow above it. One can define the thickness of the boundary layer to be the amount of this
displacement. The displacement thickness depends on the Reynolds number which is the ratio
of inertial (resistant to change or motion) forces to viscous (heavy and gluey) forces and is given
by the equation : Reynolds number (Re) equals velocity (V) times density (r) times a
characteristic length (l) divided by the viscosity coefficient (mu).

Re = V * r * l / mu

Boundary layers may be either laminar (layered), or turbulent (disordered) depending on the
value of the Reynolds number. For lower Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer is laminar and
the streamwise velocity changes uniformly as one moves away from the wall, as shown on the
left side of the figure. For higher Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer is turbulent and the
streamwise velocity is characterized by unsteady (changing with time) swirling flows inside the
boundary layer. The external flow reacts to the edge of the boundary layer just as it would to the
physical surface of an object. So the boundary layer gives any object an "effective" shape which
is usually slightly different from the physical shape. To make things more confusing, the boundary
layer may lift off or "separate" from the body and create an effective shape much different from
the physical shape. This happens because the flow in the boundary has very low energy (relative
to the free stream) and is more easily driven by changes in pressure. Flow separation is the
reason for wing stall at high angle of attack. The effects of the boundary layer on lift are contained
in the lift coefficient and the effects on drag are contained in the drag coefficient.

HISTORICAL NOTE: The theory which describes boundary layer effects was first presented by
Ludwig Prandtl in the early 1900's. The general fluids equations had been known for many years,
but solutions to the equations did not properly describe observed flow effects (like wing stalls).
Prandtl was the first to realize that the relative magnitude of the inertial and viscous forces
changed from a layer very near the surface to a region far from the surface. He first proposed the
interactively coupled, two layer solution which properly models many flow problems.

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COMPRESSIBLE AERODYNAMICS

Welcome to the Beginner's Guide to Compressible Aerodynamics

High speed aerodynamics is a special branch of the study of aeronautics. It is often called
compressible aerodynamics because, in this flight regime, the compressibility effects of air can
not be neglected. The flight regime is characterized by the Mach number which is the ratio of the
speed of the aircraft to the local speed of sound. Flight less than the speed of sound is called
subsonic, near the speed of sound is transonic, greater than the speed of sound is supersonic,
and very much greater than the speed of sound is hypersonic. Different flow phenomenon are
present in each of the various flight regimes.

_____________________________________________________________________________
_

MACH NUMBER

As an aircraft moves through the air, the air molecules near the aircraft are disturbed and
move around the aircraft. If the aircraft passes at a low speed, typically less than 250
mph, the density of the air remains constant. But for higher speeds, some of the energy of
the aircraft goes into compressing the air and locally changing the density of the air. This
compressibility effect alters the amount of resulting force on the aircraft. The effect
becomes more important as speed increases. Near and beyond the speed of sound, about
330 m/s or 760 mph, small disturbances in the flow are transmitted to other locations
isentropically or with constant entropy. But a sharp disturbance generates a shock wave
that affects both the lift and drag of an aircraft.
The ratio of the speed of the aircraft to the speed of sound in the gas determines the
magnitude of many of the compressibility effects. Because of the importance of this
speed ratio, aerodynamicists have designated it with a special parameter called the Mach
number in honor of Ernst Mach, a late 19th century physicist who studied gas
dynamics. The Mach number M allows us to define flight regimes in which
compressibility effects vary.
Subsonic conditions occur for Mach numbers less than one, M < 1 . For the lowest
subsonic conditions, compressibility can be ignored.
As the speed of the object approaches the speed of sound, the flight Mach number is
nearly equal to one, M = 1, and the flow is said to be transonic. At some places on
the object, the local speed exceeds the speed of sound. Compressibility effects are
most important in transonic flows and lead to the early belief in a sound barrier.
Flight faster than sound was thought to be impossible. In fact, the sound barrier
 was only an increase in the drag near sonic conditions because of compressibility
effects. Because of the high drag associated with compressibility effects, aircraft
do not cruise near Mach 1.
Supersonic conditions occur for Mach numbers greater than one, 1 < M < 3.
Compressibility effects are important for supersonic aircraft, and shock waves are
generated by the surface of the object. For high supersonic speeds, 3 < M < 5,
aerodynamic heating also becomes very important for aircraft design.
For speeds greater than five times the speed of sound, M > 5, the flow is said to be
hypersonic. At these speeds, some of the energy of the object now goes into
exciting the chemical bonds which hold together the nitrogen and oxygen
molecules of the air. At hypersonic speeds, the chemistry of the air must be
considered when determining forces on the object. The Space Shuttle re-enters the
atmosphere at high hypersonic speeds, M ~ 25. Under these conditions, the heated
air becomes an ionized plasma of gas and the spacecraft must be insulated from
the high temperatures.
For supersonic and hypersonic flows, small disturbances are transmitted downstream
within a cone. The trigonometric sine of the cone angle b is equal to the inverse of the
Mach number M and the angle is therefore called the Mach angle.
sin(b) = 1 / M
There is no upstream influence in a supersonic flow; disturbances are only transmitted
downstream.
The Mach number depends on the speed of sound in the gas and the speed of sound
depends on the type of gas and the temperature of the gas. The speed of sound varies
from planet to planet. On Earth, the atmosphere is composed of mostly diatomic nitrogen
and oxygen, and the temperature depends on the altitude in a rather complex way.
Scientists and engineers have created a mathematical model of the atmosphere to help
them account for the changing effects of temperature with altitude. Mars also has an
atmosphere composed of mostly carbon dioxide. There is a similar mathematical model
of the Martian atmosphere. We have created an atmospheric calculator to let you study
the variation of sound speed with planet and altitude.
Here's another Java program to calculate speed of sound and Mach number for different
planets, altitudes, and speed. You can use this calculator to determine the Mach number
of a aircraft at a given speed and altitude on Earth or Mars.
This page shows an interactive Java applet which calculates the speed of sound and the
mach number for an input velocity and altitude.
To change input values, click on the input box (black on white), backspace over the input
value, type in your new value, and hit the Enter key on the keyboard (this sends your
new value to the program). You will see the output boxes (yellow on black) change
value. You can use either English or Metric units and you can input either the Mach
number or the speed by using the menu buttons. Just click on the menu button and click
 on your selection. If you are an experienced user of this calculator, you can use a sleek
version of the program which loads faster on your computer and does not include these
instructions. You can also download your own copy of the program to run off-line by
clicking on this button

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SPEED OF SOUND
Air is a gas, and a very important property of any gas is the speed of sound through the gas.
Why are we interested in the speed of sound? The speed of "sound" is actually the speed of
transmission of a small disturbance through a medium. Sound itself is a sensation created in the
human brain in response to sensory inputs from the inner ear. (We won't comment on the old
"tree falling in a forest" discussion!)

Disturbances are transmitted through a gas as a result of collisions between the randomly moving
molecules in the gas. The transmission of a small disturbance through a gas is an isentropic
process. The conditions in the gas are the same before and after the disturbance passes through.
Because the speed of transmission depends on molecular collisions, the speed of sound depends
on the state of the gas. The speed of sound is a constant within a given gas and the value of the
constant depends on the type of gas (air, pure oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.) and the temperature
of the gas. An analysis based on conservation of mass and momentum shows that the speed of
sound a is equal to the square root of the ratio of specific heats g times the gas constant R times
the temperature T.

a = sqrt [g * R * T]

Notice that the temperature must be specified on an absolute scale (Kelvin or Rankine). The
dependence on the type of gas is included in the gas constant R. which equals the universal gas
constant divided by the molecular weight of the gas, and the ratio of specific heats.

The speed of sound in air depends on the type of gas and the temperature of the gas. On Earth,
the atmosphere is composed of mostly diatomic nitrogen and oxygen, and the temperature
depends on the altitude in a rather complex way. Scientists and engineers have created a
mathematical model of the atmosphere to help them account for the changing effects of
temperature with altitude. Mars also has an atmosphere composed of mostly carbon dioxide.
There is a similar mathematical model of the Martian atmosphere. We have created an
atmospheric calculator to let you study the variation of sound speed with planet and altitude.

Here's another Java program to calculate speed of sound and Mach number for different planets,
altitudes, and speed. You can use this calculator to determine the Mach number of a rocket at a
given speed and altitude on Earth or Mars.

This page shows an interactive Java applet which calculates the speed of sound and the mach
number for an input velocity and altitude.

To change input values, click on the input box (black on white), backspace over the input value,
type in your new value, and hit the Enter key on the keyboard (this sends your new value to the
program). You will see the output boxes (yellow on black) change value. You can use either
English or Metric units and you can input either the Mach number or the speed by using the menu
buttons. Just click on the menu button and click on your selection. There is a sleek version of this
 program for experienced users who do not need these instructions.

You can also download your own copy of this program to run off-line by clicking on this button:

FPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=Button to Download a Copy of the Program"

As an object moves through the atmosphere, the air is disturbed and the disturbances are
transmitted through the air at the speed of sound. You can study how the disturbances are
transmitted with an interactive sound wave simulator. If we consider the atmosphere on a
standard day at sea level static conditions, the speed of sound is about 761 mph, or 1100
feet/second. We can use this knowledge to approximately determine how far away a lightning
strike has occurred.

The speed of sound in the atmosphere is a constant that depends on the altitude, but an aircraft
can move through the air at any desired speed. The ratio of the aircraft's speed to the speed of
sound affects the forces on the aircraft. Aeronautical engineers call the ratio of the aircraft's
speed to the speed of sound the Mach number, M. If the aircraft moves much slower than the
speed of sound, conditions are said to be subsonic, 0 < M << 1, and compressibility effects are
small and can be neglected. If the aircraft moves near the speed of sound, conditions are said to
be transonic, M ~ 1, and compressibility effects like flow choking become very important. For
aircraft speeds greater than the speed of sound, conditions are said to be supersonic, 1 < M < 3,
and compressibility effects are important. Depending on the specific shape and speed of the
aircraft, shock waves may be produced in the supersonic flow of a gas. For high supersonic
speeds, 3 < M < 5, aerodynamic heating becomes very important. If the aircraft moves more than
five times the speed of sound, conditions are said to be hypersonic, M > 5, and the high energy
involved under these conditions has significant effects on the air itself. The Space Shuttle re-
enters the atmosphere at high hypersonic speeds, M ~ 25. Under these conditions, the heated air
becomes an ionized plasma of gas and the spacecraft must be insulated from the high
temperatures.

_____________________________________

MASS FLOW RATE

The conservation of mass is a fundamental concept of physics. Within some problem

domain, the amount of mass remains constant --mass is neither created nor destroyed.
The mass of any object is simply the volume that the object occupies times the density of
the object. For a fluid (a liquid or a gas) the density, volume, and shape of the object can
all change within the domain with time. And mass can move through the domain. On the
figure, we show a flow of gas through a constricted tube. There is no accumulation or
destruction of mass through the tube; the same amount of mass leaves the tube as enters
the tube. At any plane perpendicular to the center line of the tube, the same amount of
mass passes through. We call the amount of mass passing through a plane the mass flow
rate. The conservation of mass (continuity) tells us that the mass flow rate through a
tube is a constant. We can determine the value of the mass flow rate from the flow
conditions.
If the fluid initially passes through an area A at velocity V, we can define a volume of
mass to be swept out in some amount of time t. The volume v is:
v=A*V*t
A units check gives area x length/time x time = area x length = volume. The mass m
contained in this volume is simply density r times the volume.
m=r*A*V*t
To determine the mass flow rate mdot, we divide the mass by the time. The resulting
definition of mass flow rate is shown on the slide in red.
mdot = r * A * V
How do engineers use this knowledge of the mass flow rate? From Newton's Second Law
of Motion, the aerodynamic forces on an aircraft (lift and drag) are directly related to
the change in momentum of a gas with time. The momentum is defined to be the mass
times the velocity, so we would expect the aerodynamic forces to depend on the mass
flow rate past an object. The thrust produced by a propulsion system also depends on the
change of momentum of a working gas. The thrust depends directly on the mass flow rate
through the propulsion system. For flow in a tube, the mass flow rate is a constant. For a
constant density flow, if we can determine (or set) the velocity at some known area, the
equation tells us the value of velocity for any other area. If we desire a certain velocity,
we know the area we have to provide to obtain that velocity. This information is used in
the design of wind tunnels.
Considering the mass flow rate equation, it would appear that for a given area, we could
make the mass flow rate as large as we want by setting the velocity very high. However,
in real fluids, compressibility effects limit the speed at which a flow can be forced
through a given area. If there is a slight constriction in the tube, as shown in the nozzle
graphics, the Mach number of the flow through the constriction cannot be greater than
one. This is commonly referred to as flow choking and the details of the physics are
given on a page considering compressible mass flow rates.

______________________________________
DEFINITIONS OF STREAM LINES

An important concept in the study of aerodynamics concerns the idea of streamlines. A

streamline is a path traced out by a massless particle as it moves with the flow. It is
easiest to visualize a streamline if we move along with the body (as opposed to moving
with the flow). The figure above shows the computed streamlines around an airfoil and
around a cylinder. In both cases, we move with the object and the flow proceeds from left
to right. Since the streamline is traced out by a moving particle, at every point along the
path the velocity is tangent to the path. Since there is no normal component of the
velocity along the path, mass cannot cross a streamline. The mass contained between any
two streamlines remains the same throughout the flowfield. We can use Bernoulli's
equation to relate the pressure and velocity along the streamline. Since no mass passes
through the surface of the airfoil (or cylinder), the surface of the object is a streamline.
Airplanes fly by moving through almost still air, yet we design and test them using wind
tunnels, where the airplane model is fixed and the air is made to move past the model.
This idea of keeping the airfoil fixed and having the air stream past the airfoil can be a bit
confusing. Yet you experience the same kind of thing every day! When you stand on the
corner and watch a car go by, the air around you is relatively still. As the car moves
through the air there are aerodynamic forces present. Now if you were in the car and put
your hand out the window, you could feel the aerodynamic force pushing on your hand. It
feels like the air is moving past your hand as fast as the car is moving. The forces on the
car are the same, whether you are standing on the corner or riding in the car. Well this
same thing is true of airplanes. Whether the airplane moves through the air, or the air is
pushed past the airplane, the forces are exactly the same. It's usually easier, less
expensive, and (in some cases) less dangerous to test airplanes in a wind tunnel before
trying to fly them.
_______________________________________________________________________

WIND TUNNEL AERODYNAMICS

Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft. In the tunnel, the
engineer can carefully control the flow conditions which affect aircraft performance. The
model is placed in the test section of the tunnel and is instrumented to provide the
engineer with test data. To obtain meaningful data, the engineer must insure that the flow
similarity parameters of Mach number and Reynolds number match flight conditions. A
model often contains small ports to measure pressures on the aircraft, or the model may
be mounted on a balance to directly measure the aircraft lift or drag.
Wind tunnels are usually designed for a specific purpose and speed range. There are
special tunnels for propulsion, icing research, supersonic and hypersonic flight, and even
full scale testing. A wind tunnel may be open and draw air from the room into the test
section, or the tunnel may be closed with the air recirculating around the circuit. The
tunnel in the figure is a closed tunnel which we are viewing from above. The test section
is the red box at the bottom and the power to move the air in the tunnel is provided by a
motor shown in green at the top. The amount of air in the tunnel is a constant, and we can
use the conservation of mass to relate local speed in the tunnel to the cross-sectional area.
At every point in the tunnel, the velocity V times the density r times the area A is a
constant.
 r * V * A = constant
For a low speed tunnel the density remains constant through the tunnel and we can
further simplify the equation. Between any places in the tunnel:
( V * A)1 = (V * A)2
Decreasing the area increases the velocity. We usually want the highest velocity in the
test section and that is why the test section of the tunnel has the smallest cross-section.