Fire Dynamics I

Lecture # 4
Heat Transfer:
Convection & Radiation
Jim Mehaffey

82.575 or CVG7300

Carleton University, 82.575 1

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Heat Transfer: Convection & Radiation

Outline
• Introduction to heat transfer
• Heat transfer by convection
• Heat transfer by radiation

Carleton University, 82.575 2

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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 Introduction to Heat Transfer
• Heat is transferred from regions of high temp to
regions of lower temp.
• All three modes of heat transfer play a role in
essentially every fire
• Heat transfer by convection
• Heat transfer by radiation
• Heat transfer by conduction

• However one mode may predominate at a

given stage or given location
Carleton University, 82.575 3
(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Heat Transfer by Convection

• Heat transfer between moving fluid & solid
• Important in small fires early stages of fire and in fires
that remain small
• Newton’s Law of heat convection
•
q" = h (Tf − Ts ) Eqn (4-1)
•

q" = heat flux gas to solid (W m −2 )

Tf = temperature of gas (K)
Ts = temperature of solid surface (K)
h = heat transfer coefficient (W m −2 K −1 )
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 Heat Transfer by Convection
• Heat transfer occurs across a boundary layer
• h is not a material constant. It depends on the
structure of boundary layer & is a function of
– Solid’s surface geometry
(dimensions, angle to flow)
– Fluid properties
(thermal conductivity, density, viscosity)
– Flow properties
(velocity, nature)

Carleton University, 82.575 5

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

• Free convection: Fluid moves due to buoyancy
caused by hot (cold) surface
h = 5 to 25 W m-2 K-1
• Forced convection: Fluid flow not caused by hot
(cold) surface (e.g. hot smoke past a sprinkler)
h = 10 to 500 W m-2 K-1

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2002 Lecture # 4

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Guidance: Thermal Insulation Studies (6)
Wall interior (free convection) h = 8.33 W m-2 K-1
Wall exterior (forced convection: wind) h = 33.3 W m-2 K-1
Ceiling (free convection: heat flow up) h = 9.09 W m-2 K-1
Ceiling (free convection: heat flow down) h = 6.25 W m-2 K-1
Roof (forced convection: wind) h = 33.3 W m-2 K-1

These surfaces are all planar

Carleton University, 82.575 7

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Wind Chill Factor: Prior to 2001 (5)

• Research in Antarctica on freezing of water in a plastic
cylinder under diverse wind & temp conditions yielded:

C = 0.323 (37.62 + 18.97 v1/2 - v) (33 - T)

C = cooling rate (wind chill factor) (W m-2)
v = wind speed (km h-1)
T = air temperature (ºC)
33 = skin temperature (ºC)

• convective heat transfer coefficient

h(v) = 0.323 (37.62 + 18.97 v1/2 - v)

Carleton University, 82.575 8
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2002 Lecture # 4

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 Wind Chill Factor: Prior to 2001 (5)
Convective heat transfer coefficient

h(v) = 0.323 (37.62 + 18.97 v1/2 - v)

-2 -1
v (km / h) h(v) (W m K )
0 12.2
1 18.0
4 23.1
9 27.6
16 31.5
25 34.7
36 37.3
49 39.2
64 40.5
Carleton University, 82.575 9
(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Wind Chill Factor: Prior to 2001 (5)

• Wind chill expressed as temperature was defined as
temperature giving the same cooling rate at average
walking speed (vr = 6 - 8 km / h)

h(vr) (33 - Tw) = h(v) (33 - T)

Tw = 33 - {h(v) / h(vr)} (33 - T)

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2002 Lecture # 4

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 Correlations for h available for many
configurations and flow conditions
• Drysdale (1): Table 2.4, page 51
• SFPE Handbook (2): Tables 1-3.3 & 1-3.4, pages 1-60
to 61

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2002 Lecture # 4

Guidance: Fire Scenarios

• Wall or ceiling exposed to fire:
h = 25 W m-2 K-1
• Wall or floor exposed to ambient:
h = 9 W m-2 K-1
• Wall just above advancing flame:
h = 15 W m-2 K-1
• Heat detector / sprinkler immersed in ceiling jet:
h ∝ (velocity)1/2

Carleton University, 82.575 12

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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 Exposure of Skin to Convection (4)
• Tenability limit for exposure of skin to convected heat
is 120ºC, above which pain and burns occur quickly.
• Depending on length of exposure, convected heat
below 120ºC may also cause hyperthermia.
• For fully clothed people, time for incapacitation (t in
min) is given in terms of T (ºC )
t = (4.1 x 108) T-3.61 Eqn (4-2)
• For unclothed or lightly clothed people, time for
incapacitation (t in min) is given in terms of T (ºC )
t = (5 x 107) T-3.4 Eqn (4-3)

Carleton University, 82.575 13

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Heat Transfer by Radiation

• Transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves (infrared)
• Hot objects emit thermal radiation
{Blue (visible) → infrared}
• Colour of hot objects
T = 550°C (823 K) - dull red
T = 900°C (1173 K) - cherry red
T = 1100°C (1373 K) - orange
T = 1400°C (1673 K) - white

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 Heat Transfer by Radiation
• Flame radiation emitted by soot
• Requires no intervening medium between heat source
and receiver
• Dominant mode of heat transfer if fire base ≥ 0.3 m
• Determines growth & spread of fires in compartments
• Accounts for fire spread between buildings

Carleton University, 82.575 15

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Thermal Radiation
Integrating over all wavelengths
yields the Stefan - Boltzmann Law
E = εσT 4 Eqn (4-4)

E = emissive power (W m −2 )
T = temperature of object (K)
σ = 5.67 x 10−8 W m −2 K −4
ε = emissivity (~ 0.9)

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2002 Lecture # 4

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 ε - Emissivity (absorptivity)
• For perfect emitter, blackbody, ε =1

• For most building materials, ε ~ 0.9

Usually tarnished (oxidized) early in fire exposures

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2002 Lecture # 4

ε - Emissivity (absorptivity) (7)

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 Directional Radiation
• Surface 1 radiates with emmissive power E1
•
• What is radiant heat flux q"1−d2 (kW m-2) falling on a
point near the centre of surface 2

• cosθ1 cosθ 2
q"1−d2 = E1 ∫ π r2
dA1

θ2 2
•

θ1
r q" 1−d2 = E1 F1-d2 Eqn (4-5)

F1-d2 = configuration factor, accounts for

spatial relationship between emitter & receiver
1
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2002 Lecture # 4

Configuration Factor F1-d2 (1)

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2002 Lecture # 4

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Configuration Factor F1-d2 (1)

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2002 Lecture # 4

Configuration Factor F1-d2 (3)

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2002 Lecture # 4

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 Addition of Configuration Factors

Ftot-d5 = F1-d5 + F2-d5 + F3-d5 + F4-d5 Eqn (4-6)

Carleton University, 82.575 23

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Radiant Exposure of Skin (4)

• Tenability limit for exposure of skin to radiant heat is
•
q" < 2.5 kW m-2
1−d2 Eqn (4-7)
• Below 2.5 kW m-2, exposure can be tolerated for 30
min without affecting the time available for for escape
• Above 2.5 kW m-2, the time to burning of skin(t in min),
•
due to radiant heating ( q" in kW m-2) decreases
1−d2

rapidly as follows
•
t = 4 {q"1−d2 }-1.35 Eqn (4-8)

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2002 Lecture # 4

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 Radiant Exposure of Wood (1)
• Volatiles from wood may be ignited by pilot after
prolonged exposure if
•
q" 1−d2 > 12.5 kW m-2 Eqn (4-9)
• 12.5 kW m-2 is the critical radiant flux for the ignition of
wood

• Volatiles from wood ignite spontaneously after

prolonged exposure if
•
q" 1−d2
> 29 kW m-2 Eqn (4-10)

Carleton University, 82.575 25

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Spatial Separation between Buildings

• Philosophy based on experiments conducted by NRC
referred to as the St. Lawrence Burns

• For office building, assume radiating surfaces

(windows) can be characterized by E = 170 kW m-2

• Separation between buildings must ensure heat flux at

target building is less than critical radiant flux for
piloted ignition of wood (12.5 kW m-2)

Carleton University, 82.575 26

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2002 Lecture # 4

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 Carleton University, 82.575 27
(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Carleton University, 82.575 28

(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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 Carleton University, 82.575 29
(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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 Carleton University, 82.575 31
(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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 Carleton University, 82.575 33
(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

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 Carleton University, 82.575 35
(CVG7300), Fire Dynamics I, Winter
2002 Lecture # 4

Radiation: Surface 1 → Surface 2

• Surface 1 radiates with emissive power E1
•

• Radiant heat transfer q 1− 2 (kW) from surface 1 to

surface 2
•

q 1− 2 = E1 A1 F1− 2 Eqn (4-11)

• where F1-2 = configuration factor

1 cos θ 1 cos θ 2
F = ∫∫ dA 1 dA Eqn (4-12)
π r2
1− 2 2
A1

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Configuration Factor F1-2 (1)

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2002 Lecture # 4

Configuration Factor F1-2 (1)

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 Configuration Factor F1-2 (3)

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2002 Lecture # 4

Configuration Factor Algebra

• Reciprocity rule:
A1 F1-2 = A2 F2-1 Eqn (4-13)
• Summation rule:
∑F =1
j
i− j Eqn (4-14)

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 Infinite Parallel Plates
• Radiative heat transfer is a two-way process
• Surfaces 1 and 2 both emit and absorb energy
•
q"(net) = net heat transfer leaving surface 1 (kW m-2)
1

q"1 (net) = ε 1,2σ [T14 − T24 ]

•

Eqn (4-15)

1 1 1
= + −1 Eqn (4-16)
ε 1, 2 ε1 ε2

q" 2 (net) = ε 1,2σ [T24 − T14 ] = − q"1 (net)

• •

Carleton University, 82.575 41

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2002 Lecture # 4

Hot Object in Large Room

• Radiative heat transfer is a two-way process
• Object and “room” 2 both emit and absorb energy

T1 = Temp of object (K)

T2 = Temp of “room” (K)
•
• q"1 (net) = net heat transfer leaving surface 1 (kW m-2)

• For hot object in a large room

q"1 (net) = ε 1σ [T14 − T24 ]

•

Eqn (4-17)

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 Radiation from Luminous Flames
and Hot Smoky Gases
• Luminosity is net effect of emission from soot particles
(10-100 nm)
ε = 1 - e-KL Eqn (4-18)

K = effective emission coefficient (m-1)

L = mean beam length (m)

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2002 Lecture # 4

L = Mean Beam Length (m)

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 K = Effective Emission Coefficient (m-1)

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2002 Lecture # 4

References
1. D. Drysdale, An Introduction to Fire Dynamics,Wiley, 1999, Chap 1
2. A. Atreya, “Convection Heat Transfer” Section 1 / Chapter 3, SFPE
Handbook, 2nd Ed. (1995)
3. C.L. Tien, K.Y. Lee and A.J. Stretton, “Radiation Heat Transfer”
Section 1 / Chapter 4, SFPE Handbook, 2nd Ed. (1995)
4. ISO/DTS 13571, “Life threat from fires - guidance on the estimation
of the time available for escape using fire data”.
5. http://www.msc.ec.gc.ca/windchill
6. Timber Design Manual
7. J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer

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2002 Lecture # 4

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