A rticle

Biodeterioration Of Wood
By T.M.Wong Director, Timber Industries Development Division, Malaysian Timber Council

By understanding the reasons behind these attacks we will be able to design ways and means to prevent these
attacks and thus prolong the service life of timber in buildings. To do this, we must first start with understanding
the nature of wood and what makes it so vulnerable to attacks by biological agents. Then we should look at
the agents that attack wood and their modes of attack. Only then, can we develop preventive measures and
protect wood from biodeterioration.

W
ood is by far, the most versatile
and beautiful building material
available to man. It has been
with us since man first started to build
his own shelter. And yet, it is also the
only building material that is subject to
destruction by biological agencies, such
as fungi and insects. This is one of the
inherent disadvantages of using wood
as a building material.

By understanding the reasons behind

these attacks we will be able to design
ways and means to prevent these
attacks and thus prolong the service
life of timber in buildings. To do this,
we must first start with understanding
the nature of wood and what makes it
so vulnerable to attacks by biological
agents. Then we should look at the
agents that attack wood and their
modes of attack. Only then, can we
develop preventive measures and
protect wood from biodeterioration. Rotten Wood

A lot of research has been done on AGENTS THAT ATTACK WOOD

wood and the agencies that attack it,
and many protective means have been
developed over the years. This paper
will summarise the general concepts
of these findings so that the general
public will have a better idea on how
‘ This is why “bluestained”
or “sapstained” timber is
perfectly safe to use for
construction, if you do not
mind the rather unsightly
Wood is actually a very inert material,
i.e., it does not go into chemical
reactions that will actually destroy the
material. It is surprisingly immune to
acids, alkalis, and strong detergents.

to use wood intelligently.
WHY WOOD IS ATTACKED
Wood is a natural plant material, and
as such, is made up of a host of organic
compounds, many of which represent
a food source for the attacking agents.
Wood is made up of cells, which are in
turn, made from cellulose (and often
strengthened with lignin deposits).
Cellulose is a rich source of carbohydrate
’
blue colour.
for both fungi and insects. They have
evolved elaborate mechanisms for
the digestion of cellulose. The cells
also contain other compounds, such
as starch, which is also a source of
carbohydrate for these attacking
agents. In other words, when an insect
attacks a piece of wood, it is merely
having a meal.
This, in fact makes paper making a
tough proposition as wood is not
easily converted to pulp by chemical
means.
Bacteria and viruses also do not have any
significant effect on wood, although it
has been recorded that certain bacteria
do destroy wood in the end. However,
it must be noted that these attacks
are mostly secondary in nature, i.e.,
something else did the first bite.

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A rticle
This leaves only three main groups of
biological agents that commonly attack
wood, and they are:-
● Fungi
● Insects, including beetles, termites,
and occasionally, bees and ants
● Marine borers, including sometimes,
and fresh water borers.
Fungi And Wood
Fungi (singular: fungus) are
everywhere. They are the mushrooms
you eat. They are the cause of many of
your itches, when you have ringworm
and athletes’ feet. The fact that they
are universally distributed means that
all of us are subject to their attacks
whenever conditions are conducive.
The organism itself is very small and
consists of a series of thin filaments
called hyphae. You will need a
microscope to actually see them. The
familiar mushroom is actually their
fruiting body, produced to disperse
their spores.
Fungi attack wood through feeding on
the wood cells. Actually there are two
modes of feeding. Some fungi feed on
the cellular contents of the wood. In
this case, the structure of the cell-wall
is not destroyed, and the wood retains
all its strength. Examples of these
types of fungi are the sapstain fungi.
When a piece of wood is attacked by a
sapstain fungus, the attacked portion
may turn blue or black (that is why
the fungus is sometimes known as
‘bluestain fungus’). There is no loss of
strength. This is why “bluestained” or
“sapstained” timber is perfectly safe to
use for construction, if you do not mind
the rather unsightly blue colour. The
Ambrosia Beetles
Long Horn Beetles
Wood destroyed by fungi
‘ Since wood rotting fungi
attack the wood cells directly,
both sapwood and heartwood
’
are equally susceptible.
main food found in the cell contents
are sugar and starch, and since the
sapwood tend to be the depository for
both these material, sapwood is more
susceptible to attacks by these fungi.
The other type of fungi is more
destructive. They feed on the cell-wall
material, breaking down the cellulose
that makes up the structure of these
walls. Through this type of attacks,
the wood loses its integrity and
breakdowns into a lump of spongy
mass. This is the rot you see in ‘rotten
wood’. There are many types of rots,
depending on the fungi involved. They
are variously known as ‘wet rot’, ‘dry
rot’, ‘white rot’, and ‘brown rot’. In all
cases, wood that is attacked by wood-
rotting fungi will lose its load bearing
capacity and should be replaced
immediately. Since wood rotting fungi
attack the wood cells directly, both
sapwood and heartwood are equally
susceptible.
Powderpost beetle damage on wood
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1st Quarter 2007
Insects
The main groups of insects that attack
wood, whether directly or indirectly,
are beetles, termites, and ants.
Long Horn Beetles
Long-horn beetles attack the bark of
freshly felled logs. They bore into the
bark and lay their eggs inside the softer
part of the bark. The larvae will feed
on the soft bark and create tunnels in
the bark and the adjacent wood. The
attacks will stop once the moisture
content drops below a certain level.
Ambrosia Beetles
Ambrosia beetles attack living trees
and freshly felled logs. They make tiny
“pinholes” in the wood. These pinholes
are often infested by fungi, giving a
slight blue colouration around the
holes. The attacks will stop once the
moisture content of the wood drops
below a certain level. Many Malaysian
timbers exhibit pinholes, which are
caused by these Ambrosia beetles.
Powderpost Beetles
These are beetles that lay their eggs
in the vessels of hardwoods. The
larvae that hatch from the eggs eat
their way through the wood, creating
tunnels. These tunnels are packed with
a powder-like frass, thus the name of
the beetles. Upon maturity, the young
beetles will eat their way out of the
wood, leaving tiny holes behind. These
holes are exit holes. This means that
by the time you see these holes, the
insects have gone. The larvae feed on
the starch found in the wood and that
is why only those timbers with high
starch content are susceptible to these
attacks.
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Wood deterioration caused by termites
Termites
Termites are the main source of
destruction of wood by insects. They
feed on any organic material, including
wood and all its products, such as paper,
textile, and panelboards. In their natural
habitat, termites feed on the forest
debris, such as fallen logs, branches,
and twigs. However, as many of their
natural habitats have been taken over
for housing projects, they have also
moved into the houses.
Broadly, there are two types of termites,
the subterranean termites and the
dr y wood termites. Subterranean
termites live under the ground, although
their nests can be found above ground
level. It has been reported that these
termites can forage for food up to a
distance of 3km away from their main
nest. In human terms, it is like walking
for 3,000 km looking for food. They
enter the houses through any cracks
that may be found, such as inlets and
outlets of water pipes and sewerage
systems. Once inside the house, they
spread rapidly.
On the other hand, drywood termites
are capable of flight and they can fly
into a house and lodge themselves
within any cracks found in any wooden
structure.
Carpenter Ants
These are ants that nest inside wood
that has already been rotted. They do
not feed on the wood itself, but instead
they use the wood as shelter. However,
they can cause damage through their
boring and scouring activities when
they make their nests.
‘ Marine borers have very
powerful boring mechanisms
and are capable of boring into
the densest wood and even
concrete. That is why there
is no wood that is a 100%
’
immune to marine borers.
Marine Borers
This is a mixed group of organisms
loosely lumped together under ‘Marine
Borers’. The only common factor
among these organisms is that they
are found in the seas and in brackish
waters. Biologically, they are molluscs
and crustaceans. They are actually part
of the plankton life found floating in
the seas. Once they come in contact
Piling attacked by marine borers
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1st Quarter 2007
with any solid structure, they will
attempt to anchor themselves to start a
more sedentary lifestyle. They actually
do not feed on the wood but use them
as shelter. They bore into the wood
and continue to grow into the wood.
Marine borers have very powerful
boring mechanisms and are capable
of boring into the densest wood and
even concrete. That is why there is no
wood that is a 100% immune to marine
borers.
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
For a biological agent to survive, three
conditions must be available, i.e.,
oxygen, water, and food. Therefore,
biodeterioration of wood can be
prevented if one or more of these
conditions are eliminated. This forms
the principle for protecting timber
from biodeterioration. For example,
keeping the wood totally immersed
in water will cut off the oxygen supply,
making it impossible for the attacking
agents to survive and thus preserving
the wood. This principle is used for
piling works, where the timber piles
are driven into the water-table, thus
ensuring that the timber is totally
soaked at all times. Whole tree trunks
of Kauri were found in complete
pristine conditions when dug up from
a swamp in New Zealand after being
buried for 35,000 years.
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Timbers that are kept dry at all times will

go a long way to prevent the attacks of
many organisms, such as fungal attacks.
It is when timbers are subject to wet-
and-dry conditions, such as keeping
them in the rain, that they run into
greater risk of being attacked.

Finally, if the food source, i.e., the wood

cells and their contents are made
unpalatable to the attacking agents,
then there will be no attacks. This can
be done through the introduction of
chemicals such as preservatives.

Many methods have been developed

ove r t h e ye a r s to p r e ve nt t h e
biodeterioration of wood based on
the above principles. There is no perfect
solution and the best method is often
dictated by the mode of utilisation of
the wood. Ultimately, it is the intelligent
use of resources available that will
determine what is the best method to
adopt. The following paragraphs will
summarise some of the key elements
that should be considered.
For Fungal Attacks
The main consideration here is the
moisture content of the wood. If there
is enough water present, then the
fungi will flourish. Therefore, the prime
preventive measure is to keep the wood
absolutely dry. If this is not possible,
such as in outdoor conditions, then the
alternative is to prevent the fungi from
getting to the food source. This can be
achieved by chemically treating the
timber with a preservative containing
a fungicide.
Using the wood totally immersed
under water will also cut off the oxygen
supply. This is particularly useful when
using timber as foundation piles. The
piles must be driven below the water
table to ensure a total and constant
immersion under water.
For preventing sapstain, especially in
the lighter coloured timbers, it is best
to treat the timber off-the-saw with a
preservative. Sapstain fungal attack
can occur very quickly and permanent
damage can be done if the timber is not
treated immediately.
Wooden house
‘ Through this, we hope
that users can approach the
utilisation of wood without
undue fear, knowing that the
extent of biodeterioration
in wood can be mitigated
through intelligent usage.
’ the construction stage, and to keep
For Beetle Attacks
For beetles that attack the living trees
and freshly felled logs, e.g., the long
horn beetles and ambrosia beetles,
there is very little that can be done,
except to debark and to dry the timber
as soon as possible. With drying, the
attacks will stop automatically.
For powder post beetles, the main
consideration is to avoid using timbers
that have a lot of starch, and this
includes most sapwood. If it cannot
be avoided, then treat the timber with
preservatives.
For Termite Attacks
Termite attacks pose a much more
complicated issue. In the first place,
termites can attack a wide range of
organic based materials. If they manage
to get a foothold in the house, then it is
difficult to get rid of them. Furthermore,
termite attacks are insidious, i.e., they
do not show up until it is too late.
The best solution is to prevent the
entry of termites into the structure in
the first place. This can be achieved
by taking extra careful steps during
a constant lookout for any signs of
attacks.
For Marine Borers Attacks
Marine borers are part of the plankton
population which floats around the seas,
and as such, it is inevitable that they will
come in contact with whatever wood
that is placed in the water. For marine
construction, any timber that is in
contact with the water will be subject to
attacks by marine borers. Furthermore,
the sheer number of marine borers
present in the water means that the
timbers will be overwhelmed in a very
short time.
There is really no foolproof method to
prevent marine borer attacks. Treating
the timber with a very strong dose of
chemicals will only prolong the service
life of the timbers, but ultimately,
the marine borers will win. Currently,
the recommended dosage of CCA
(a popular and otherwise effective

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chemical preservative) for timber
structures under marine conditions is
24 kg/m3. Even this heavy dosage will
not prevent attacks.
There is also a method involving double
treatment of the timber, where creosote
is added to the CCA. This provides a
longer protection, probably due to the
fact that the creosote will diffuse out of
the wood and form a thin layer in the
water around the timber, thus driving
away the marine borers before they
have a chance to establish themselves
in the wood. However, when most or
all of the creosote has been leached
out, this extra protection will disappear.
Moreover, creosote has been banned
by many countries for health and
environmental reasons and is difficult
to obtain.
Protective jackets, made from concrete,
metal, and/or plastics have been used to
Wooden piers
‘
There is no perfect solution
and the best method is
often dictated by the mode
of utilisation of the wood.
Ultimately, it is the intelligent
use of resources available that
will determine what is the best
method to adopt.
’ and comprehensive discussion on the
provide an additional barrier to marine
borers, but since these barriers are
also attacked, the protection is again
temporary.
One possible method that has not
been tried out yet is to use sacrificial
wooden jackets that can be easily
installed and replaced. If wooden
structures are wrapped with a specially
designed jacket, only the outer jacket
will be attacked. Before the attacks
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1st Quarter 2007
become too severe, these jackets can be
removed and replaced. This particular
method may work in places that are
easily accessible, such as jetties and
piers.
CONCLUSION
It is not possible to provide a complete
biodeterioration of wood within this
article. However, it is the intention
of this article to provide some basic
understanding on the degradation of
wood by biological agents. With this
basic knowledge, it is hoped that the
end-users of timber will be more aware
of this very important intrinsic property
of wood. Through this, we hope that
users can approach the utilisation of
wood without undue fear, knowing that
the extent of biodeterioration in wood
can be mitigated through intelligent
usage.