Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Academic Skills
2009B
IMI GUIDE TO CORE ACADEMIC SKILLS
Prepared by J W Graham, J Steel and R C Wood, 1992. Copyright material except where
original sources indicate otherwise. ISBN O 9522294 0 4. Second and Third Editions revised by
R C Wood, 1997, 2000; Fourth Edition revised by I Sweeney, 2003; Fifth, sixth and seventh
editions revised by R C Wood 2004, 2005, 2006. Eighth and ninth editions revised by H Ross
2007 and 2008. Produced with the permission of the original copyright holders.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 4
2. WRITING IN YOUR OWN WORDS .......................................................................... 4
2.1 What is writing in your own words? .......................................................................... 4
2.2 How to write effectively in your own words ............................................................. 4
2.3 What is plagiarism? ..................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Turn-it-In Plagiarism Detection Software…………………………………………... 6
3. WRITING AN ESSAY ............................................................................................... 6
3.1 Choosing your essay title ............................................................................................ 7
3.2 The essay writing process ............................................................................................ 7
3.3 Style points for essays ................................................................................................. 9
4. REPORT WRITING GUIDE ......................................................................................11
4.1 What is the difference between an essay and a report? ........................................ 11
4.2 Context of your report .............................................................................................. 11
4.3 Structure ..................................................................................................................... 11
4.4 Style requirements of reports .................................................................................... 11
5 SUBMISSION, FEEDBACK AND ASSESSMENT OF COURSEWORK .............................13
5.1 Submission of coursework and ‘late’ penalties ........................................................ 13
5.2 Return of coursework and feedback......................................................................... 13
5.3 General assessment and specific marking schemes (including examinations and
dissertations) .............................................................................................................. 13
6. REFERENCING ESSAYS AND OTHER WRITTEN WORK..............................................18
6.1 Referencing in the text .............................................................................................. 18
6.2 Referencing electronic sources .................................................................................. 20
6.3 Quotations ................................................................................................................. 21
6.4 Compiling the bibliography/reference list to your essay ........................................ 21
7. WORKING IN GROUPS ..........................................................................................23
7.1 Ground rules for group work .................................................................................... 23
7.2 Peer Assessment ........................................................................................................ 23
7.3 Leading a seminar group ........................................................................................... 23
7.4 Getting ready for a group or seminar discussion ..................................................... 24
7.5 Questions ................................................................................................................... 24
7.6 Dealing with problem individuals ............................................................................. 24
8. MAKING ORAL PRESENTATIONS ............................................................................25
8.1 Purpose ....................................................................................................................... 25
8.2 Audience..................................................................................................................... 25
8.3 Preparation ................................................................................................................. 25
8.4 Structuring the presentation and delivery ................................................................ 25
8.5 Delivery ...................................................................................................................... 27
8.6 Assessment of presentations ..................................................................................... 27
9. GUIDE TO REVISION .............................................................................................28
9.1 Test your learning skills ............................................................................................. 28
9.2 What is revision, when do I do it and how do I plan it? ........................................ 28
9.3 Revising a topic .......................................................................................................... 28
9.4 Note-taking ................................................................................................................. 28
9.5 Where to revise ......................................................................................................... 28
9.6 Memory aids .............................................................................................................. 29
9.7 Practical examinations ............................................................................................... 29
9.8 Before examinations .................................................................................................. 29
9.9 Final moments............................................................................................................ 29
9.10 Your answers ............................................................................................................ 30
9.11 Self evaluation............................................................................................................ 31
9.12 Do not panic! ............................................................................................................. 31
9.13 Signs of stress............................................................................................................. 31
9.14 How to cope with stress ........................................................................................... 31
APPENDIX 1: STUDENT ASSESSED WORK FEEDBACK FORM .......... ………………...33
APPENDIX 2: PRESENTATION ASSESSED WORK FEEDBACK FORM .......................... 34
1. INTRODUCTION
This guide is intended for use over the entire period of your stay at IMI and contains guidance
on the writing and presentation of essays and reports; referencing written work; working in
groups; giving presentations; and examination revision. A separate guide has been developed
on the writing of dissertations for the final year BA degree students.
Please read the following example, which highlights how writing in your own words should be
done. The following paragraph is taken from May (1990: 348, cited in
http://owl.english.purdue.edu)
Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by head
injuries. Half of those killed are school-age children. One study concluded that wearing
a bike helmet can reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike
helmet absorbs the shock and cushions the head.
The use of a helmet is the key to reducing bicycling fatalities, which are due to head
injuries 75% of the time. By cushioning the head upon impact, a helmet can reduce
accidental injury by as much as 85%, saving the lives of hundreds of victims annually,
quite a number of whom are school children (May, 1990).
As you can see from this example, writing in your own words involves more than changing just
a few words.
Table 2.1 shows examples of what plagiarism is. It also shows both the correct and incorrect
way to reference in the text. The penalties for plagiarism are severe and will normally result in a
‘0’ mark for that assignment. These penalties are outlined in the current edition of the Student
Handbook; the School’s Teaching, Learning and Assessment Policy available on the School
intranet and from the Academic Dean; and in Manchester Metropolitan University’s regulations
available in the Library (and issued to all degree students).
‘It is essential to achieve a good fit between worker and job; one of the aims of human resources management
is to see that employees are working in jobs which are suitable for them and that their jobs are designed with
due regard to the abilities and limitations of the employee.’
You can see in the examples above that the page number is given in number 2 and 3 even though there are no
quotation marks. It is good to indicate the page number if you have changed very little from the source. It also
makes it easier for you to retrace where exactly you have taken information.
When planning, analyse the essay topic you have chosen (indeed all essay topics) in some
detail. It is important that you try to break down the essay question and try to identify 3
different vital elements: (1) the topic area that it relates to, (2) the focus within that topic area,
and (3) the instruction that you have been give. An example of this is highlighted in Table 3.1.
1. Topic Training
2. Focus On-the-job and off-the-job methods of training used within the food and
beverage department of a hotel
It is important that you understand all three elements in order to write the essay successfully.
Make sure that you pay particular attention to points (2) and (3) as these are frequently
neglected. Further examples of the instructions that you could be given are highlighted in Table
3.2. Since essay questions will be related in some way to the curriculum you will have some
idea of how to develop a structure for your essay but, if in doubt, you should always clarify
with your lecturer what is expected of you in the essay. It is a good idea to sketch a draft
structure for your work as a preliminary to reading. Never be afraid to ask your lecturer for
advice on the structure, content and further reading.
Reading. Make maximum use of facilities offered by the Library. New students will receive a
library induction tour to assist with this process. When reading books or articles, do not try and
read everything but use the contents pages and index of a book to search for key words and
areas. Read the introduction of the book or paper (academics call articles in academic journals a
'paper', if you do not know what a journal or paper is, find out in your first visit to the Library).
Adapted from Bird, C and Bird, D M (1945) Learning More by Effective Study, New York: Appleton Century
Crofts; Drew, S and Bingham, R (1998: 57) The Student Skills Guide, Aldershot: Gower Publications.
Skim quickly through other sections and chapters to identify any useful material identifying key
sentences in each paragraph (with practice this will become second nature). Then read material
you consider to be important in a detailed way, making notes (also paying attention to the
advice in Section 2.1 above) and ensuring you have easy access to basic reference works such
as a dictionary, a thesaurus, and maybe one of the many books on essay writing and style.
Organizing and writing. There are several ways when writing your essay to organize the
material. You should divide your essays up into sections using clear paragraphs. It is NOT
normal practice to use sub-headings in essays. Always make sure you write an introduction to
your piece, outlining objectives, your understanding of the question and the terms of the title.
Essays should develop logically. It should be clear at all times what your objectives are and you
should make every word count toward achieving your objectives. To this end always try to
write at least one draft of your essay.
Having produced a draft it should be read and edited carefully so that all irrelevant material is
eliminated. It is always helpful to get a friend to read over your work – although remember that
plagiarism is an unforgivable sin! Once you have edited the draft of your essay (and indeed
whilst you are doing this) you should check for the presence of the following and dispose of
them accordingly:
(i) unclear, illogical development and structure of argument;
Having written a fair copy, make sure that you read the essay before submission to check for
the quality issues shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Issues to look at when trying to express your ideas clearly
Focus Suggestions
Words and phrases Use words in a way, which demonstrates that you understand them. When first
referring to an idea/concept give the reader enough information to understand it.
Do not assume that your reader knows.
Sentences If sentences are too short, the ideas may seem fragmented. If they are too long, they
may be difficult to follow. If you find writing difficult or if English is your second
language, short sentences may help you to avoid grammatical mistakes.
Paragraphs Keep to one main idea per paragraph. Ensure the idea is explicitly (clearly) stated
and explained.
Linking paragraphs Link ideas across paragraphs so your argument flows. Also, Moreover, in addition
show that you are continuing in the same direction; Whereas, Nevertheless,
However, on the other hand to show that you are changing direction.
Drew, S & Bingham, R (1998: 63) The Student Skills Guide, Aldershot: Gower Publishing
Finally, all written work should conform to the style and referencing conventions of academic
work. Some style conventions differ slightly between essays, reports and dissertations and these
differences are noted in these relevant sections (see Section 3.3 for style points to be aware of
in the presentation of essays). Referencing conventions do not vary at all and you should follow
the general guidelines for referencing outlined in Section 6.
(a) Font, font size, line spacing and pagination (page numbers)
It is IMI policy that all assessed work should be typed and presented using the Times New
Roman font, size 12 except when otherwise stated by the lecturer. For line spacing, 1.5 or
double spacing should be used for all assessed work. Pages should be numbered starting with
the first page after the title page. Page numbers should be placed on the bottom right of the
page.
Abstract: This paper discusses consumer preferences amongst polar bears in respect of penguins and
porcupines. Consideration is given to availability of the latter foods in areas inhabited by
polar bears; economic factors affecting purchasing behaviour; the relative social prestige of
penguins and porcupines as foods; and the relevance of the current state of polar bear
technology in catering to food choice. It is concluded that polar bears in fact prefer
porcupines to penguins, the major reason for this being that penguins taste better with
mayonnaise.
(c) Abstracts
An abstract is a summary of 100-150 words, normally written on the title page as shown in
Table 3.4, outlining the main themes and/or arguments of your work, the direction your work
takes and its conclusions. It is not an introduction to your essay. Check articles in the journals in
the Library to see what an abstract looks like.
4.3 Structure
The structure of the report will depend to a large extent on its size and nature. The list
highlighted in Table 4.1 (extensively adapted from Drew and Bingham, 1997, The Students
Skills Guide, Aldershot: Gower) explains the different sections often found in reports. They are
shown in the order that they normally appear and the items underlined indicate the sections
that should be in all reports.
(b) Font, font size, line spacing and pagination (page numbers)
See Section 3.3 (a) above.
(c) Images
It is fully acceptable to use tables, graphs, diagrams and illustrations so long as they add to the
understanding of the report. They must be clearly labelled and referenced.
(d) Bold/italicised
Text should not be put in bold except for headings. Italics should not be used.
5.3 General assessment and specific marking schemes (including examinations and
dissertations)
As part of its arrangements with Manchester Metropolitan University, IMI has programme
specific descriptors which cover grading bands and are designed to describe general levels of
(assessment) attainment. As a template for assessing student work IMI’s programme specific
descriptors cross-cut mark bands with four assessable themes. These provide the framework for
the assessment of content. The criteria for the assessment of the content of a piece of
student’s work are listed for each separate item of assessment in the Unit Handout for each
unit of study. The four broad generic themes underlying the grading bands are as shown in
Table 5.1.
Several different systems of referencing exist but the most popular is the ‘Harvard’ system,
which comes in several forms, the model employed here being one of the most common. It
involves the insertion where appropriate of author family name(s) in the text, with the date of
publication of the author’s work, as in Table 6.1. This is an example of a single author citation
where Smith is the author of the work referred to. Always use the family name of the author
and not the first name. 1975 is the date of publication of that work. Dates of publication and
other details can be found (in the case of books) on the inside pages near the start of the text.
Smith (2004) has argued that polar bears prefer penguins to porcupines.
But what happens if you wanted to put your point more generally and show that it was a view
held by more than one author view? Look at Table 6.2. Note that in either case the 'e.g.' is
optional. However, it is customary to list references when used in this manner either in order
of publication (e.g.: 1979, 1980, 1981, etc.) or by order of importance of the contribution in
question.
Many people have argued that polar bears prefer penguins to porcupines (e.g.: Smith, 2004; Adams, 2005) but
they have been criticised by several writers on consumer behaviour (e.g.: Dibble 1989; Ellis, 1997; Cartwright,
2003).
In Table 6.2, it may be that Adams (2004) is recognised as the major authority in the field, in
which case it is permissible to promote him to the start of the list. Note the semi-colon - ; - that
separates reference citations from each other. The above examples illustrate what to do with
single author references. But what happens when more than one person wrote the text to
which you wish to refer? Look at Table 6.3. Note that we are now introducing certain Latin
academic terms such as 'et al' and 'op cit'. A short list of the meanings of these is given in
Table 6.4.
Table 6.3: Example of how to reference two or more authors who have written the same piece
1. Two authors: Smith and Brown (2006) have argued that polar bears enjoy peanuts.
2. More than two authors: Smith, Brown and Garfunkel (2007) have argued that polar bears enjoy eating
peanuts.
In the case of (2), if you cite the work of these authors more than once you can write from the second occasion
onwards:
On some occasions, you might find yourself referring to two or more pieces of work by the
same author and published in the same year. If this arises, then references in the text and in
the bibliography are differentiated by the addition of lower case letters to the date of
publication commencing with 'a'. Look now at Table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Example of one author publishing more than one piece in the same year
Brown (1998; 1998a) has written that polar bears enjoy drinking orange juice.
If you find that you have found information from two different authors but they happen to
have the same family name then you need to include their initials so that you can differentiate
between the two. Table 6.6 gives an example of this.
Other common cases that you may come across when you are writing assignments are when
you read edited books or when the author of a piece refers to another author in that piece.
Edited books are those, which the editor has put together a number of pieces written by other
authors. Examples of how you would reference these in text are highlighted in Table 6.7 and
Table 6.8 below. There are other examples of references that you may come across during your
writing but they are not as common as the ones highlighted previously. Table 6.9 summarises
examples of these.
Table 6.6: An example of two authors with the same surname
A B Smith (1998) has argued that polar bears enjoy peanuts, but this has since been shown to be false (C D
Smith, 2000)
Where Brown is the author of a chapter in an edited book – see Table 5.14 on how to present this in the
references and bibliography
Smith (1998, cited in Brown, 1999) has argued that polar bears enjoy peanuts.
1. Personal Communication
A. B. Smith (1998, personal communication, 2 July) said that polar bears enjoy peanuts.
2. Unpublished Work
Smith (unpublished, 1998) argues that polar bears enjoy peanuts.
4. Anonymous
Polar bears enjoy eating peanuts (Anon, 1998) OR Anon (1998) argues that polar bears enjoy eating
peanuts.
6. Newspapers
If the author is given then always use their name. However, if there is no author given: Weekend News
(25 Jan. 1998, p19) stated that polar bears enjoy eating peanuts.
8. Lecturers’ notes
For any notes that exist in written form: Caldwell (lecture notes, 2006)
It has been noted that polar bears enjoy eating peanuts (http://www.wwf.org).
That no less an authority than Johnson makes this point leads us to consider whether polar bears ever require
false teeth. In this respect there is little evidence.
Example 2
It is often argued that the real reason polar bears like porcupines is that ‘the porcupine’s
spines are a very useful dental care aid’ (Johnson, 1999: 24).
All bibliographic references adhere to the same standards in terms of content, although
presentation may differ. The first thing to note is that bibliographic references for books and
journals are styled differently.
For both book and journal references, the separation of authors' initials does not need full
stops. Note that when a single reference runs to more than one line, all lines after the first line
are slightly indented. All bibliographies/reference lists should be ordered alphabetically by
author family name and/or website address. Table 6.13 gives examples of how to compile a
bibliography of all the different types of referencing highlighted in Table 6.12.
Table 6.12: Information needed to compile a bibliography/reference list
Book Name of author (Date of publication of book) Title of the book, Place of publication: Publisher
of book
Journal article Name of author (Date of publication) Title of article or paper, Title of journal, Volume number
where appropriate, Issue number: page numbers of article (from-to)
Internet Name of author (Date of publication) Title of article/paper, Title of journal (where
appropriate), Issue number (where appropriate), Page numbers of where article appears (where
appropriate), The type of medium (e.g. CD-ROM, Online), ‘Available’ statement (e.g. www
address, supplier and name of electronic database), Most recent access date
2 books in the one year King, P (1984a) Polar Bear Fish Dishes London: Routledge
by the same author -------- (1984b) Cooking with Polar Bears London: Routledge
Edited Book Bear, P (Ed.) (1980) Funny Things Humans, London: Routledge
Books with different Bear, P (1980) Funny Things Humans, 2nd Ed, London: Routledge
editions
Chapter in an edited Smith, J A (1980) 'Polar Bears' in Brown, S (Ed) The Habits of Polar
book Bears, London: Hutchinson, 132-165
Article cited in a book Smith, J A (1980) ‘Polar Bears’ Icelandic Journal of Arctic
and Antarctic Studies, 3, 4: 198-205 in Brown, S (1990) The Habits of
Polar Bears, London: Hutchinson
Document found via the Smith, J A (1997) ‘New perspectives on polar bears’, International
internet Journal for the Study of Furry Creatures [Electronic], 34, 5: 23-34,
Elsevier Electronic Journals, www.elsevier.com, last accessed 23.4.99
(Adapted from http://www.usq.edu.au/library/resources/pathfind/Lg-11.htm)
It is also important to understand your own behaviour when working in groups. It is not good if
one person totally takes over the group. Table 7.1 identifies some of the behaviours that can be
shown in group work. Ideally what you are trying to achieve is assertive behaviour. Being
assertive does not mean that you will always get your own way (aggressive behaviour) nor does
it mean that other people will always get their own way (passive behaviour). It is aimed at
getting a win-win situation where everyone is happy.
7.5 Questions
Questions are among the most effective techniques in discussions. Use them to:
• open discussion;
• stimulate interest;
• provoke thinking;
• accumulate data;
• get individual participation;
• develop the subject;
• change the trend of the discussion;
• limit or terminate discussion; and
• to arrive at a conclusion.
8.1 Purpose
There are many reasons why you might be asked to make an oral presentation. Usually your
lecturer will issue the topic but it is important for you to understand what the purpose behind it
is. As with reports you could be asked to inform, to persuade, to recommend, to sell or to
demonstrate. Understanding this will help you to approach how you are going to deliver the
presentation most effectively. By analysing the task (see Table 3.1 on how to analyse a
question) you should be able to work out the purpose of the presentation. If in doubt, check
with the lecturer who issued the task.
8.2 Audience
Knowing whom your audience is going to be helps in the preparation of the presentation. You
need to consider what their expectations of the presentation will be (e.g. do they expect to be
informed or persuaded).You need to think about the number of people that will be there as this
may influence the way in which you choose to set up the room (e.g. if there is only going to be
a small number present in your audience then you may wish to change the set-up of the room
from row behind row to a more semi-circular shape and vice versa if there is going to be a
larger number present). You need to consider the level of knowledge that you audience has in
relation to the subject that you are presenting. This will influence the words and phrases you
use during the presentation (e.g. there is no point in using a lot of technical language if your
audience is not familiar with it).
8.3 Preparation
Preparing well in advance helps when the time comes to actually deliver the presentation. It
helps you to understand the material that you are going to present and will assist in reducing
nerves on the day. If you are going to make a group presentation then it is important that you
know what each member is going to prepare as this helps in the hand over from one member
to the other during the actual presentation. More information will be provided on this issue in
Section 8.5 below – Delivery.
If you stick to this structure then it helps you to keep focused on the topic. The beginning of
the presentation is particularly important as it is at this stage where you are trying to catch the
audiences’ attention. It is a good idea to start with something interesting e.g. a story, an
interesting statistic, a question, a visual aid such as a picture. Once you gain their attention
then you need to try to keep it throughout the presentation. At this stage it is also important to
highlight what you are going to cover in the time period that you have been allocated. It is
important to indicate the aim and objectives of the presentation (i.e. tell the audience what
you are going to tell them).
An important thing to remember when you are using visual aids is to keep them simple. If you
try to use complex aids then the audience is no longer concentrating on what you are trying to
tell them. Using visual aids helps to get the audience attention so make sure whatever you use
is clear. Always think about the person in the back row – make sure that they can see what you
are using and hear what you are saying.
The final stage is to end the presentation (i.e. tell them what you have told them). Here it is
good to summarise the main issues covered in the presentation and to tie them all together. It
is also good to summarise any discussion that may have developed through the presentation.
Your final conclusion can be given here together with implications for the future.
There are a number of issues that you should consider for the actual delivery of your
presentation. Table 8.3 highlights some of these important points. It is natural that you may be
nervous about the presentation so there are a number of things that you can do in terms of
fighting your nerves. Be prepared, be on time and try to relax. You will feel more comfortable
and confident if you have practiced the presentation in advance. Have a glass of water near if
you think you are going to need it and finally, remember that other students will have to do a
presentation too and are also nervous.
9.4 Note-taking
The quality of your learning will depend on the quality of your notes. Your notes should be
concise and relevant. Effective note taking requires the ability to distinguish between what is
important information and what is not important. Your notes should be legible to help you
understand them. If you rewrite your notes keep your final copy stored on index cards or in a
small notebook for easy reference.
Now you are ready to choose your questions. Cottrell (1999) suggests that you do the
following:
• choose a question that you fully understand. It is not advisable to just write all you know
about a subject as this only proves that you can memorise it. Marks are given on the basis
of your understanding of the question, and your ability to relate it to course issues;
• tick the questions that you think you could attempt but tick twice the ones that you think
you could do best. Take you time over this bearing in mind the point above;
• when you have chosen the questions that you are going to do, highlight the key words in
this. Work out if the question has different parts that need to be answered; and
• at any stage during the exam you can jot down ideas that you think of in relation to the
questions so that you don’t forget them. Do this on the question sheet and clearly mark
which questions the idea relates to so that you don’t get mixed up.
• read the whole exam paper carefully? • find questions that are similar to ones I have
• follow all instructions? practiced?
• answer the correct number of questions in • find I have revised enough topics?
full? • know what a ‘good’ answer looks like?
• plan time so that I can check my answers? • know which style is appropriate?
• know exactly how long I have for each • know the correct format or layout?
question? • plan my answers (on paper or in my head)?
• share out time according to the marks • develop a clear argument (where appropriate)?
available? • use example from the course materials?
• use all of the available time? • keep strictly to answering the question set?
• read each question at least twice? • avoid irrelevant detail and going off at tangents?
• spend time working out what all the • get to the point quickly?
questions mean? • avoid flowery language and vague introductions?
• ask myself what the examiner is looking for? • include an introduction and a conclusion?
• spend enough time considering the best • keep focused on the exam during the exam?
questions for me? • check my answers for mistakes?
• feel confident about what I am expected to • check my answers to see if they make sense?
do?
If you have not answered yes to most of these questions and are uncertain about any aspects
then it is advisable that you consult with a lecturer.
CONTENT (80%)
REFERENCING (10%)