Section 2: Introduction to Hydraulic Design

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Purpose

Hydraulic facilities include open channels, bridges, culverts, storm drains, pump stations, and
storm-water quantity and quality control systems. Each can be part of a larger facility that drains
water. In analyzing or designing drainage facilities, your investment of time, expense,
concentration, and task completeness should be influenced by the relative importance of the
facility. This manual provides procedures recommended by the Texas Department of
Transportation (TxDOT) for analyzing and designing effective highway drainage facilities.

Description

Hydraulic facilities include the following:

• open channels
• bridges
• culverts
• storm drains
• pump stations
• storm water quantity and quality control systems.

The hydraulic design or analysis of highway drainage facilities usually involves a general
procedure that is essentially the same for each case. Some of the basic components inherent in
the design or analysis of any highway drainage facility include data, surveys of existing
characteristics, estimates of future characteristics, engineering design criteria, discharge
estimates, structure requirements and constraints, and receiving facilities.

Time, expense, focus, and completeness of the design or analysis process should all be
commensurate with the relative importance of the facility, that is, its cost, level of use, public
safety, and similar factors. These aspects of the design process are often subjective. The funding
or time constraints associated with any engineered project often are determining factors in the
designer’s involvement.

Section 1: Introduction
This chapter discusses general hydraulic data collection needs, data location, analysis,
evaluation, and documentation.

The importance and extent of the project and facility determine the amount of effort needed for
data collection and evaluation. A comprehensive, accurate, and economical highway drainage
design requires reliable data for its success. Failure to base a design on adequate and appropriate
data can lead to economic loss and interruption of the roadway function (see Figure 4-1).
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Figure 4-1. Roadway Base Failure

A systematic data collection program generally leads to a more orderly and effective analysis or
design. The following table outlines the data collection process:

1. Identify data types: drainage area characteristics, land use, stream course data,
facility site data, streamflow data, and climatological data.
2. Determine data sources: site investigation data and resource agencies.
3. Evaluate data.

Section 2: Site Investigation Data

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Introduction

TxDOT policy requires a hydrologic and hydraulic analysis for projects that involve:

• new locations
• replacing facilities
• widening existing locations

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Drainage Area Characteristics

Refer to linked “File 3a” for a Documentation Checklist for Hydraulic Design Project References
based on the following paragraphs.

Size. Drainage area size is usually important for estimating runoff characteristics. Determine the
size of the drainage by one of the following methods:

• Conduct direct field surveys with conventional surveying instruments.

• Use topographic maps together with field checks for artificial barriers such as terraces
and ponds. (USGS topographic maps are available for many areas of the state through
retail outlets for maps and surveying supplies. Many municipal and county entities as
well as some developers have developed topographic maps of their own. Determine the
suitability and usefulness of all these maps.)
• Use any other available resources.

Topography. Estimate relief and slope characteristics of the watershed by one or more of the
methods listed above for drainage area sizes. Most hydrologic procedures used by TxDOT
depend on watershed slopes and other physical characteristics.

Soil Type. Watershed soil type(s) and associated characteristics correlate with infiltration,
interception, depression storage, and detention storage. Use Natural Resources Conservation
Service publications, including maps, reports, and work plans, to identify and quantify soil
parameters in the watershed. See U.S. Department of Agriculture for contact information.

Vegetation. Present and future vegetation characteristics influence the amount and rate of
watershed runoff as well as the streamflow patterns expected in and around the drainage facility.
Look at surveys or obtain data from a site visit.

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Land Use

There are several forms of land use data and many sources from which to obtain them.

Development Prediction Source. Ordinarily, the drainage facility design includes a reasonable
anticipation of service life. Because the facility must accommodate potential flows during that
service life, consider possible future development of the watershed. Predicting future
development of a watershed is difficult. However, you can estimate future development by
interviewing landowners, developers, officials, planners, local and regional planning
organizations, realtors, and local residents.

Watershed Characteristic Sources. Look at master plans for development from city planning
departments. Land use data are available in different forms, including topographic maps, aerial
photographs, zoning maps, satellite images, and geographic information systems. Municipalities
have records and maps of storm drain systems and channel improvements.
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Stream Course Data

Streams are classified as follows:

• rural, urban, or a mix

• unimproved to improved
• narrow to wide-wooded
• rapid flow to sluggish

Profile. Extend the stream profile sufficiently upstream and downstream of the facility to
determine the average slope and to encompass any channel changes or aberrations. USGS
recommends a minimum distance of 500 ft. (150 m) both upstream and downstream for a total of
1000 ft. (300 m) or a distance equal to twice the width of the floodplain, whichever is greater.
Topographic maps published by USGS are useful in determining overall channel slopes.

Channel Location. Note the location of the main channel and any subchannels, creeks, and
sloughs within the profile section.

Cross Sections. Cross sections must represent the stream geometry and contain the highest
expected water-surface elevation to be considered. For hydraulic computations, use cross
sections that are perpendicular or normal to the anticipated direction of flow. In some instances,
particularly in wide floodplains where a single straight line across is not adequate, break the
cross section into segments for a dogleg effect as shown in Figure 4-2. Adjacent cross sections
should not cross each other.

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Figure 4-2. Dog-legged Cross Section

The minimum number of cross sections is four, located as follows:

• At the beginning of the profile stretch

• At the downstream face of the structure (or where the downstream face will be)
• At the upstream face of the structure (or where the upstream face will be)
• At the end of the profile stretch

Additional cross sections are necessary at each change in roughness, slope, shape, or floodplain
width. Take enough cross sections to analyze fully the stream flow.

Do not leave the choice of the typical cross section entirely to the field survey party. Carefully
consider the location and orientation of the cross section used in the channel analysis without
regard to surveyor convenience or expedience.

Locate sections as follows:

• Sections along the right-of-way line can be misleading hydraulically because they may
represent only local, cleared conditions that do not reflect the stream reach. For similar
reasons, avoid cross sections along utility easements and other narrow cleared areas.
• Avoid local depressions or crests that are not typical of a whole stream reach.
• Generally try to space sections about 1.5 to 2 times the approximate floodplain width. A
notable exception to this is at structures where more definition is needed.

Roughness Characteristics. The Manning’s equation for uniform flow is the most commonly
used conveyance relation in highway drainage design. Note and record the physical details of the
streambed and floodplain; you will use them later to determine the Manning’s roughness
coefficients (n values). Details include vegetation type and density, material (rock type, clay soil,
gravel), trash, streambed shape, cross section geometry, and any item that may affect streamflow
during normal and flood conditions.

Flow Controls. Note anything upstream and downstream within the profile section, including the
following:

• Any downstream confluences

• Significant choking sections
• Bridges and low water crossings
• Abrupt meanders
• Heavily vegetated areas
• Material borrow pits in the floodplain

Include all observations about size, type, location, and flow over or through. Bridge data should
include span lengths and types and dimensions of piers.

Reservoirs. Note any reservoirs and ponds along with their spillway elevations and operations or
other control operations. Dams with hydroelectric generators may raise water levels significantly
during generator operations.
The following organizations may have complete reports concerning the operation, capacity, and
design of proposed or existing conservation and flood-control reservoirs:

• Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)

• Corps of Engineers (USACE)
• Bureau of Reclamation
• Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC)
• Municipalities

Flood Stages. Obtain information on historic flood stages from TxDOT personnel, city and
county officials, and local residents. If possible, observe the structure under flood conditions to
learn about the stream behavior. When possible, take videos and photographs of the flood action
at or near the structure for use in future studies. Determine the direction of stream lines with
relation to the low flow channel, estimated velocity, estimated drifting material (amount and
size), natural tendency for erosion in the channel, the drop in water surface elevation from the
upstream side to the downstream side of the structure, and the highest stage with the date of
occurrence.

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Geotechnical Information

Soil Properties. A geotechnical report provides information about the soils in the area and soils
used on highway projects. The detail of such reports can vary greatly but usually will include the
following:

• Soil type, soil density (blow count), and depth for each soil type
• Soil properties such as acidity/alkalinity, resistivity, and other significant constituents
• Presence, depth, and type of bedrock
• Sieve analyses (D50 and D90 values)

Scour Observations. Note the presence of scour around pilings and abutments. Record size,
depth, and location of each scour hole. Also record any deposition of material including type
(rock, gravel, dirt, etc.), location, and depth.

Stream Stability. Erosion problems may occur in a stream system even without the presence of a
bridge. Record the following data:

• Any occurrence or possibility of streambed degradation (head cutting). Head cutting may
be caused by dredging or mining downstream or channel modifications such as
straightening.
• Signs of bank slippage and erosion such as buildings located closer to the bank than seem
reasonable, trees growing at odd angles from the bank, exposed tree roots, and trees with
trunks curved near the ground.
• The location and likely direction of lateral migration (meanders).
For more information, see the discussion on stream stability in Chapter 7.

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Adjacent Properties

Note the location of any driveways, utilities, and structures adjacent to the project site that will
be affected by construction. Note the elevations of any improvements or insurable structures near
the proposed site that may be affected by a rise in water surface elevations up through and
including the 100-year event.

Highway Stream Crossing Design Data Sources

Use a combination of the following sources to obtain data in the design of highway stream
crossings, including the following:

• site investigations and field surveys

• files of federal agencies such as the National Weather Service, USGS (U.S.
Geological Survey), and NRCS. (Note: NRCS was formerly the Soil Conservation
Service.)
• files of state and local agencies such as TxDOT files, Texas water agencies, and
various regional and municipal planning organizations
• other published reports and documents
• the Texas Natural Resource Information System (TNRIS)

Compile streamflow, land use, and other required data from the sources mentioned above. For a
list of appropriate agency addresses, see References.

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Streamflow Data

The primary source of streamflow information in Texas is USGS, the agency charged with
collecting and disseminating this data. USGS collects data at stream-gauging stations statewide.

The USGS Internet site provides direct access to stream gauge data.

The Corps of Engineers (USACE) and the Bureau of Reclamation also collect streamflow data.
Other sources of data include local utility companies, water-intensive industries, and academic or
research institutions.

The International Boundary and Water Commission collects and compiles streamflow data along
the Rio Grande and some tributaries.
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Climatological Data

The National Weather Service (NWS) has a wealth of climatological data, specifically rainfall
data. NWS issues periodic reports to the public and agencies such as TxDOT. NWS also
publishes reports concerning reduced data that the designer can use as analytical tools.

Section 4: Data Evaluation and Documentation

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Data Evaluation Procedure

Experience, knowledge, and judgment are important parts of data evaluation. After collecting
data, use the following data evaluation procedure:

1. Compile and evaluate data into a usable format. Compile all collected information
into a comprehensive and accurate representation of the hydrologic, hydraulic, and
physical characteristics of a particular site.
2. Determine if the data contain inconsistencies or other unexplained anomalies that
might lead to erroneous calculations, assumptions, or conclusions.
3. Separate reliable data from unreliable data.
4. Combine historical data with data obtained from measurements.
5. Evaluate data for consistency, and identify any changes from established patterns.
6. Review previous studies, old plans, or prior documentation for data types and
sources, information on how the data were used, and indications of accuracy and
reliability.
7. Carefully evaluate unpublished data for accuracy and reliability.

Review this historical data to determine whether significant changes occurred in the watershed
and for usefulness of the data. TxDOT considers valid and accurate any data acquired from
publications by established sources, such as the USGS.

Use the procedure to compare data for inconsistencies:

1. Evaluate basic data, such as streamflow data derived from non-published sources.
2. Summarize this data before use.
3. Compare the following data with each other and with the results of the field
survey to resolve any inconsistencies: maps, aerial photographs, satellite images,
videotapes, and land use studies.

Consult general references to help define the hydrologic character of the site or region under
study and aid in the analysis and evaluation of data.

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Data Documentation Items

Begin documenting obtained data as soon as you collect it. In design/analysis documentation,
include types and identified sources, actual data items, evaluations, assumptions, and conclusions
concerning the data.

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Other Considerations for Drainage Facilities

Consider collecting descriptive data to address the following:

• coordination with other agencies

• compliance with TxDOT policy and administrative guidelines
• consideration of local ordinances and preferences
• careful coordination with affected property owners

Gain a thorough understanding of local, state, and federal requirements regarding the design of
roadway drainage facilities.
Chapter 5: Hydrology
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Section 1: Introduction
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Description

For the purpose of this manual, hydrology deals with estimating flood magnitudes as the result of
precipitation. In the design of highway drainage structures, floods are usually considered in
terms of peak runoff or discharge in cubic feet per second (cfs) or cubic meters per second (m3/s)
and hydrographs as discharge per time. Use peak discharge to design facilities such as storm
drain systems, culverts, and bridges.

For systems that are designed to control the volume of runoff, like detention storage facilities, or
where flood routing through culverts is used, the entire discharge hydrograph will be of interest.

Fundamental to the design of drainage facilities are analyses of peak rate of runoff, volume of
runoff, and time distribution of flow.

Errors in the estimates result in a structure that is either undersized, which could cause drainage
problems, or oversized, which costs more than necessary. On the other hand, realize that any
hydrologic analysis is only an approximation. Although some hydrologic analysis is necessary
for all highway drainage facilities, the extent of such studies should be commensurate with the
hazards associated with the facilities and with other concerns, including economic, engineering,
social, and environmental factors.

Because hydrology is not an exact science, different hydrologic methods developed for
determining flood runoff may produce different results for a particular situation. Therefore,
exercise sound engineering judgment to select the proper method or methods to be applied. In
some instances, certain federal or state agencies may require (or local agencies may recommend)
a specific hydrologic method for computing the runoff.

While performing the hydrologic analysis and hydraulic design of highway drainage facilities,
the hydraulic engineer should recognize and evaluate potential environmental problems that
would impact the specific design of a structure early in the design process.

Most complaints relating to highway drainage facilities stem from the impact to existing
hydrologic and hydraulic characteristics. In order to minimize the potential for valid complaints,
gather complete data reflecting existing drainage characteristics during design.

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Peak Discharge versus Frequency Relations

Section 2: Factors Affecting Floods
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Flood Factors

The following factors affect floods in the watershed: runoff, watershed area information,
geographic location, land use, soil type, topography, vegetation, detention storage systems, flow
diversions, channelization, and future conditions.

Runoff. Two main factors influence runoff from a watershed: precipitation and abstractions.
Precipitation in the State of Texas is represented most significantly by rainfall, although snow,
sleet, and hail can influence runoff. Rainfall rate distributions within a watershed vary both
temporally and spatially. For most determinations of peak flow for use in department design and
analysis efforts, assume rainfall rates not to vary within the watershed during the rainfall event.

Generally, the entire volume of rainfall occurring on a watershed does not appear as runoff.
Losses, known as abstractions, tend to reduce the volume of water appearing as runoff.
Abstractions of precipitation in its evolution into runoff are numerous. However, for the typical
highway drainage design problem, only six abstractions are commonly considered. They are
shown in the order of their significance to the runoff.

• Infiltration—The amount of the precipitation that percolates into the ground in the
watershed. This abstraction is a function of soil type and characteristics, terrain slopes,
and ground cover.
• Depression storage—The precipitation stored permanently in inescapable depressions
within the watershed. It is a function of land use, ground cover, and general topography.
• Detention storage—The precipitation stored temporarily in the flow of streams, channels,
and reservoirs in the watershed. It is a function of the general drainage network of
streams, channels, ponds, etc. in the watershed.
• Interception—The precipitation that serves to first “wet” the physical features of the
watershed (e.g., leaves, rooftops, pavements). It is a function of most watershed
characteristics.
• Evaporation—The precipitation that returns to the atmosphere as water vapor by the
process of evaporation from water concentrations. It is mostly a function of climate
factors, but it is associated with exposed areas of water surface.
• Transpiration—The precipitation that returns to the atmosphere as water vapor and that is
generated by a natural process of vegetation foliage. It is a function of ground cover and
vegetation.

The specific consideration of each of these abstractions is not usually explicit in the many
hydrologic methods available.
Watershed Area Information. Most runoff estimation techniques use the size of the contributing
watershed as a principal factor. Generally, runoff rates and volumes increase with increasing
drainage area. The size of a watershed will not usually change over the service life. However,
agricultural activity and land development may cause the watershed area to change. Diversions
and area changes due to urbanization and other development inevitably occur. Try to identify or
otherwise anticipate such circumstances.

The watershed shape usually will affect runoff rates. For example, a long, narrow watershed is
likely to experience lower runoff rates than a short, wide watershed of the same size and other
characteristics. Some hydrologic methods accommodate watershed shape explicitly or implicitly;
others may not. If a drainage area is unusually bulbous in shape or extremely narrow, the
designer should consider using a hydrologic method that explicitly accommodates watershed
shape.

The response of a watershed to runoff may vary with respect to the direction in which a storm
event passes. Generally, for design purposes, the orientation of the watershed may be ignored
because it is usual to assume uniform rainfall distribution over the watershed.

Geographic Location. The geographic location of the watershed within the State of Texas is a
significant factor for the drainage designer. Rainfall intensities and distributions, empirical
hydrologic relations, and hydrologic method applications vary on the basis of geographic
location. You should use hydrologic methods and parameters that are appropriate for the specific
location.

Land Use. Land use significantly affects the parameters of a runoff event. Land use and human
activity within most watersheds vary with respect to time. For example, a rural watershed can be
developed into a commercial area in a matter of weeks. Factors subject to change with general
variations in land use include the following:

• permeable and impermeable areas

• vegetation
• minor topographic features
• drainage systems.

All of these factors usually affect the rate and volume of runoff that may be expected from a
watershed. Therefore, carefully consider current land use and future potential land use in the
development of the parameters of any runoff hydrograph.

Land Use Changes. Diversions and area changes due to urbanization and other development
inevitably occur. Try to identify or otherwise anticipate such circumstances.

Soil Type. The soil type can have considerable effect on the discharge rates of the runoff
hydrograph; the soil type directly affects the permeability of the soil and thus the rate of rainfall
infiltration. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) is an excellent repository for
information about soils in Texas. The hydrologic procedure used may require specific data
concerning the soil type.
Topography. Topography mostly affects the rate at which runoff occurs. The rate of runoff
increases with increasing slope. Furthermore, rates of runoff decrease with increasing depression
storage and detention storage volumes. Many methods incorporate a watershed slope factor, but
fewer methods allow the designer to consider the effects of storage on runoff.

Vegetation. In general, runoff decreases with increasing density of vegetation; vegetation helps
reduce antecedent soil moisture conditions and increases interception such as to increase initial
rainfall abstractions. Vegetative characteristics can vary significantly with the land use;
therefore, consider them in the assessment of potential future conditions of the watershed.

Detention Storage Systems. Detention storage systems are common in urban areas mostly due to
governmental requirements aimed at controlling increased runoff from developed areas. The
department designer should identify any detention storage systems that might exist within the
subject watershed. A detention storage facility can attenuate the runoff hydrograph, thus
reducing the peak discharge. The department may design facilities that involve detained storage
to conform to federal and state environmental regulations, to cooperate with local ordinances or
regulations, or where you deem flood attenuation necessary.

Flow Diversions. Flow diversions within a watershed can change the runoff travel times and
subsequent peak discharge rates. They can decrease discharge at some locations and increase
discharge elsewhere. Flow diversions may redirect flow away from a location during light
rainfall but overflow during heavy rainfall. Make an assessment of the likely effect of diversions
that exist within the watershed. Also, ensure that you minimize the potential impact of necessary
diversions resulting from your highway project.

Channelization. Channelization in an urban area entails the following:

• improved open channels

• curb and gutter street sections
• inverted crown street sections
• storm drain systems.

Any of these channelization types serve to make drainage more efficient. This means that flows
in areas with urban channelization can be greater, and peak discharges occur much more quickly
than where no significant channelization exists.

Future Conditions. Changes in watershed characteristics and climate directly affect runoff. A
reasonable service life of a designed facility is expected. Therefore, base the estimate of design
flooding upon runoff influences within the time of the anticipated service life of the facility.

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Prediction Information

In general, consider estimates for future land use and watershed character within some future
range. It is difficult to predict the future, but you should make an effort at such a prediction,
especially with regard to watershed characteristics. Landowners, developers, realtors, local and
state and federal officials, and planners can often provide information on potential future
characteristics of the watershed.

In estimating future characteristics of the watershed, consider changes in vegetative cover,

surface permeability, and contrived drainage systems. Climatic changes usually occur over
extremely long periods of time such that it is not usually reasonable to consider potential climatic
changes during the anticipated life span of the facility.
Section 3: Design Frequency
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Concept of Frequency

As with other natural phenomena, occurrence of flooding is governed by chance. The chance of
flooding is described by a statistical analysis of flooding history in the subject watershed or in
similar watersheds. Because it is not economically feasible to design a structure for the
maximum possible runoff from a watershed, the designer must choose a design frequency
appropriate for the structure.

The expected frequency for a given flood is the reciprocal of the probability or chance that the
flood will be equaled or exceeded in a given year. For example, if a flood has a 20 percent
chance of being equaled or exceeded each year, over a long period of time the flood will be
equaled or exceeded on an average of once every five years. This is called the return period or
recurrence interval (RI). Thus the exceedance probability equals 100/RI. The following table lists
the probability of occurrence for the standard design frequencies.

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Frequency (Years) Probability (%)
2 50
5 20
10 10
25 4
50 2
100 1

The five-year flood is not one that will necessarily be equaled or exceeded every five years.
There is a 20 percent chance that the flood will be equaled or exceeded in any year; therefore, the
five-year flood could conceivably occur in several consecutive years. The same reasoning
applies to floods with other return periods.

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Frequency Determination

Derive the design frequency from the importance of the appropriate highway, the level of
service, potential hazard to adjacent property, future development, and budgetary constraints.
Develop alternative solutions that satisfy design considerations to varying degrees. After