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Further information: Chart

Sample flowchart representing the decision process to add a new article to Wikipedia.

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 is a two-dimensional geometric symbolic representation of information according to

some visualization technique. Sometimes, the technique uses a three-dimensional visualization
which is then projected onto the two-dimensional surface. The word Ê
 is sometimes used as
a synonym for diagram.

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A diagram is a 2D geometric symbolic representation of information according to some
visualization technique. Sometimes, the technique uses a 3D visualization which is then
projected onto the 2D surface. The term diagram in common sense can have two meanings.

2Y i

  
  i  : Like the term "illustration" the diagram is used as a collective
term standing for the whole class of technical genres, including graphs, technical
drawings and tables.[1]
2Y
   
i



 : This is only the genre, that show qualitative data with
shapes that are connected by lines, arrows, or other visual links.

In science the term is used in both ways. For example Anderson (1997) stated more generally:
"diagrams are pictorial, yet abstract, representations of information, and maps, line graphs, bar
charts, engineering blueprints, and architects' sketches are all examples of diagrams, whereas
photographs and video are not".[2] On the other hand Lowe (1993) defined diagrams as
specifically "abstract graphic portrayals of the subject matter they represent".[3]
In the specific sense diagrams and charts contrast computer graphics, technical illustrations,
infographics, maps, and technical drawings, by show "abstract rather than literal representations
of information".[1] The essences of a diagram can be seen as:[1]

2Y a   of visual formatting devices

2Y a 

 that do not show quantitative data, but rather relationships and abstract
information
2Y with   Ê

such as geometrical shapes connected by lines, arrows, or other
visual links.

Or in Hall's (1996) words "diagrams are simplified figures, caricatures in a way, intended to
convey essential meaning".[4] These simplified figures are often based on set of rules. The basic
shape according to White (1984) can be characterized in terms of "elegance, clarity, ease,
pattern, simplicity, and validity"[1]. The elegance for a start is determined by whether or not the
diagram is "the simplest and most fitting solution to a problem".[5]

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There are at least the following types of diagrams:

2Y ëraph-based diagrams: these take a collection of items and relationships between them,
and express them by giving each item a 2D position, while the relationships are expressed
as connections between the items or overlaps between the items; examples of such
techniques:

tree diagram network diagram Venn diagram

flowchart existential graph

2Y Chart-like diagram techniques, which display a relationship between two variables that
take either discrete or a continuous ranges of values; examples:
2Y

The term "chart" as a graphical representation of data has multiple meaning

2Y A data chart is a type of diagram or graph, that organizes and represents a set of
numerical or qualitative data.
2Y Maps that are adorned with extra information for some specific purpose are often known
as charts, such as a nautical chart or aeronautical chart.
 2Y Other domain specific constructs are sometimes called charts, such as the chord chart in
music notation or a record chart for album popularity.

Charts are often used to ease understanding of large quantities of data and the relationships
between parts of the data. Charts can usually be read more quickly than the raw data that they are
produced from. They are used in a wide variety of fields, and can be created by hand (often on
graph paper) or by computer using a charting application. Certain types of charts are more useful
for presenting a given data set than others. For example, data that presents percentages in
different groups (such as "satisfied, not satisfied, unsure") are often displayed in a pie chart, but
may be more easily understood when presented in a horizontal bar chart.[2] On the other hand,
data that represents numbers that change over a period of time (such as "annual revenue from
1990 to 2000") might be best shown as a line chart.

2Y
2Y
2Y
2Y
2Y
2Y A chart can take a large variety of forms, however there are common features that
provide the chart with its ability to extract meaning from data.
2Y Typically a chart is graphical, containing very little text, since humans are generally able
to infer meaning from pictures quicker than from text. One of the more important uses of
text in a graph is in the title. A graph's title usually appears above the main graphic and
provides a succinct description of what the data in the graph refers to.
2Y Dimensions in the data are often displayed on axes. If a horizontal and a vertical axis are
used, they are usually referred to as the x-axis and y-axis respectively. Each axis will
have a scale, denoted by periodic graduations and usually accompanied by numerical or
categorical indications. Each axis will typically also have a label displayed outside or
beside it, briefly describing the dimension represented. If the scale is numerical, the label
will often be suffixed with the unit of that scale in parentheses. For example, "Distance
traveled (m)" is a typical x-axis label and would mean that the distance travelled in
metres is related to the horizontal position of the data.
2Y Within the graph a grid of lines may appear to aid in the visual alignment of data. The
grid can be enhanced by visually emphasizing the lines at regular or significant
graduations. The emphasized lines are then called major grid lines and the rest of the grid
lines are minor grid lines.
2Y The data of a chart can appear in all manner of formats, with or without individual labels.
It may appear as dots or shapes, connected or unconnected, and in any combination of
colors and patterns. Inferences or points of interest can be overlayed directly on the graph
to further aid information extraction.
2Y When the data appearing in a chart contains multiple variables, the chart may include a
legend. A legend contains a list of the variables appearing in the chart and an example of
their appearance. This information allows the data from each variable to be identified in
the chart.
 histogram bar chart pie chart
function graphscatter plot

2Y Other types of diagrams, e.g.,

exploded population density Pioneer Three-dimensional

train map diagram
view plaque
diagram
Y

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A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence of operations to be

performed to get the solution of a problem. Flowcharts are generally drawn in the early stages of
formulating computer solutions. Flowcharts facilitate communication between programmers and
business people. These flowcharts play a vital role in the programming of a problem and are
quite helpful in understanding the logic of complicated and lengthy problems. Once the
flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write the program in any high level language. Often we
see how flowcharts are helpful in explaining the program to others. Hence, it is correct to say
that a flowchart is a must for the better documentation of a complex program.

Start or end of the program

Computational steps or processing function of a program
Input or output operation
Decision making and branching
Connector or joining of two parts of program
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Disk
Off-page connector
Flow line
Annotation
 Display

   
 

The following are some guidelines in flowcharting:

a.Y In drawing a proper flowchart, all necessary requirements should be listed out in logical
order.
b.Y The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow. There should not be any room for
ambiguity in understanding the flowchart.
c.Y The usual direction of the flow of a procedure or system is from left to right or top to
bottom.
d.Y Only one flow line should come out from a process symbol.

or

e.Y Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol, but two or three flow lines, one for
each possible answer, should leave the decision symbol.
 f.Y Only one flow line is used in conjunction with terminal symbol.

g.Y Write within standard symbols briefly. As necessary, you can use the annotation symbol
to describe data or computational steps more clearly.

h.Y If the flowchart becomes complex, it is better to use connector symbols to reduce the
number of flow lines. Avoid the intersection of flow lines if you want to make it more
effective and better way of communication.
i.Y Ensure that the flowchart has a logical

 and  

j.Y It is useful to test the validity of the flowchart by passing through it with a simple test
data.

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The benefits of flowcharts are as follows:

1.Y Communication: Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic of a system to all
concerned.
2.Y Effective analysis: With the help of flowchart, problem can be analysed in more effective
way.
3.Y Proper documentation: Program flowcharts serve as a good program documentation,
which is needed for various purposes.
4.Y Efficient Coding: The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the systems analysis
and program development phase.
5.Y Proper Debugging: The flowchart helps in debugging process.
6.Y Efficient Program Maintenance: The maintenance of operating program becomes easy
with the help of flowchart. It helps the programmer to put efforts more efficiently on that
part

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1.Y Complex logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In that case,
flowchart becomes complex and clumsy.
 2.Y Alterations and Modifications: If alterations are required the flowchart may require re-
drawing completely.
3.Y Reproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction of flowchart
becomes a problem.
4.Y The essentials of what is done can easily be lost in the technical details of how it is done.
5.Y Now we shall present few examples on flowcharting for proper understanding of this
technique. This will help in student in program development process at a later stage.
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7.Y Draw a flowchart to find the sum of first 50 natural numbers.
8.Y Answer: The required flowchart is given in Fig. 25.2.

9.Y
10.Y
11.Y     





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The Venn Diagram is made up of two or more overlapping circles. It is often used in
mathematics to show relationships between sets. In language arts instruction, Venn
Diagrams are useful for examining similarities and differences in characters, stories,
poems, etc.

It is frequently used as a prewriting activity to enable students to organize thoughts or

textual quotations prior to writing a compare/contrast essay. This activity enables
students to organize similarities and differences visually .
 http://www.beaconlearningcenter.com/weblessons/alltheparts/default.htm#page7
BAR ëRAPH

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 is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values
that they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally.

Bar charts are used for plotting discrete (or 'discontinuous') data i.e. data which has discrete
values and is not continuous. Some examples of discontinuous data include 'shoe size' or 'eye
colour', for which you would use a bar chart. In contrast, some examples of continuous data
would be 'height' or 'weight'. A bar chart is very useful if you are trying to record certain
information whether it is continuous or not continuous data.

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[1] (also called  Ê
 or  Ê
 ) is an ideogram that conveys its meaning
through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Earliest examples of pictographs include
ancient or prehistoric drawings or paintings found on rock walls. Pictographs are also used in
writing and graphic systems in which the characters are to considerable extent pictorial in
appearance.

Pictography is a form of writing which uses representational, pictorial drawings. It is a basis of

cuneiform and, to some extent, hieroglyphic writing, which uses drawings also as phonetic letters
or determinative rhymes.

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 (or a  


) is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating proportion. In
a pie chart, the arc length of each sector (and consequently its central angle and area), is
proportional to the quantity it represents. When angles are measured with 1 turn as unit then a
number of percent is identified with the same number of centiturns. Together, the sectors create a
full disk. It is named for its resemblance to a pie which has been sliced. The earliest known pie
chart is generally credited to William Playfair's !

 
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 of 1801.[1][2]

The pie chart is perhaps the most ubiquitous statistical chart in the business world and the mass
media.[3] However, it has been criticized,[4] and some recommend avoiding it,[5][6][7][8] pointing
out in particular that it is difficult to compare different sections of a given pie chart, or to
compare data across different pie charts. Pie charts can be an effective way of displaying
information in some cases, in particular if the intent is to compare the size of a slice with the
whole pie, rather than comparing the slices among them.[1] Pie charts work particularly well
when the slices represent 25 to 50% of the data,[9] but in general, other plots such as the bar chart
or the dot plot, or non-graphical methods such as tables, may be more adapted for representing
certain information.It also shows the frequency within certain groups of information.

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For the histograms used in digital image processing, see Image histogram and Color histogram.
 


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Karl Pearson

 
 

To roughly assess the probability

distribution of a given variable by depicting



the frequencies of observations occurring
in certain ranges of values

In statistics, a  
 is a graphical representation, showing a visual impression of the

distribution of data. It is an estimate of the probability distribution of a continuous variable and
was first introduced by Karl Pearson [1]. A histogram consists of tabular frequencies, shown as
adjacent rectangles, erected over discrete intervals (bins), with an area equal to the frequency of
the observations in the interval. The height of a rectangle is also equal to the frequency density of
the interval, i.e., the frequency divided by the width of the interval. The total area of the
histogram is equal to the number of data. A histogram may also be normalized displaying
relative frequencies. It then shows the proportion of cases that fall into each of several
categories, with the total area equaling 1. The categories are usually specified as consecutive,
non-overlapping intervals of a variable. The categories (intervals) must be adjacent, and often are
chosen to be of the same size.[2]

Histograms are used to plot density of data, and often for density estimation: estimating the
probability density function of the underlying variable. The total area of a histogram used for
probability density is always normalized to 1. If the length of the intervals on the Œ-axis are all 1,
then a histogram is identical to a relative frequency plot.
An alternative to the histogram is kernel density estimation, which uses a kernel to smooth
samples. This will construct a smooth probability density function, which will in general more
accurately reflect the underlying variable.

The histogram is one of the seven basic tools of quality control.[3]

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