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SOIL - is the top layer of the Earth’s surface

Components:

1. Minerals - a solid homogeneous crystalline chemical element or compound that results from the
inorganic processes of nature; broadly : any of various naturally occurring homogeneous
substances (as stone, coal, salt, sulfur, sand, petroleum, water, or natural gas) obtained usually
from the ground.
2. Organic Matter – remains of plants or animals. Humus is a brown or black complex variable
material resulting from partial decomposition of plant or animal matter and forming the organic
portion of soil. Darker soil contains higher concentration of organic matter.
3. Living Organisms – includes life forms such as plants, animals or microorganisms which includes:
Arthropods – ants, centepedes
Burrowing Animals – rabbits, snakes. Serves as hiding place to protect themselves from
predators and shelter for them.
Nematodes – round worms. Some are plant pests while some provide nutrients to the soil.
Protozoa – feed on bacteria. Helps in the release of nitrogen.
Fungi – doesn’t have chlorophyll. Some grow on plant roots. Mushrooms can help decompose
dead plants and recycle nutrients.

SOIL HORIZON LAYERS

O Horizon

The letter 'O' stands for organic. As the name suggests, this horizon is rich in organic material of plant
and animal origin. These materials are generally in various stages of decomposition. This decomposed
organic material is called the humus that gives this horizon its characteristic dark color.

A Horizon

This is also known as the 'topsoil', and it is the topmost layer of the mineral soil. However, as it lies just
below the O horizon, this layer also has some amount of humus in it. Hence, it is darker in color than the
layers lying below it. This layer is also known as the 'biomantle' as it is the A horizon in which most of the
biological activities take place. Soil organisms like earthworms, fungi and bacteria are mainly
concentrated in this layer. The soil particles in this region are smallest and finest as compared to the
lower horizons of the soil.

E Horizon

This layer lies below the A horizon and above the B horizon. It is light in color and contains mainly sand
and silt. It is poor in mineral and clay content as these are lost to the lower layer by the process of
leaching. Hence, this horizon is also called the layer of eluviation (leaching).The soil particles of this layer
are larger in size than those in the A horizon but smaller than those in the underlying B horizon.
B Horizon

This is referred to as the 'subsoil'. This lies just below the E horizon and is rich in clay and minerals like
iron or aluminum. Though this layer has a higher mineral content than the topsoil, some organic
material may reach this layer from the layers above by the process of leaching. Plant roots may reach
this layer. However, the B horizon is reddish or brownish due to the oxides of iron and clay

C Horizon

This layer is also known as regolith. The C horizon is mainly made of large rocks or lumps of partially
broken bedrock. This layer is least affected by weathering as it lies deep within the soil and is
inaccessible to the soil-forming agents. Hence, the rocks in this layer have changed very little since their
origin. Plant roots do not reach so deep down to this layer. The C horizon is typically devoid of organic
matter.

R Horizon

This is the bedrock. It is the deepest soil horizon in the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, this horizon
does not consist of rocks or even boulders. It is made of continuous mass of bedrock. Digging through
this layer is very difficult.

SOIL PROBLEMS

Soil Pollution

Soil is an important resource as it is the basis for the growth of plants which are the producers.
Without good soil, there cannot be a good crop of food or a thick vegetation cover. The latter is
important for maintaining the climate of a region. The pesticides used in agriculture have chemicals that
last long in the environment. In addition to killing the pests, they also effect some beneficial organisms
like the earthworm in the soil. Organisms like earthworm are vital to the decomposition of materials and
formation of soil.

Land is also a precious resource. Land is needed for agriculture and occupation. Land is under pressure
due to increasing population. Land for agriculture has to be fertile in order to be able to support a good
crop. The fertility of land lies in the quality of the soil.

Soil is formed as a result of weathering of rocks. There are also many living organisms in the soil. Soil is,
in fact a product of the interaction of living organisms with rocks. Soil has many layers. The topmost
layer is called the topsoil and is the most fertile. The removal of this topsoil is called soil erosion.

Effects of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion results in the loss of soil fertility and makes the land barren. There are more than 25 million
hectares of barren lands in the world now.
Soil erosion also leads to desertification. Desertification refers to increase of desert areas.

Causes of Erosion

The main cause of soil erosion is the removal of vegetation. Vegetation removal takes place due to
removal of forest covers. Unscientific farming has also led to barren lands.

The removal of vegetation exposes the topsoil to water and wind. Water and wind cause the topsoil to
be removed.

Water Erosion

Removal of topsoil by water is called water erosion. It takes place in the following ways:

Sheet erosion

Rill erosion

Gully erosion

Riparian erosion

Wind erosion

Sheet Erosion

The removal of the entire topsoil as a result of heavy rains is called sheet erosion.

Rill Erosion

Runoff water moves across the soil forming small streams. The topsoil is removed only in these rills
formed by the water streams.

Gully Erosion

Deep depressions called the gullies are formed by swiftly moving waters causing soil erosion by them.

Riparian Erosion

The banks of rivers lose top soil due to the action of the fast moving rivers waters. These waters remove
the underlying soil and this results in the loss of topsoil.

Soil Leaching

The topsoil is fertile due to rich presence of minerals. Sometimes the rain water dissolves these minerals
which go down into the soil along with the water. This results in the loss of fertility of the topsoil.

Wind Erosion
The other cause for erosion is wind. It is more in areas where there is less or no vegetation covering the
land. The fast moving wind moves the fine particles to other places. The deserts are encroaching the
fertile areas in this manner. The wind laden with fine sand deposits the latter and forms sand dunes.
Shifting sand dunes are common in dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Expansion of
deserts in this manner is called desertification.

Prevention and Control of Soil Erosion

Increase of Vegetation

When the land is covered with vegetation, the roots of the plants and trees interlock and interlace to
bind the soil particles. This helps in two ways:

does not allow the soil particles to be carried away by wind or water

does not allow free flow of water over the soil which prevent erosion of soil by flowing water

the falling leaves of the plants get converted to humus by decomposing action of the soil microbes. This
enriches the soil.

Several methods can be employed to increase the vegetation cover of land. Some of them are as
follows:

Crop Rotation

The practice of growing different crops at different times on the same land is called crop rotation. This
keeps the topsoil covered with vegetation. Rotation of cereal crops with legumes also keeps the soil
enriched with nitrogen (from the legumes).

Reforestation

Slopes are more subject to soil erosion by running water. Growing trees on lands which have lost their
vegetation is called reforestation. Trees like Albizia, Cassia, Butia, etc. are suitable for this.

Strip Cropping

It involves growing of crops in strips. The most common method followed is the contour farming where
the strips of crop are at right angles to the slope. Wind-strip cropping is when the strips of crop are place
at right angles to the direction of wind.

Restoring Soil Fertility

Fertile soil supports vegetation. Loss of fertility results in loss of vegetation and this exposes the land to
erosion. Fertility of soil can be increased by addition of natural and synthetic fertilizers.

Control of Grazing
Covering the land with small plants and grasses helps the topsoil to remain in place as the roots of these
plants bind with the soil particles. Cattle graze on these plants and expose the topsoil Thus, grazing
should be allowed only on the land meant for the purpose and other areas should be protected from
grazing.

Terracing

Fields are cut at right angles to the slope. This slows down the flowing water and allows it to irrigate the
crops, as well.

Dam Building

With the dams the speed and amount of water flowing can be controlled. This will control the soil
erosion of the river banks.

Wind Breakers

Trees are planted across the wind direction to protect against the high velocity winds. These rows of
trees are called shelter belts or wind breakers.

Soil erosion is a natural process, occurring over geological time, and indeed it is a process that is
essential for soil formation in the first place. With respect to soil degradation, most concerns about
erosion are related to accelerated erosion, where the natural rate has been significantly increased
mostly by human activity. Soil erosion by water is a widespread problem throughout Europe.

The processes of soil erosion involve detachment of material by two processes, raindrop impact and
flow traction; and transported either by saltation through the air or by overland water flow. Runoff is
the most important direct driver of severe soil erosion by water and therefore processes that influence
runoff play an important role in any analysis of soil erosion intensity.

By removing the most fertile topsoil, erosion reduces soil productivity and, where soils are shallow, may
lead to an irreversible loss of natural farmland. Even where soil depth is good, loss of the topsoil is often
not conspicuous but nevertheless potentially very damaging. Severe erosion is commonly associated
with the development of temporary or permanently eroded channels or gullies that can fragment
farmland. The soil removed by runoff from the land, for example during a large storm, accumulates
below the eroded areas, in severe cases blocking roadways or drainage channels and inundating
buildings.

Erosion rate is very sensitive to both climate and land use, as well as to detailed conservation practice at
farm level. The Mediterranean region is particularly prone to erosion because it is subject to long dry
periods followed by heavy bursts of erosive rain, falling on steep slopes with fragile soils. This contrasts
with NW Europe where soil erosion is less because rain falling on mainly gentle slopes is evenly
distributed throughout the year and consequently, the area affected by erosion is less extensive than in
southern Europe. However, erosion is still a serious problem in NW and central Europe, and is on the
increase. In parts of the Mediterranean region, erosion has reached a stage of irreversibility and in some
places erosion has practically ceased because there is no more soil left.

With a very slow rate of soil formation, any soil loss of more than 1 t ha-1yr-1 can be considered as
irreversible within a time span of 50-100 years. Losses of 20 to 40 t ha-1 in individual storms, that may
happen once every two or three years, are measured regularly in Europe with losses of more than 100 t
ha-1in extreme events. The main causes of soil erosion are still inappropriate agricultural practices,
deforestation, overgrazing, forest fires and construction activities.

In a period of rapid changes in both climate and land use, due to global change, revised agricultural
policies and changing international market forces, it is vitally important to be able to assess the state of
soil erosion at a European level, using an objective methodology. This methodology must also allow the
assessment of erosion to be repeated as conditions change, or to explore the broad scale implications of
prospective global or European-wide changes in land utilisation. The results of applying such a
methodology can provide estimates of the overall costs attributable to erosion under present and
changed conditions, and objectively identify areas where more detailed study is needed and possible
remedial action
LINKS:

ORGANIC FARING

http://www.mixph.com/2009/08/what-is-organic-farming-and-its-many-benefits.html

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/res/res/files/488.OrgFarm.pdfs
Farming/Agriculture

PROBLEMS RELATED TO POOR SOIL MANAGEMENT:

Compaction

restricted water penetration

reduced air spaces resulting in lower oxygen content

soil erosion

water runoff

limited root growth reducing plant nutrient uptake

increased contamination

SOLUTIONS:

improve soil tilth

activate natural microbial activity for a healthier soil environment

help clean up toxicity through bioremediation

get life back into the soil

improve soil structure

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