Composites as Friction Materials: Recent

Developments in Non-Asbestos Fiber Reinforced

Friction Materials-A Review

JAYASHREE BIJWE

Industrial Tribology Machine Dynamics and

Maintenance Engineering Centre (ITMMEC)
Indian Institute of Technology
New Delhi-110016,India
Replacement of conventional asbestos based friction materials has been called
for because of bans on the use of asbestos. Research in this direction in the last
decade has led to the development of more efficient asbestos-free friction materials
for automobiles. Fiber reinforced polymers show great promise for applications in
modem vehicles. This review article focuses on the recent developments in the
application of composites a s friction materials. The first part of the article contains
brief information about brakes, their action, brake materials, their desired proper-
ties, etc. The second part deals with the recent developments in non-asbestos fiber
reinforced friction materials.

1. INTRODUCTION and machines from large brakes for jumbo aircraft to

he most important safety aspect of an automobile
T is its brake system, which must stop the vehicle
quickly and reliably under varying conditions. It is
composed of a n actuating (hydraulic) system and a
frictional system. The frictional system, in turn con-
sists of a drum pad or disc against which a sacrificial
friction material, also called a brake lining, is applied.
When the pad touches the disc, the cohesion due to
friction shears the frictional material attached to the
back plate. Frictional systems are generally operated
dry, e.g. in brakes and automotive clutches, but in
some clutches and in all automatic vehicle transmis-
sions, they run in lubricant. Brakes are of two types,
hydraulic and pneumatic. Various types and kinds of
brakes and clutches for industrial vehicles are de-
scribed in Table 1 (1). The combination of various
parts in a brake system transforms the applied pres-
sure to mechanical forces, leading to quick retarda-
tion and final stopping of the vehicle (2-5). During a
stop, kinetic energy of a moving vehicle is converted to
heat at the sliding interface of the friction pair. This is
then dissipated primarily by conduction through the
drum/disc and by convection and radiation to the
atmosphere and adjacent components; secondly by
absorption leading to chemical, metallurgical and wear
processes at the interface. Typically, normal operating
temperature of the rotor is 15O"-25O0Cfor passenger
cars and 370°C or above in front disc pads (6).
Friction material serves in a variety of ways to con-
trol acceleration and deceleration of various vehicles
small hand-activated brakes for bicycles. Disc brake
linings are called pads whereas drum brake linings
are known as segments or strips and heavy truck
drum brakes are called blocks. The general appear-
ance of these is shown in Fig. 1. Material requirements
and processing technology for each type are different.
Working of Brakes
During braking the velocity and deceleration vary
with time. In Fig. 2, a general pattern of variation of
deceleration a s a function of time is shown. Following
are the phases involved in the braking process (3, 5):
(i) Initial response phase (0-P) from beginning of the
actuation force until the onset of braking force.
(ii) Pressure buildup phase (P-Q) from the onset of
braking force to the moment when it reaches its
stable value.
(iii) Active braking phase (Q-R) from the beginning of
the stable braking force till it ceases.
(iv) Final response phase (R-S)from the deactivation
to the disappearance of the braking force.
2. METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF FRICTION
MATERIALS
These are broadly categorized in the following two
classes: (i) physical, chemical, and mechanical char-

378 POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3

 Composites as Friction Materials

Table 1. Types and Kinds of Brakes and Clutches for Industrial Vehicles (1).

Kind Type Application Sliding Material Friction Coefficient

DRY
Brake Disc Running, power control Semimetallic resin moldings 0.3-0.45
Drum Running, turning winding Semimetallic resin moldings 0.3-0.45
Band Running, turning winding, power Semimetallic resin moldings 0.3-0.45
control
Clutch Disc Main, driving Metallic, semimetallic 0.3-0.5
Drum Main, driving, turning Resin molding 0.3-0.5
Band Running, turning winding Resin molding 0.3-0.5
WET
Brake Band Running, power control Woven lining, resin molding 0.08-0.12
Clutch Disc Main use, draining metallic 0.08
paper type 0.124.14

I I I

Fig. 1 . Various types of molded, rolled, and sintered friction materials commonly used for automotiues, railways, and industrial
applications (a)brake linings (b)molded brake linings (c)woven brake linings (d)roll linings, (e)disc brake pads fl clutchfacings @)
clutch segments (h)friction blocks (i) brake shoes.

acterization and (ii) tribo-evaluation, i.e. friction and
wear testing.
2.1. Phyeical, Chemical, and Mechanical
Characterization
Chemical characterization generally includes ther-
mogravimetric analysis (TGA). differential thermal
analysis [DTA), pyrolysis gas chromatography (PGC),
acetone extraction, liquid chromatography (LC),infra-
red spectroscopy (IR) etc. Physical characterization is
generally done by X-ray analysis, scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), measurements of density, thermal
conductivity, thermal expansion coefficient, specific
heat, etc., while for mechanical strength characteriza-
tion, tensile strength, flexural strength, hardness,
etc., are determined (6).

POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3 379


t a t a given temperature. Other terms, such as green
I
, 2.3. Factors Influencing the Performance of the
I
I
1 I
I >
0 O P Q R
time (Seconds)
Fig. 2. Thefour phases occurring in the braking process over
time t: [iJinitial response phase (0to PJ, (iiJpressure buildup
phase [P to QJ,(iii]active braking phase [Qto RJ,and [ivJfinal
response phase (R to SJ (51.
2.2. Tribo-Evaluationof the Friction Materials
This includes friction and wear characteristics un-
der various testing conditions, fade, recovery and
squeal studies.
Terminology Used in Tribo-Evaluationof the Materials
(i) Friction coefficient-Ratio of frictional force to
the applied load is called the friction coefficient,
denoted by p.
(ii) Fadet -A temporary reduction of the braking ef-
fectiveness due to loss of friction between the
braking surfaces, resulting from heat.
(iii) Friction peaking-An increase in friction occur-
ring during or after high temperature operation.
(iv)Recovery-Once the brakelining cools, it should
repeatedly recover its original friction coeffi-
cient-this is termed as "recovery."
(v)Water recovery-The ability to recover from loss
in effectiveness due to exposure to water.
(vi)Effectiveness-A measure of stopping efficiency,
expressed in a number of different ways: a s the
coefficient of friction, the hydraulic or air line
pressure required or the torque developed, or the
distance required to stop the vehicle. The effec-
tiveness is also measured as new or off rack
(without any prior use), preburnished (after little
prior use), burnished (after moderate use), and
faded (after use at elevated temperature) (6).
(vii) Load and speed sensitivity-The ability to main-
tain effectiveness a t various weight loadings and
rubbing speeds, respectively. Most of the materi-
als show losses in effectiveness at increased
speeds (except semimetallics).
(viii) Wear-Loss in mass, or change in volume (defor-
mation), or change in performance, is defined as
wear. It is generally described by the following
equation ( 11, 12)
W = KP"VbtC
where W is wear, K the wear coefficient, P the normal
load, V the sliding speed, t the sliding time, and a, b,
'Fade is caused by thermal decomposition or the iiquescence of organic compo-
nents such as phenolic resin. as a result of frictional heating 17-101.
380
Jayashree Bijwe
and c are a set of parameters for a typical friction pair
effectiveness, burnished effectiveness, delayed fade,
blister fade, flash fade, and contamination fade (13),
are less commonly used.
Friction Materials
S The friction and wear behavior of materials are de-
termined by the nature of interactions between the
friction surfaces. The nature and degree of such inter-
actions depend on a great many parameters, as shown
in Fig. 3 (14). Hence, brake friction and wear charac-
teristics are sensitive to many parameters such as
brake design, lining and rotor material, its prior use
history, composition, surface geometry, surface en-
ergy, chemical reactivity, physical and mechanical
properties of the surface and testing conditions of
pressure, velocity, temperature, number of applica-
tions, environment, i.e., oily, humid, sandy, and con-
tamination with wear debris.
Poorly understood tribological mechanisms, ob-
scure compositions, and numerous brake designs
make it difficult to have a purely scientific approach to
this class of materials (15). Development of friction
materials for a typical end use h a s traditionally been
more of a n art than a science, since the influence of
ingredients cannot be predicted a priori. Hence, most
of the formulations tend to be proprietary (16-19).
General Tribo-Mechanisms in Friction Materials
Friction force is a result of combined effect of the
deformation of asperities, the adhesive force in the
adhesive contacts, and the ploughing of the hard as-
perities, hard particles, and wear debris. The extent of
contribution by each of these mechanisms is a func-
tion of a great many parameters, as seen in Fig. 3.
Flash temperature a t the asperities can reach 1100°C
within 1 ms and then cool, as others become active
( 13). Heterogeneous and highly anisotropic friction
materials have been developed to avoid the ther-
moelastic instabilities.
When a polymeric friction material slides against
the ground or a machined cast iron surface, its sur-
face roughness and wear decrease with the time and
eventually reach a steady state. During this period,
material transfer from the polymer surface onto the
metal takes place in the form of a film typically of 1 to
7 pm thickness, though the reverse transfer also oc-
curs to a lower extent. Beneath this friction film, a cast
iron surface layer undergoes severe plastic deforma-
tion, destroying virgin pearlitic cast iron microstruc-
ture (20). At higher temperatures due to spheroidiza-
(1) tion of the rotor, wear of the rotor increases (21).
Similarly, the surface of friction material is covered
with a film with a composition similar to that on cast
iron surface. A s the temperature of interacting sur-
faces increases, the organic phase decomposes and
the composition of the surface becomes richer in in-
organic content. The thickness of such a heat-affected
POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3
 Composites as Friction Materials

O P E R A T I N G CONDITION
Contact a r e a
*Contact pressure

*Surface topography of the

Lubricot ion

Fig. 3. Parameters influencingfric-

tion and wear performance of the
material sliding in abrasive wear
mode (I 4).

Cornpositlon
Microstructure
FiberlFiller-matrix Interface
, @ T y p e of fiber and properties,
Aspect ratio
Fiber orientation

layer depends on time of exposure at the elevated
temperature and thermal conductivities of the two
mating materials and their wear rates (20, 21). At still
higher temperatures, this continuous friction film is
destroyed, and wear increases exponentially. Lower-
ing of temperature regenerates the film, and during
this period both p and wear rate vary. The wear rate of
the friction material is controlled by a thermal decom-
position mechanism at higher temperatures and by
abrasive. adhesive and fatigue mechanisms at lower
temperatures (5, 22). as shown in Fig. 4 (15).
2.4 Methodology Involved in Mbo-Evaluationof
Friction Materials
The testing assembly involves a tribological couple
formed by a metallic counterpart, generally cast iron,
0'09 I materials, they are expensive, time consuming, and
THERMAL WEAR
PREDOMINATES
0.07
Q
-03 I- r __----
and a polymer composite, usually attached to a me-
tallic back-plate. In automotive applications, the fric-
tional material is fixed on a fluctuating component,
while the metallic counterpart is mobile or rotating.
To test whether the friction materials meet desired
properties in terms of performance, noise, and dura-
bility, they are subjected to a series of tests on a test
track and then on roads before they are released as
commercial products. The tests are classified as vehi-
cle tests and brake dynamometer tests. Depending on
the type of vehicle, various test procedures are
adopted by the friction material manufacturers (23).
Besides performance, side-to-side and front-to-rear
balance and noise properties can be determined only
in the vehicle tests. Wear is determined in accelerated
testing and does not reflect normal drive wear. Though
vehicle tests are the ultimate in evaluation of friction
subject to load conditions and weather variability (6).
The brake dynamometer test is fast in screening ma-
terials, less expensive, and capable of controlling the
test conditions precisely. In the U.S., two types of
brake dynamometers, inertial and chase, are com-
monly used. The former evaluates a full size brake or
brake system and simulates the vehicle braking to a
greater extent than the latter. The latter, however, is
smaller, less expensive, and faster than the former.
The analyte can be in the form of piece of pad lining,

"t
v 0.02

O.O1
strip, or disc. The literature indicates that the data
produced on the former are more reliable than the
latter (23).Hence, the latter is used as a test for rapid
screening and for quality control only. Other test pro-
cedures such a s SAE J661a, along with SAE 5866,
0' I I I I
100 200 300 400 500 6( =F friction assessment and screening test (FAST)devel-
38 93 150 205 260 315OC oped by the Ford Motor Company, Schedule 49 CR on
ISOTHERMAL TEMPERATURE chase dynamometers, Schedule 78, Schedule 111,
Fig. 4 . Predominant wear mechanisms of friction materials Schedule 82 on inertial dynamometers are described
( 1 5). ( 5 , 23) and will not be discussed here.

POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3 381

 Jaybshree Bijwe
Dgerence in Testing Conditions of Drum Brakes and
Disc Brakes
Disc brakes offer faster cooling with their larger
exposed surface area and better cooling geometry.
They are, however, more vulnerable to contaminants,
liquid or particulate. Hence, traditionally, front disc
brakes and rear drum brakes are used. The require-
ments for disc brake friction materials are similar to
those for drum brakes although the operating condi-
tions are considerably different. Disc brakes operate
a t higher temperature than drums. The pad surface,
being small a s compared to disc surface, is subjected
to higher pressures than the lining in the drum to
achieve the same vehicle deceleration. The loading on
a typical disc pad and drum lining would be -1 MPa
and 0.2 MPa, respectively, to give a deceleration of
-0.2g. In heavy duty brake applications, pressures
>4 MPa are possible. For assessment of the energy
dissipation capacity of a contact, generally the PV
factor (product of pressure and velocity) is important.
For evaluation of disc brake materials, typical selected
speed ranges are 2-3.2 m / s and 1-6 MPa, respec-
tively, (resulting PV factors in the range 2-24 MPa
m / s ) (24, 25). The evaluating PV limits are on the
higher side a s compared to the actual ones.
2.5. Expected Characteristics of Ideal Friction
Materials
Automotive brake material must satisfy a certain
set of consumer expectations, which include safety,
durability, comfort, and reasonable cost. The exis-
tence of numerous brake designs provides another
level of complexity in formulating friction materials.
The development of friction materials is a complex
interactive process, requiring skill to optimize the fol-
lowing desired properties.
i) Adequate and stable friction level over a wide
range of operating speeds, pressures, and temper-
atures, regardless of their conditioning and age.
ii) Ability to withstand frictional heat generated in
contact, i.e., thermal and oxidative stability.
iii) Resistance to fade.
iv) Good recovery.
v) High resistance to wear.
vi) High resistance to cracking and thermal fatigue.
vii) Tribological compatibility with the metallic coun-
terpart, i.e., there should not be excessive wear or
grooving to metallic disc/drum.
viii) Load index should be one.
ix)Strong enough to withstand the high compressive
and shear forces generated during usage.
x) Minimum sensitivity to water, moisture, oils or
corrosive, salty, and muddy environments.
xi) Should operate smoothly without noise, shudder,
vibrations.
xii) Easy and consistent in manufacturing.
The requirements for counterpart, i.e. drum materi-
als, are a s follows:
382
i) Rigid enough to resist all types of non-homoge-
neous stresses, but not so rigid to sustain defor-
mations caused by tribological counterpart.
ii) High fatigue strength.
iii) Low thermal capacity.
iv) High thermal conductivity.
Generally for drums, automotive pearlitic cast iron,
with a lamellar particle matrix with the Brine11 hard-
ness range HB 170-280, is used for normal service.
Friction materials require load-carrying capacities
much higher (up to a factor of 100) than all other
tribo-applications where polymer composites are
used. Hence, this class is unique since it demands
stable and high friction coefficients and wear rates
comparable to many other different wear resistance
polymer composites, while working a t far higher loads,
temperatures, and sliding distances and harsh envi-
ronmental conditions.
3. EVOLUTION IN THE BRAlCE MATERIALS
Depending on the brake service requirements of the
vehicles, various classes of friction materials with spe-
cific type of performance characteristics have been
developed. Details of classification of earlier organic
material have been cited (15).These traditional mate-
rials were slowly replaced by new generation materials
because of constraints on the brake systems due to
federal motor vehicle safety standards,
ban on the use of asbestos due to its health haz-
ards,
need for fuel efficient vehicles, and
noise level monitoring.
These changes in brake materials and design are sum-
marized in Table 2.
3.1. Classification of Friction Materials
Selection of a friction material depends on the end
use. Material requirements and manufacturing pro-
cesses of friction materials have been detailed (6).
Friction materials can be categorized in three main
classes: metallic, carbon-carbon composites, and or-
ganic polymeric (resin bonded).
Metallic Brake Linings (Sintered Materials or Cerrnets)
Heavy weights and high speeds of aircraft and high-
speed trains require extreme thermal stability. Copper
and iron based, solid state sintered materials filled
with variety of fillers such as ceramics or other inor-
ganic powders are used in vehicles of high power input
densities (23).Though they are easy to fabricate and
comparatively cheaper, their high densities make the
brake system less energy efficient.
Carbon-Carbon Composites
This material is replacing age old brake materials in
racing cars and high tech vehicles such as high speed
POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3
 Composites as Friction Materials
Table 2. Trends in Brake Design and Brake Materials (15).
Brake: Front-to-Rear
Period Design
Up to late 1960s Drum brakes on four
wheels; Front larger
in area and width
than rear
Late 1960s to early 1970s Initial disc brakes on
heavy cars
Mid 1970s Improved disc brakes
on medium weight
cars
Late 1970s to early 1980s Lighter front wheel
drive vehicles
1980 onwards Lighter front wheel
drive vehicles
trains, main battle tanks, and military and commer-
cial aircraft, where performance is demanding and
cost is secondary. Around 63 vol% of carbon-carbon
composites produced in the world are used in aircraft
brake systems. These materials are prepared from
carbon fibers bonded to amorphous carbon. Organic
resins are either baked a t high temperature or by a
chemical vapor deposition process from methane ap-
plied to generate amorphous carbon binder. After pro-
cessing, a n essentially pure carbon composite of low
porosity results (24, 27). This lightweight, thermally
stable material, with reasonably high specific heat,
shows excellent performance as a brake material. It is
being accepted rapidly for more and more vehicles,
though it is expensive. Advantages associated with
this class of materials are:
high capacity, 2.5 times greater than that of steel;
high strength a t elevated temperature (twice that of
steel);
40% lighter weight;
almost double the service life; and
inert to harsh environments.
Cost and oxidation sensitivity are, however, disad-
vantages.
Organic Polymeric [ResinBonded)Friction Materials
Among the friction materials most commonly used
in brakes and clutches for normal duty, these usually
contain 30-40 wt% organic resin. A large variety of
ingredients are used, and formulations are generally
patented. The typical friction material contains at
least four classes of ingredients with occasional over-
lap of functions, such as improving friction and wear
characteristics, and processing. The selection of ma-
terials of these four classes in their optimum concen-
trations is a challenging task for manufacturers (28).
These classes are binders, fillers, friction modifiers,
and reinforcements.
i) Binders: These are resins having high thermal
stability and oxidation resistance a t elevated temper-
POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3
Material
Split Fronts Rears
55:45 Primary and secondary Primary and secondary
organic lining organic lining
60:40 Class A disc Primary-secondary
organic combination
60:40 Semimetallics Primary-secondary
organic combination
75:25 Semimetallics
or non servo
75:25 Semimetallics or NAO NAO combination or
non-servo
ature. They contribute to the frictional characteristics
of the brake formulation. In wet processing binder is a
viscous liquid (usually resole) having characteristics
suitable for thermoplastic processing. In dry process-
ing, the binder is in powdery form (usually a novolac),
which cures under pressure and temperature. Most
common synthetic resins are low cost phenolics,
cresylic type or cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) based
phenolics, which are modified with drying oils, rub-
ber, epoxy, cardanol, etc. The binder is not a major
component by volume or cost, but it is the most im-
portant with respect to the mechanical integrity of the
composite. Less thermally stable binders degrade to
produce oily degradation products, and are suited
only for light duty drum brakes. Such brakes fade and
wear excessively (13).Resins that form a stable char a t
rubbing surfaces are more suitable for higher severity
applications. Additives like cashew particles (7-12%)
and para-aramid (2-3%) enhance wear life under
stringent usage conditions.
ii) Fillers: Low cost materials such as barytes
(BaSO,), calcium carbonate, and clay are used as fill-
ers whose primary role is to cut the overall cost, and
not to deteriorate the required properties of the com-
posites.
iii) Friction modifiers: These are of two types: abra-
sive and nonabrasive. They have diverse roles of in-
creasing or modifying frictional and mechanical char-
acteristics. Abrasive powders like alumina or
chromium oxide are used to increase the friction co-
efficient while solid lubricants such a s graphite are
added to moderate it. Metallic chips/powders of brass
or copper are added to improve heat dissipation. The
metallic powders are reported to be beneficial for re-
ducing fade (8). These are used in heavy-duty organic
linings (6).
iv) Reinforcements: Fibrous reinforcement plays a
major role in maintaining strength, thermal stability
and frictional properties of the composites. On the
basis of type of reinforcement, this class of materials
may be subdivided as follows:
383

Organic friction material
(a)Asbestos-based (b)Non-asbestos based
generally called
organic brake linings
(b)(i)Semimetallics (semimets)
or
resin bonded metallics
(a) Asbestos based organic friction material. Earlier
friction materials, i.e., leather and cotton impregnated
with asphalt/rubber, were completely replaced by the
asbestos fiber reinforced formulation in 1905 because
of its unique property profile, including thermal sta-
bility, relatively high friction, and reinforcing capabil-
ity due to its morphology (a combination of long and
short fibers), wear resistance, and retention of these
properties at elevated temperature and low cost.
Above 650°C, however, it loses 90% of its water of
crystallization and 70% of tensile strength. Hardness
also is not high at elevated temperatures (5, 29). and it
is also a health hazard (30, 31). The ban on the use of
asbestos by the EPA (Environmental Protection
Agency) (31-34) has forced the friction industry to
seek other fibers.
(b) Non-asbestos materials. (b)(i) Semimetallics.
These asbestos-free friction materials were introduced
in the late 1960s and gained wide usage in the mid-
1970s. These are generally described as a compromise
between organic and sintered metallic friction materi-
als. These were developed in Europe during World War
11, because of difficulties in importing asbestos, and
appeared in the early 1950s in the MGB disc pad
made by Girling in England (29). Generally they con-
tain 50% metallic component in the form of powders,
sponge iron particles, steel fiber and ceramic powder,
rubber particles, graphite, and phenolic resin, etc.
These materials are primarily used for disc brake
pads, in down-sized and medium-sized cars with
smaller brakes requiring improved frictional proper-
ties a t higher temperatures, and for heavy duty oper-
ations. They differ from NAO linings because of their
restricted composition range with unique friction and
wear properties. They exhibit a stable friction coeffi-
cient, 0.35-0.45 (at low temperature), 0.3-0.35 (at
high temperature), low wear, excellent compatibility
with rotor, improved energy absorption, higher tem-
perature capability, premium price and quiet opera-
tion. While semimetallics are still being used in auto-
* This review article I s based on this class of brake lining.
384
Jayashree Bijwe
motive disc pads, they have made no major inroads
into other phases of the business.
(b)(ii)Non-asbestos fiber reinforced materials.
Their development was rapid from 1983. Over 1200
different fibers, acicular materials, and other reinforc-
ing agents have been tested to date. Most of the NAO
materials use a blend of different fibers and other
nonfibrous reinforcements; the number of potential
formulations is staggering. The fibers a t the forefront
are glass (chopped, wool, and many proprietary spe-
cies), metal (generally steel), ceramic, mineral, aramid
(DuPont Kevlar), cellulosic and other organics. Table 3
(35) describes some of the important properties of
b (ii)*Non-asbestos these fibers. Acicular materials such as wollastonite
organics and plate-like materials, such a s attapulgite, are also
(NAO)) reinforcing agents (13). The binder resin is generally of
using variety the phenolic type; both liquid and powder forms or
of fibers rubber or cashew binder resin are also used. Incorpo-
ration of many inorganic additives for improving over-
all performance is effective. However, their combined
effect is unpredictable and is achieved through trial
and error coupled with prior experience and testing
expertise. A large number of patents have been issued
on NAO in Japan, the U.K. and the U.S. (36-50).
The normal fade-free maximum operating tempera-
tures of various friction materials are, for drum linings
and clutch friction materials, 250°C; organic materi-
als, 300-350°C; semimetallics, 400°C; and, cereme-
tallics and carbon composites, 700°C (6).
4. DEVELOPMENTS IN ASBESTOS-FREE
FIBER REINFORCED BRAKELININGS
In spite of the immense importance of frictional
materials, little has been reported in the literature, as
compared with the vast literature on antifriction ma-
terials (5 1-55). This may be partly due to the complex
nature of tribo-mechanisms of multi-ingredient mate-
rials. The efforts focus on formulating and evaluating
composites, rather than on investigating the underly-
ing mechanisms. Limited mathematical models such
as a linear or inverse rule (56, 57) to predict tribologi-
cal properties in terms of properties of ingredients
have been tried. Such models have, however, limita-
tions, since tribo-properties are not intrinsic material
properties.
A very systematic and extensive effort to investigate
the influence of individual fibers or filler on the tribo-
performance of a friction material has been done (5).
Two characteristic groups of fibers (i)reinforcing, such
a s glass, steel ceramic and mineral were added 10 and
20 wt% and (ii)fiber aiding processing (aramid,carbon
and acrylic) were added in 4 and 8 wt%; Table 4 (5).
Evaluation of composites containing abrasives such
as finely divided powders of refractory materials, such
as alumina, green chrome oxide, zirconite, and quartz,
was also done. These composites containing phenolic
resin, fine abrasive powders of different grain sizes,
and 30 wt% steel fibers fall in another category of
friction materials (semimetallics) and hence are not
included in this review. Crosa and Baumvol (5) tribo-
POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3
 Composites as Mtion Materials
Table 3. Properties of Fibers Commonly Used as Reinforcements (35).
Fiber Advantages
Aramid High strength and modulus, high
thermal stability, nonaggressive,
good wear, stable and steady p
Glass High strength and modulus, cheap
Carbon High strength, modulus and high
thermal stability
Steel High strength, modulus and
thermal stability
Cellulosic fiber Infusible
Thermoplastic fiber High strength
Asbestos High strength and modulus,
thermal stability, infusible, good
wear properties, acts as a filler
tested fiber reinforced phenolic composites and un-
filled resin in pad form, on an inertial brake dyna-
mometer fitted with a passenger car disc brake of gray
cast iron. Results are shown in Fig. 5. Tests included
wear of discs also at two different PV levels and at
230°C. The SEM investigations included micrographs
of individual fibers and worn surfaces of pads and
discs. These studies did not aim at formulating multi-
component brake linings, yet they prove to be useful
in understanding the roles of individual types of fiber
or abrasives on the tribology of the two component
system. Following are the findings of the investiga-
tions:
Virgin resin exhibited lower p than the composites
with the exception of carbon fiber composite, which
indicated lubrication. This was supported by the
appearance of transferred carbon particles on the
disc.
Fiber inclusion was thought to be the reason for
increased p. Fiber, a dominating component, en-
hanced the ploughing component.
Mineral fibers exhibited the highest p, followed by
fibers of ceramic (CrF), steel (SF), glass (GF), and
aramid (ArF).
Inclusion of only SF, GF, and CrF resulted in higher
pad wear than that of a neat phenolic resin at a high
PV level. At lower PV level, however, only SF showed
a marginal increase in wear of a pad.
Composite pad wear was in the order SF > GF > MF
> CrF > CF > ArF > AF.
Except for MF, AF, CF, and neat polymer, all fibers
tended to increase wear of metallic discs.
Maximum damage to the disc occurred with SF in
the pad, followed by AF and CrF.
SEM studies indicated breakage of GF, generating
pulverized particles, leading to an increase in IJ. and
wear. Steel fibers did not break, but tended to lift
off, leading to enhanced ploughing.
MF and CrF fibers have comet-like microstructures
with a tail and a head or "shot," the "shot" being the
harder part. MF has a higher concentration of shots
POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3
Potential Problems
Expensive, extra care to avoid nonuniform
fiber or pulp on mixing; fiber alone is not
adequate and needs other ingredients in
formulation
Melts at elevated temperature causing fade,
fiber loses form in high shear mixing,
molding, spring back, generally unsteady
F, low wear characteristics
Loses fiber form in mixing, expensive
Heavy, corrodes, abrades disc/rotors, squeal
Low strength and modulus, low char
temperature
melt, causing fade
Health hazard, at higher temperature (550°C)
tribo-properties deteriorate because of
loss of water of crystallization
that are smaller but harder than the lesser concen-
tration of less hard shots of ceramic fibers. This is
reflected in friction behavior, the former leading to
higher p than the latter.
0 Three organic fibers (ArF, CF, and AF)led to less
pad wear. In case of ArF composites, though there
was no transfer on a disc, inherent mechanical
properties of the fibers were thought to be a reason
behind its wear resistance. In the case of AF and CF
composites, wear resistance was attributed to the
lubricating action of films of carbon transferred on
the disc.
A n effort to find a replacement for asbestos was
made by Washabaugh (29). EMCOR 66 (ultra short
fibers) is the blend consisting primarily of mineral
attapulgite, a crystalline hydrated magnesium alumi-
num silicate (M&Si8O,,H,,.4H,O), which is not a
known health hazard (29).It consists of short acicular
particles with average fiber length 0.5 pm and an
aspect ratio 20: 1, is typical of the range of short fibers
and whiskers. Various NAO composites were fabri-
cated with both dry and wet mixing procedures, the
matrix ingredients being phenolic resin and a combi-
nation of different long fibers such as glass, aramid
with ultra-short EMCOR fibers, and friction modifier
(36).Better preforming properties with combination of
aramid fibers were possibly due to interaction with the
broomlike ends of aramid. Semimetallics were also
fabricated from EMCOR 66, steel wool in phenolics
and evaluated. Tribo-evaluation a s per SAE J661a of
these NAO composites, and semimetallics led to hot
and cold friction coefficients in the range of 0.35-0.45,
which was highly suitable for automotive and truck
applications. The materials displayed ready process-
ability and high temperature stability. EMCOR fibers
also led to the smoothening of the friction curve.
A comparative investigation of nine non-asbestos
(NAO)commercial materials and four asbestos-based
materials on a full scale inertial dynamometer has
been done (31). Unburnished, burnished, initial hot
and final performance, fade, and recovery studies
385
 Jayashree Bijwe
Table 4. Selected Physical Properties of the Different Fibers Used in the Work (5).
Fiber
Physical Property Chrysotile Asbestos* Aramid Acrylic Carbon Glass Steel Mineral Ceramic
Tensile strength (GPa) 2.1 2.75 0.88 1.3 3.4 0.95 1.5 1.1
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 11.7 62.0 17.7 30.0 72.0 11.0 70.0 152.0
Mohs hardness 2.5-4.0 - - 6.0 6.5 5.0 6.0 6.0
Specific gravity (g/cm3) 2.4-2.6 1.44 1.18 2.6 2.5 7.5 2.7 1.7
Diameter (km) 1e--30 12 10 10 10 120 5 10
Elongation to break (%) - 3.3 15 2.0 4.8 7.0 - 1.o
* Included for comparative purposes.

were performed. Though most of the physical charac-

a. m/s
teristics of these two types of materials were compa-
rable, NAO materials were found to be less ductile and
displayed lower wear rates during F.A.S.T. (friction
assessment and screening test).
Loken (35)fabricated various composites with fixed
composition (50% wollastonite, 20% BaSO,, 15%
cashew friction particles and 15% dry phenolic resin)
reinforced with Kevlar (5%)in various forms and as-
pect ratios. The fiber form and processing parameters
influenced mechanical properties, particularly
strength of the composites to a greater extent, but not
friction and wear significantly. Comparative perfor-
mance (Table5)indicated Kevlar as an excellent sub-
stitute for asbestos. Figure 6 (35) contains wear data
on four materials, indicating the superiority of Kevlar
composites filled with thermally stable and inert do-
lomite (Mix c)over asbestos based materials and ap-
proaching that of semimetallics. Though Mix A exhib-
ited better wear performance than the asbestos-based FIBER
material, it resulted in rough stops, indicating that lab
tests do not always reflect field performance. It is ob-
served that fiber orientation affected wear perfor-
n
mance only in the case of aramid composites and not
for glass or asbestos composites. Composites with fi-
bers normal to the sliding direction showed better
performance than those with parallel direction (35).
Commercial disc brakepads contain more than ten
constituents. Kato and Magario (58) focused only on
FIBER
aramid fiber, Kevlar 29 (roving type 97 and length =
2mm) reinforcement in phenolics to examine the in-
fluence of the amount of fiber (0-40 wt%) on proper- M F -MINERAL FIBER AF - ACRYLIC FIBER
C r F -CERAMIC FIBER A r F - ARAMID FIBER
ties such as hardness, thermal conductivity, friction
coefficient, and specific wear rate (volume wear per G F -CLASS FIBER CF - CARBON FIBER

unit force, per unit sliding distance). Investigations of S F -STEEL FIEER BASIC- PHENOLIC RESIN

nine materials, including neat phenolic resin (in slider
form),on a slider on-disc system in the pressure range
from 0.28 to 56 MPa were made against a cast iron
disc. The following observations emerged from the
studies.
1) Hardness (HRR)and thermal conductivity of com-
posites decreased linearly with increasing fiber
content.
2) With increasing number of operations, p ap-
proached a steady state value in the range of 0.22
to 0.28, which depended on fiber content.
3) A s seen in Fg. 7, inclusion of fibers resulted in a
decrease in p from 0.5 to 0.25. It was also observed
Fig. 5. CoeffLcient of friction, wear of pads, and wear of the
discs at two d@erent loadcarrying capacities for the various
ftber reinforcedfriction materials. (The wear of the discs is the
total wearfor the two loadcarying capacities) (5). [Reprinted
from G . Crosa and I . J . R. BaumvollAduances in composite
tribology, 1993, pp 609, with kind permission from Elseuier
Science-NL,Sara Burgerhartstraat 25, 1055 KV, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands.]
that increase in fiber content >15% did not reduce
I*..
4) Specific wear rate of phenolics decreased drasti-
cally (forty times) on fiber inclusion.

386 POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3

 Composites as Friction Materials

Table 5a. Composition of Selected Composites (35).

Composition
Friction Particles
(CNSL) NC 104- Phenolic Resin Kevlar Fiber Crimped
Designation Wollastonite Dolomite BaSO, 40 NC 126 and Chopped
Mix A 26% 26%; 100% 16% 15% 16% 5% (1/4";
12 pm dia.)
<300
mesh
Mix B - 50%; 75% 15% 15% 15% 12 pm dia.)
5% (1/4";
<loo
mesh
Mix C - 50%; 100% 15% 15% 15% 12 pm dia.)
5% (1/4";
<200
mesh
Asbestos based - - -,15% - - -
(-5040%
asbestos
- 15% BaSO,
-5% other
-25%
organics)

Table 5b. Physical Properties of the Composites in Table 5a.

J 661 Test
Dispersion
and Brake Disc Brake Disc Friction On Car
Designation Stability Molding Machining Performance Wear Fade Performance
Mix A good good good excellent excellent good/excellent roughness
Mix B poor poor poor good, p little excellent excellent excellent
low
Mix C good good good excellent excellent excellent excellent
Asbestos excellent excellent excellent good good excellent excellent
based

5) The rate at which the specific wear rate decreased
with a n increase in fiber content slowed down rap-
idly for > 2 5 vol% fiber and was almost negligible
>35%, indicating fiber content range 25-35% was
adequate for minimum specific wear rate and 15%
for minimum p.
6) Topographical studies (roughness values) on slider
surfaces indicated maximum changes for neat
resin and minimum for composites with 40% fi-
bers.
7) SEM studies indicated that enhancement in fric-
tion and wear properties due to fiber inclusion was
due to stronger and more firmly attached transfer
film on the counterface. Low thermal conductivity,
high mechanical strength, and reduction in size of
wear debris were thought to be responsible factors
for adherence of the film. Abrasive action of metal-
lic asperities on the slider became negligible once it
got covered with transformed film. Owing to low
surface energy of polymer film, the interaction be-
tween film and composite was a minimum.
These studies highlight that friction and wear prop-
erties desired for friction materials could not be inde-
pendently controlled. For optimum friction levels ( p =
0.35). fiber content > 10 wt% was not advisable.
A more efficient and low cost alternative to asbestos
fibers was claimed by Ashland Oil, USA (59). Short
carbon fibers manufactured from petroleum pitch,
under the trade name Carboflex, have shown excellent
performance a s compared with asbestos lining. Car-
boflex fibers are claimed to have a unique combination
of properties such as high strength (equal to steel),low
density (%th of steel), stiffness, high heat conductiv-
ity, thermal stability u p to 3050°C, oxidation stability
u p to 540°C, self lubricity, wear resistance, very low
expansion coefficient and hence the ability to retain
dimensions over a wide range of temperature, ease in
handling, variation in length and diameters, and in-
expensive as compared with PAN carbon fiber. A com-
parative study of these carbon fiber linings and asbes-
tos linings (59) a s per SAE J 661a revealed the
superiority of the former over the latter in terms of
braking ability a t elevated temperatures, pressures,
and speeds. It showed higher fade resistance and less
braking time, which is critical in emergency stops.
Table 6 highlights some of the factors of the compar-
ative performance of these two materials. Further
studies on the influence of fiber length on braking
performance indicated that fiber length in the range
300 to 500 pm led to still better results. I n fact, evi-
dence of commercialization of these materials in pas-
senger cars are reported. A high carbonizing pitch
product under the trade name Aerocarb was proposed
to be more effective if combined with Carboflex.
In-depth investigations on friction and wear char-
acteristics of aramid composites were made by Briscoe

POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3 387

 Jayashree Bijwe

f
1
1
/ COMMERCIAL
/ ASBESTOS BASED
CONTROL
J
Fg. 6 . High temperature wear of
/ TRUCK BLOCK
friction materials (35).

1 .o -I3 /
/ 7 MIX WITH 2"/0
KEVLAR

t2 P
./
MIX C WITH
5'10 KEVLAR

MI
. LIC
-
'4bO SbO 660 7d0 860 9bO lob0 O F

204 260 316 371 427 482 538 "C

DRUM TEMPERATURE

Fig. 7. Variation in friction coefli-

cient and speci@ wear rate as a
function of vol% aramid fLber con-
tent (sliding speed 5.6 m / s , load
294 NI (58).

et al. (25, 60)with a n emphasis on the fundamental
response and effect of the aramid fibers in composites
on tribo-properties, and to compare this with other
fiber reinforced systems and a commercial brake ma-
terial. The approach to evaluate material response
was totally different from the conventional approach.
The experimental setup, a steel ball on a composite
flat, was selected to model the inherent frictional re-
sponse of the materials. Two combinations were
used-a hot ball on a cold flat, and a hot ball on a hot
flat, which could lead to a considerable difference in
the surfacelbulk temperature distribution, and the
overall temperature dependence of the frictional re-
sponse. The selected composites are described in Ta-
ble 7. The theme of the investigations was to use load
index to interpret the influence of temperature on the

388 POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997. Vol. 18, No. 3

 Composites as Friction Materials

Table 6. Comparative Properties of Non-Asbestos (Carboflex) and Asbestos Formulations (59).

SAE J 661 Test
Dispersion and
Dispersion Brake Disc Brake Disc Operating
Composition Stability Molding Machining P Wear Fade Performance
Asbestos good very good very good 0.32-0.42 0.010 good very good
formulation
Carboflex good very good very good 0.40-0.65 0.002 excellent very good
formulation

Table 7. Composition and Tribological Properties of Selected Composites (25, 60).

Load Index (High
Speed Simulation
kP.1
Material Resin Fiber Orientation Overall Initial

EPOXY Epoxy-polyfBed812 - - - -
Epoxy-Kevlar Epoxy-polyfBed812 Kevlar 49, roving type 986 (80 ~01%) P 0.672 1.054
Phenolic-Kevlar Phenolic-Cello-Bond (35 wt%) N 1.035 1.163
(35 wt%) P 0.885 1.080
(35 wt%) 0 0.926 1.103
Phenolic-Kevlar Phenolic-Cello-Bond (50 wt%) P 0.921 1.029
(50 wt%) 0 1.064 1.279
Phenolic Phenolic-Cello-Bond Carbon, W S ,high strength grade P 0.783 1.004
Carbon (35 wt%)
0 0.833 0.970
Phenolic-Glass Phenolic-Cello-Bond glass, E type (35 wt%) N 1.010 1.010
P 1.095 1.095
0 0.922 1.129
Brake Phenolic-Cello-Bond - 0.990 0.990
N - normal, P - parallel, 0 - orthogonal.

frictional behavior of the selected composites. Mea-
surements of p at various temperatures indicated ir-
regular patterns for all the systems in different fiber
orientations. The brake material, however, showed a
decrease with increase in temperature. Values of p of
the selected materials studied over the temperature
range ambient to 300°C varied from 0.1 to 0.3, with
the exception of phenolic-Kevlar (50%)composite,
which showed values up to 0.4. It was also seen that
Kevlar alone did not have the fundamental type of
response essential in brake materials. In fact it per-
formed a lubricating function in these simulations.
Investigations indicated that the initial load indices*
were close to unity and then decreased to different
extents during experiments. For composites of Kevlar
and carbon fiber this decreased to different extents as
experiments proceeded. For both these composites
this decrease was high as compared with glass fiber
composites and asbestos brake material. This was
thought to be due to the higher temperature depen-
dency of rheology of the interfaces. Epoxy-Kevlar, phe-
nolic-Kevlar, and phenolic-carbon systems showed
pronounced evidence of third body (film) formation
and lubrication of the contact with the trends in the
experimental load index of pronounced curvature (de-
viation from the linearity in friction force vs. load re-
lationship). In the case of phenolic-glass and brake
* FF - KW" where FF is frictional force, W is load. and n is the load index. n = %
indicates elastic contact and n = 1 indicates plastic deformation (61. 62).
material there was evidence of material damage of the
sample accompanied by direct dependency of the fric-
tion on load. Thus, in the first group of composites, a
marked reduction in p with load (i.e. fade) was due to
thermally induced lubrication (film transfer) of the
contact, and in the second group it did not occur,
possibly because a lubricating film was not produced,
or if produced, it was abraded away during sliding.
With a view to investigate the influence of aramid
fiber on tribo-properties of the composites, Sinha and
Biswas (63, 64) selected compression molded cast
composite of Kevlar 49 (axially; 30 wt% fiber, density
1.3g/cm3)in a phenolic resin. Friction and wear stud-
ies at ambient temperature were carried out against
a n EN24 steel disc on a pin-on-disc machine at vari-
ous PV values. The experimental setup and counter-
face material was not exactly a s per SAE standards,
and fade and recovery were not studied.
The investigations did reveal the potential of aramid
fibers as a substitute for asbestos.
The following salient features emerged from the
studies.
1 ) The neat phenolic resin exhibited high steady state
p, but poor wear resistance.
2) Inclusion of Kevlar fibers resulted in
a .decrease in adhesive forces at mating surfaces,
b. reducing p (without fibers, 1.5-1.2, with fibers,
0.8-0.31,
c. stabilizing p after a longer time, compared with
the phenolic resin, which is, however, undesir-

POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3 389


able for a friction material,
d. enhancing wear resistance substantially (30-40
times),
e. reducing p to a steady state less drastically a s
compared with resin when water lubricated,
f. increasing wear rate when water lubricated. Even
in this condition, film was observed on the wear
track.
Figure 8 shows p as a function of PV factor. The
steady p in the desired range at high PV values indi-
cated the excellent potential of the composite as a
brake material. In general, the smoother the counter-
face, the higher the p and the lower the wear rate.
SEM studies revealed in situ formation of a phenolic
resin film on a wear track. Fiber ends exposed at the
interface trapping wear debris and enhancing smooth
film formations were thought responsible for the de-
crease in tangential traction and hence subsurface
stresses and ultimately wear rate.
Izyumova et al. (65)fabricated various composites
with different processing techniques based on organic
binders, i.e., phenolic resin (both novolac and resol
type) and butadiene-nitrile rubber), with a n intention
to find a substitute for asbestos. Four types of fibrous
reinforcements, i.e., basalt fiber BCTB, glass fiber
CIIA, chopped glass fiber EC 130-140 P, and aramid
fibers, were used and compared with a n asbestos for-
mulation for physico-mechanical and tribological
properties studied on three different rigs, leading to
the following conclusions.
1) Among the three selected machines for tribo-eval-
uation, RANZI-LRC simulated the field conditions
to the maximum extent.
2) Heat treatment and processing parameters influ-
enced the physico-mechanical and tribological per-
formance.
3) Among the various binders, novolac resin dis-
played the best performance, i.e. stable p at 350"-
420°C.
0.6 I fiber diameter. The flexural modulus increased with
0
Q 0
0
" 0.0
0 10 20
PV f a c t o r ( M P a m;)'
Fig. 8. Friction c o e f i i e n t plotted against the PV factorf o r the
aramid composite (64).
390
Jayashree Bijwe
Among the selected composites, basalt fiber com-
posite exhibited good physico-mechanical and tri-
bological properties. The optimum concentration of
fibers for a highly stable p a t all selected high tem-
peratures was 7 wt%.
Only aramid composite transferred a fiber/mate-
rial on the counterface.
On full scale tests (dynamometer and road test) the
composite containing combinations of fibers (ba-
salt + aramid) displayed the best tribo-perfor-
mance since it displayed more stable p and higher
braking efficiency than the asbestos based linings.
This composite was recommended for mass pro-
duction for brakelining for ZIL cross-country
trucks.
Investigations by Shibata et al. (66) on developed
hybrid composites reinforced mainly with fibers of
carbon and aramid proved the superiority of new com-
posites, resulting in higher and stabler p , less brake
noise, judder, and wear than the asbestos lining.
One group of researchers-Dharani, Blum, and Go-
pal (34, 67-70)-is actively engaged in formulating
and evaluating non-asbestos brakelinings. A complete
and systematic evaluation of materials as per stan-
dard procedure (SAE J 661a) was done on a Chase
dynamometer. Friction, wear, fade, and recovery char-
acteristics were studied under varying speeds, pres-
sures, drum temperatures, and number of applica-
tions. Wear mechanisms were investigated using SEM
and EDAX analysis. Phenol formaldehyde resin, NC
126 (structure shown in Fig. 91, and baryte (BaSO,)
were common resins and fillers, respectively, in all the
composites. The composites differed only in type and
nature of reinforcement.
Six composites with composition 35/ 20/ 25 / 20
wt% of glass fiber/resin/filler and friction particles
(CNSL) were selected (34). The milled glass fibers in
each composite differed in length, diameter, and siz-
ing. Studies of mechanical properties of selected com-
posites indicated that the sizing of fibers influence
only tensile strength, while flexural strength in-
creased with increase in fiber length and decrease in
increase in fiber diameter. Young's modulus, however,
was observed to be independent of fiber length, diam-
eter, or sizing. The friction coefficient of the compos-
ites were found to be in the range of 0.21 to 0.33,
which is reasonable but not adequate for brake lin-
ings. The mechanical properties could not be corre-
OH OH
I
30
(dH 1 CH=CH-(CHZ)~-CHZ-CH~
26
Fig. 9. Idealized chemical structure of partially crosslinked
phenolJomaldehyde resin (341.
POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3
 Composites as Friction Materials

lated with frictional properties. The studies were use-
ful for an in-depth understanding of the role of glass
fibers in friction performance.
The details of composites selected in their further
work (67-70) are described in Table 8. The following
are the findings on the tribo-evaluation of the compos-
ites.
A) GFRFM (glass fiber reinforced material) phenolic
composite.
i) With the increase in load, speed, and tempera-
ture, both p and specific wear rate (WJ de-
creased. W, vs. temperature relation, however,
showed a reverse trend. Microscopic studies in-
dicated resin degradation at higher temperature
and weakening of fiber-matrix adhesion, and
hence the ease of fiber pullout, were responsible
for this behavior.
ii) Fade characteristics were influenced by sample
history. A film containing filler, glass fiber, iron,
and possibly carbon also formed on the worn
tips of glass and steel fibers caused further fade.
Rubbing off this film with abrasive papers re-
sulted in less fading.
iii) High, unstable p and fading tendency of the
composite makes it an unsuitable friction mate-
rial.
B) CFRFM (carbon fiber reinforced material) phenolic
composite.
i) Friction behavior of this composite was less de-
pendent on testing parameters than GFRFM.
ii) Specific wear rate (W,) increased with speed and
temperature and decreased with load.
iii) Conditioning the specimens with several fade-
recovery test cycles resulted in steady friction
during subsequent fade tests, followed by excel-
lent recovery. F-R (fade and recovery) character-
istics of this composite were different from the
GFRFM because of accumulation of wear debris
at the sliding interface, influencing successive
sliding.
iv) A steep decline in friction with varying operating
parameters (Fig. 10) rendered this composite
unacceptable for brakelinings, though the over-
all performance was better than that of the
GFRFM.
C) Control Composites GC and S C (Table8)containing
fibers of glass and steel, and hybrid composites
(GKC and SKC) containing fibers of glass -t Kevlar
and, steel + Kevlar.
The hybrid composites were tailored to examine influ-
ence of inclusion of Kevlar in control composites. Ad-
ditional experiments on squealing characteristics of
composites were also performed. The interesting re-
sults (Figs. 11-14) were a s follows:
reduction in high friction;
enhanced frictional stability over a wide range of
operating parameters such as pressure, speed, and
temperature;
substantial decrease in wear rate;
elimination of squeal.
The extent of enhancement in desired tribo-proper-
ties of the composites depend on type of composite
and operating parameters. Steel-Kevlar composites,
however, exhibited the best combination of properties,
and were least influenced by test conditions. The au-
thors claimed that steel-Kevlar composites showed ex-
cellent potential for use in automobile brakelinings.
Further investigations (71) focused on understand-
ing tribo-mechanisms of the two component system
consisting of CNSL modified phenolic resin and Lep-
oinus fiber, RF 5 164(volcanicrock fiber) with varying
amounts of fiber (0-13.5 ~ 0 1 % ) .Friction and wear
studies of five composites at different temperatures
resulted in a low but stable p over wide temperature
range. Both neat resin and high fiber loading compos-
ites showed high p. A proper amount of fiber loading
(0.024 and 0.05) improved fade properties. Minimum
wear rate was recorded with 0.05 fiber loading. Adhe-

Table 8. Details of the Selected Brake Material (67-70).

CNSL Friction
Phenolic Resin Particles NC Filler, Baryte Secondary
Composite NC 126 104-40 (BaSOJ Primary Fiber Reinforcement
GFRFM 20 wt% 20 wt% 20 wt% milled E glass steel fiber
30 wt%
I = 150 pm
d=13pm 10 wt%
CFRFM 25 wt% 15 wt% 20 wt% carbon P 200 steel fiber
carboflex
I = 200 pm
d = 10pm 10 wt%
GC* glass composite 40 vol% - 20 vol% milled E glass d = -
15.8 prn
GKC" (glass-Kevlar 40 vol% - 8 vol% milled E glass d = Kevlar pulp
composite) 15.8 pm 12%
Sc' Steel composite 40 vol% - 20 vol% steel S-207 coarse -
grade 40 vol%
SKC" Steel-Kevlar 40 vol% - 8 vol% steel S-207 coarse Kevlar pulp
composite arade 40 vol% 12%
* GC and SC were designated a s control composites.
Of GKC and SKC were designated a s hybrid composites.

POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3 391

 Jayashree Bijwe

0
L
0
0
0
00
0 0
43
2
0 0.41

-
0

200 300 LOO 500 600 700 L

0

Load ( N )
L i 0 0 0 p."o
0 $03 0 0

?
6, 0.21 O 0

1.2 -
- I

- 1.0-
L
L
O
0

\
*E 0-8-
U &I 0
v
0
c
w 0.6-
2 go
.-
c
O-LO-- L 0.4-

_'----
U 0 0
.c 0,35 01
LL B
5 0.30- 3 0.2-
c
C
.CJ 0.25 L----J

U
.- --
n.o+ I . I I I I I

0.20 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5

0.7 0.8
A v e r a g e coefficient of friction

-Drum T e m p e r a t u r e C'C)
(C)
Fig. 10. Variationinfriction coefliient of CFRFM (carbonf h e r
reinforced material)as a function of [a)Load [at V = 5.8 m / s
and T = 204°C);(b)Speed [at P = 669 N and T = 204°C);[c)
Temperature [at P = 669 Nand V = 5.8 m / s )(69).
(b)
Q. 1 1. Friction-wear relationships at vaying temperature
a,0)and uaying speed ( 0 , 0 ) of [a)glass composite (0, 0).
glass-Keular composite (0, 0): [b)steel composite (0, 01, steel-
Keular composite (0,0 ) [clusteringofpoints as shown in the
box indicates stablefriction and wear ouer different operating
conditions. Scatter of data points parallel to the ordinate indi-
cates good friction stability and poor wear stability. Scatter of
data parallel to the abcissa means vice versa) (70).

sive and abrasive wear mechanisms were dominant

two sets of a conditions: first, simulating mild braking
for low and high fiber loading material, respectively.
on a level road, and second, severe braking on a long
For investigating the simultaneous influence of Cu
downhill. Friction and wear were studied as a function
powder, BaSO,, and cashew dust on friction and wear
of increasing amount of a typical filler (and decreasing
of brakepads, Handa and Kato (72)selected three se-
amount of the other filler). To get a clear idea of the
ries of several composites containing five ingredients.
influence of each ingredient on fade and wear rate,
The amount of phenolic resin (20%)and aramid fibers
multiple regression analysis(MRA) was applied to the
(20%)was fixed. Among the three components, Cu
data. The following are the conclusions from the data
powder, BaSO,, and cashew dust, the amount of one
analysis and SEM studies.
ingredient was fixed and the other two were varied
from 0%to 40%. Tribo-evaluation of these composites 1) C u powder inclusion resulted in increase in fade
was done on a slider-on-disc type wear tester under resistance and decrease in wear resistance.

392 POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3

 Composites as Friction Materials

Among the series of composites from BaSO, and

cashew dust, the best friction performance and fade
resistance were shown with 0% BaSO,. Minimum spe-
cific wear rate, however, was displayed by the compos-
ite containing 10%BaSO, and 30%cashew dust.
MFU results indicated that both Cu powder and
cashew dust had a noticeable effect on the friction
ratio.* BaSO,, however, had little effect.
Among the three composites (73),the first compos-
ite contained potassium titanate fibers, the second
was a hybrid composite with potassium titanate and
asbestos fibers, and the third contained only asbestos
g
L
0.2 - fibers. Tribo-evaluation on a dynamometer led to the
W
>
conclusion that the first composite exhibited high p,
Q high wear rate, and low tensile strength because of
cracks generated on the surface. The hybrid compos-
0.0 I ' I ' I ' I ' I
ite, however, displayed the desired properties, indicat-
ing that potassium titanate alone cannot replace as-
Temperature ("C) bestos.
Three commercial non-asbestos phenolic based
(a1 friction materials recommended for hydrogenerators
were reported to exhibit high wear, produce more
0.8 dust, and lead to thermal cracking of the metallic
counterpart (74).The composition differed in the type
of fibers, fillers, and friction modifiers. Fibrous rein-
h
forcements were Kevlar + glass + wollastonite + gran-
1
2 0.6 ulated wool, Kevlar, and chopped glass. In-depth in-
0
EU vestigations of these composites and asbestos
v
brakelinings led to the conclusion that no material
matched the tribo-performance of asbestos lining. The
2 0.L
investigations indicate the need for rigorous testing of
2 friction materials before they are used in real vehi-
L

0 cles/applications. It was also clear that Kevlar cannot

r" 0-2
0.0 I ' I . I '
2 3 220 2LO 260 280
Temperature ("CI
(b)
Fig. 12. Effect of temperature onfriction coefficient (Fig. 12a)
and wear rate (Fg.12b) of uarious composites at 5.8 m l s ; (i)
glass Composite (GC). (ii) glass-Kevlar composite [GKC), (iii)
Steel composite (SCJ; and Steel Kevlar composite (SKC) (70).
2) BaSO, inclusion led to the exactly opposite behav-
ior, i.e., a decrease in fade resistance and an in-
crease in wear resistance and strength.
3) SEM studies indicated that a large part of a layer
from the worn surface was peeled off a s a result of
repetitive sliding, which roughened the surface,
leading to a n increase in wear when BaSO, was
eliminated from the composite.
4) In the case of Cu powder-cashew dust combina-
tion, specific wear rate increased almost linearly
with the increasing amount of C u powder. Maxi-
mum fade resistance and high friction properties
were exhibited when both ingredients were 20 wt%.
replace asbestos in all situations.
In this article, the friction materials using various
types of phenol formaldehyde resins and C.N.S.L. res-
ins only are discussed. However, other resins such a s
I ' melamine and nitrile rubber (75),thermosetting poly-
300 3 I imides and epoxy resins (76),butadiene nitrile rubber
(77, 78), aromatic nitro-compounds (79). and pitch
derived condensed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(80)are also reported in patents.
5. CONCLUSION
Since 1980, efforts to develop non-asbestos friction
materials were initiated primarily for health and envi-
ronmental safety considerations. In the last decade a
large number of such friction materials have been
successfully formulated and patented. This new class
of non-asbestos fiber reinforced organic polymeric
friction materials have completely replaced asbestos
based brake materials because of their superior per-
formance and their environmentally friendly nature.
The present state indicates that future efforts should
be focused more on the scientific approach for under-
p,,,, in the constant interval test
Friction ratio =
pf,.., In the constant temperature test
"I
This represents the rate of reduction in p due lo successive severe braking.

POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3 393

 Jayashree Bijwe

Fg. 13. Typical values of friction

coefficient obtained during wear
tests at 204°C and various speeds
for steel composite (SC) (i.iiiii)and
steel-Keular composite [SKC),(iu,u,
ui). Sliding speeds, (i)and [iu) - 5.8
m / s ; (ii) and (u) - 9.5 m / s , (ii)and
[ui)- 11.2 m / s (70).

0.0 j
0 20 40 60 80 100
A p p l i c a t i o n Nurnber

>r z
Y
.- .-
L

ul ln
C
C
w W
c
Y
C I
C
I

0 Frequency ( k H z ) 2 5 0 Frequency(kHz) 25

Fg. 14. Noisefrequency spectra at (a1 ( b)

204"C, and speed 11.2 m / s : (a)
glass composite (GC); (bl glass-
Keular composite (GKC); (c) steel
composite (SC); [d) steel-Keular
composite (SKC)(70).

0 Frequency ( k H z 1 2 5 0 Frequency(kHz) 25

(c 1 (d)
394 POLYMER COMPOSITES, JUNE 1997, Vol. 18, No. 3
 Composites as Friction Materials
standing their tribo-mechanisms, developing wear
models, and laws of mixtures for multi-ingredient for-
mulations rather than just formulating and evaluat-
ing. Tailoring of the desired properties should be made
possible by critically analyzing the simultaneous in-
fluence of various components on friction and wear.
Compared with antifriction materials, this area of fric-
tion materials is almost untouched.
ACENOWLEDGIYIENT
The author is grateful for the kind permission
granted for reprinting the following figures/ tables:
Fig. 4 (Ref. 15, pp. 5131, Fig. 10 (Ref. 69, pp. 1981,Figs.
11-14 (Ref. 70,pp. 202-205), Table 1 (Ref. 1, pp. 258)
and Table 4 (Ref. 5, pp. 605) with kind permission
from Elsevier Science-NL, Amsterdam, The Nether-
lands. Ftg. 8 (Ref. 64) and Fig. 9 (Ref. 34) with kind
permission from Chapman and Hall, and Gordon and
Breach Publishers, respectively. Fig. 6 and Ref. 35
“Reprinted with permission from SAE Paper No.
800667 0 1980 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.”
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