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How PTH works: Again:
When you have very high levels of PTH, bone Low ionized serum calcium = High PTH secretion
resorption occurs. A high activity of bone High ionized serum calcium = Low PTH secretion
resorption means there will be a release of
calcium and phosphate from the skeletal system.
These go to the ECF. How is the amount of ionized serum calcium
determined if we can only measure total serum
Therefore, calcium serum level rises, and, calcium?
theoretically, phosphate levels should rise too.
They found out that about 50% of the total serum
However, it was found that when you have high calcium is ionized.
PTH, there is indeed a rise in calcium levels BUT
phosphate levels seem to decrease. This is due to The other 50% is not ionized because 40% is bound to
the effect of the PTH on the kidneys. protein, whereas the other 10% is complexed with
diffusable anions.
Effect of PTH on Kidneys
So, when there is a change in serum protein levels
1. Promotes calcium reabsorption (especially albumin, since calcium is really bound to
Therefore, calcium serum levels ELEVATE more. albumin), there is bound to be a change in the total
Note: Calcium reabsorption occurs in the distal serum calcium concentration as well.
nephron
They postulated that if there is a decrease in serum
2. Promotes phosphate excretion albumin levels by about 1mg/deciliter, then the total
So you lose a lot of phosphate through the serum calcium concentration will also be reduced by
urine. about 0.8 mg/dL.
This action of the PTH on the kidneys is
greater/more dominant than the effect of PTH on There are also other factors that can change the
the bone. Therefore, even if phosphate is released amounts of total serum calcium such as change in
in the bones too, the net effect is that it causes acid‐base balance
your phosphate levels to decrease in the serum.
If in a state of acidosis, the acidosis will displace
Reducing phosphate levels is actually very calcium from its binding with protein.
important because if both calcium and phosphate
are very high in your serum, there is a tendency On the other hand, alkalosis can enhance the
for mineralization of bone rather than increasing binding of ionized calcium to protein, thereby
serum calcium levels. reducing the ionized portion!
What regulates the PTH secretion? Hyperventilation Syndrome:
Amount of ionized calcium in the body. A case wherein an individual hyperventilates, thus
CO2 is blown off. This induces respiratory alkalosis.
This is a negative feedback effect, wherein if
calcium in the serum is high, amount of PTH is The alkalosis will cause the calcium to bind more,
low. But, if serum calcium is low, PTH secretion is and therefore the ionized serum calcium level goes
down. As a result, these people present with a form
high.
of muscular tetany.
(Since calcium is involved in muscular excitability)
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 3
Action of PTH in Promoting Calcium Among Females
• Of the 3 cell types found in the bones, it is Upon reaching the menopausal stage, females tend to
the osteoclasts that are directly affected develop more brittle bones. Osteoporosis becomes a
by PTH. significant problem. This is because estrogen actually
• PTH indirectly affects osteoblasts. promotes the secretion of Osteoprotegerin, which
suppresses osteoclast development and activity.
If there is new bone formation, the Therefore, in menopause there is more of RANK.
osteoblasts draw calcium from the ECF to
incorporate in the new bone. As a result, it will
cause a DECREASE in the amount of calcium in
the ECF. Again, in a nutshell:
Remember that there is a relationship between
your osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
Osteoblasts come from the stromal cells (CT
within bone marrow), whereas the osteoclasts
come from macrophages. The osteoblasts secrete
a chemical signal that has an effect on the
differentiation of osteoclasts.
These chemical signals are:
1. RANK Ligand
2. Osteoprotegerin
PARATHYROID HORMONE
The RANK Ligand acts on the receptor found on • PTH acts directly on bone and kidney to
macrophages. So once this attaches to the INCREASE Calcium influx into Plasma.
receptor, these macrophages are stimulated to • By stimulating 1,25 (OH)2‐D synthesis,
differentiate into osteoclasts!
PTH also increases calcium absorption
At the same time, the RANK‐receptor complex from the gut thus increasing plasma
causes the formed osteoclasts to live longer by calcium levels.
suppressing apoptosis. (will be further discussed in succeeding
text)
The Osteoprotegerin suppresses or inhibits the • In contrast, PTH INHIBITS renal tubular
development and activity of osteoclasts. resorption of phosphate, thereby
increasing urinary phosphate excretion.
So PTH is supposed to inhibit the bone forming
activity of osteoblasts and stimulate recruitment o This offsets entry from bone and
of osteoclasts. gut therefore decreasing plasma
phosphate levels.
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 4
NOTE: There is an inverse relationship between
PTH secretion and plasma ionized concentration
in humans.
The diagram below further reinforces the indirect
relationship between PTH secretion and Serum
Calcium levels.
This cholecalciferol is bound to protein (globulin),
and upon binding enables it to circulate in the
bloodstream. Once it finds its way into the liver,
the cholecalciferol is hydroxylated in the carbon
25 (C25) position. Thus, it becomes the 25‐
hydroxycholecalciferol. (aka 25‐hydroxy vitamin
D3, or the major circulating form of Vit. D).
As it circulates, it will find its way to the kidney
where it will again undergo hydroxylation. This
hydroxy group can attach to 2 positions: C24 and
C1.
If it attaches to C1, it will form 1,25(OH)2‐D3.
If it attaches to C24, it will form 24,25(OH)2‐D3.
1,25(OH)2‐D3 is the biologically active form of
vitamin D3!
VITAMIN D
• Derived from cholesterol, therefore can If there is a high rate of hydroxylation at the C1
be classified as a steroid hormone position, then the hydroxylation at the C24 will be
very low. (Inversely proportional!)
• Basically, from cholesterol converted
to pregnenolone eventually forming 7‐
They also postulated that hydroxylations in C24 is
Dehydrocholesterol. a form of inactivation when it comes to vitamin D.
7‐Dehydrocholesterol is actually abundant in
the skin. The exposure of skin to sunlight What will promote the development of the
(which has UV rays) promotes the conversion active form (1,25(OH)2‐D3)?
of 7‐dehydrocholesterol to Vit. D3, or Hydroxylation in the C1 position is facilitated by
cholecalciferol. an enzyme called 1‐alpha‐hydroxylase.
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 5
If the activity of this enzyme is very high, then Vitamin D on the Kidneys
more of 1,25(OH)2‐D3 (the more biologically active Promotes the reabsorption of calcium as well.
one) will be formed. But if there is low activity of
1‐alpha‐hydroxylase, then there will be greater PTH, however, has an indirect effect on the GIT by
formation of 24,25(OH)2‐D3. promoting the synthesis of the active form of
vitamin D. Since a high level of PTH and low level
What stimulates the activity of the enzyme 1‐ of serum phosphate stimulate the synthesis of
alpha‐hydroxylase? 1,25(OH)2‐D3.
1. High levels of PTH Does vitamin D qualify to be called a hormone?
High levels stimulate 1‐alpha‐hydroxylase Yes. The endocrine gland would be the skin. And
so that more of the active form (1,24) will as it is produced in the skin, it goes through the
be formed. circulation without passing through any ducts.
It's just that it was only discovered first as a
2. Low levels of serum phosphate vitamin D and so the name "stuck" as "vitamin D".
3. High levels of 24,25(OH)2‐D3
Vitamin D deficiency:
But, in what situations will you have high levels of ‐ Rickets for kids
PTH and low levels of serum phosphate? ‐ Osteomalacia for adults
When you have low serum calcium levels.
If we are exposed to enough sunlight, there is no
If your ionized serum calcium level is low, that will need to take supplemental vitamin D.
cause your PTH levels to go up and thus cause The only problem is that nowadays, we are rarely
your phosphate levels in the serum to go down. exposed to enough sunlight since some no longer
want to stay outdoors. This mentality causes us to
need to take in vitamin D supplements, especially
** Vit. D deficiency, calcium deficiency,
for dark‐skinned individuals (they need more
phosphate deficiency will also cause very high exposure to the sun to produce the same level of
levels of PTH. vitamin D). This is a problem, due to the growing
trend of migration wherein a lot of black people
What will promote the formation of the migrate to areas where there is very little sunlight
INACTIVE form (24,25(OH)2‐D3)? (e.g. Scandinavian countries).
1. High levels of active vitamin D
2. Excess calcium
3. Excess phosphate
Action of Vitamin D
• Main target organ: GIT (directly affected)
• Although it also has (indirect) effects on:
‐ Bone
‐ Kidneys
‐ Immune system
(Vitamin D actually stimulates
lymphocytes, macrophages)
‐ Skeletal muscle strength
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 6
In a nutshell: 24 [when less biological activity is
VITAMIN D required].
Target Organs:
• GIT: CALCITONIN
Promote intestinal calcium absorption
and intestinal phosphate absorption
• Bone:
Promotes mineralization of bone
• Kidney:
Facilitates Calcium reabsorption in the
distal nephron
• Immune System:
• Promotes differentiation of monocyte
precursors to monocytes & macrophages
• Skeletal Muscle
**Vitamin D affects both T and B cells, inhibiting
interleukin‐2 production and other effector
functions. • Produced by the T cells of thyroid gland
• Reduces bone resorption by inhibiting
Below is a diagram [taken from Harper’s Illustrated osteoclast function
Biochemistry since the one in the powerpoint is not o Effect: Decreased concentrations
that clear] that shows the formation and hydroxylation of Calcium and Phosphate in the
of Vitamin D.
serum
• Receptors for Calcitonin are found in
bones and kidneys.
• Calcitonin lowers circulating Calcium and
Phosphate levels.
• It exerts its Calcium‐lowering effect by
inhibiting bone resorption.
• It also increases Calcium secretion in
urine.
Regulator of calcitonin levels:
Amount of calcium in the serum
• Vitamin D undergoes 25‐hydroxylation in If very, very HIGH serum calcium level
the liver. (hypercalcemia) Calcitonin secretion INCREASE
• It is then further hydroxylated in the Osteoblast activity DECREASE reduced bone
kidney in the position 1 [when more resorption reduction in serum phosphate.
biological reaction is needed] or position
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 7
But calcitonin is not so important as a regulator if
calcium is concerned. It is only important when
there are very, very high levels of serum calcium,
which rarely occurs. In fact, one can do away with
calcitonin.
On the other hand, PTH is said to be essential for
life. So if you take out the parathyroid gland (in
the process of taking out the thyroid, for
example), supplementation of calcium is needed.
In such cases, it will also help to be rich in vitamin
D so as to enhance the absorption of calcium in
the system.
TO SUMMARIZE:
• PTH increases serum calcium levels by Image above:
mobilizing calcium from the bone Schema of how calcium is maintained at a
• This will increase the Calcium constant level:
reabsorption in the kidney but may be
offset due to Calcium that is filtered Low serum calcium level will induce
increased PTH secretion.
• Increased PTH will also lead to increased
PTH will then act on the bone, causing
formation of 1,25‐ resorption
dihydroxycholecalciferol. As a result of resorption: Calcium levels
• 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol will INCREASE, Phosphate levels DECREASE
increase Calcium absorption from the (since PTH enhances the excretion of
intestine and increases Calcium phosphate)
reabsorption in the kidneys. If renal phosphate is low, and PTH is high
= cause the secretion of more active form of
• Calcitonin will then inhibit bone
vitamin D
resorption and it will increase the amount Vitamin D will then cause the gut to absorb
of Calcium in the urine. more calcium, specifically the active
transport of calcium in the GIT
Therefore the serum calcium level eventually
goes UP
Only if there is an excessive amount of
calcium will the calcitonin act! (very rare
occurrence)
—END OF TRANSCRIPTION—
Please read Guyton or Ganong for a more detailed
discussion.
Good luck BATCH 2014!
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 8
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 9
Vitamin D:
Bone:
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 10
Indirect relationship between PTH secretion and
Serum Calcium:
PHYSIOLOGY: Hormone Regulation of Mineral Metabolism 11