9.13.

4 Yeast Production

9.13.4.1 General1

Baker’s yeast is currently manufactured in the United States at 13 plants owned by 6 major
companies. Two main types of baker’s yeast are produced, compressed (cream) yeast and dry yeast.
The total U. S. production of baker’s yeast in 1989 was 223,500 megagrams (Mg) (245,000 tons). Of
the total production, approximately 85 percent of the yeast is compressed (cream) yeast, and the
remaining 15 percent is dry yeast. Compressed yeast is sold mainly to wholesale bakeries, and dry
yeast is sold mainly to consumers for home baking needs. Compressed and dry yeasts are produced in
a similar manner, but dry yeasts are developed from a different yeast strain and are dried after
processing. Two types of dry yeast are produced, active dry yeast (ADY) and instant dry yeast (IDY).
Instant dry yeast is produced from a faster-reacting yeast strain than that used for ADY. The main
difference between ADY and IDY is that ADY has to be dissolved in warm water before usage, but
IDY does not.

9.13.4.2 Process Description1

Figure 9.13.4-1 is a process flow diagram for the production of baker’s yeast. The first stage
of yeast production consists of growing the yeast from the pure yeast culture in a series of
fermentation vessels. The yeast is recovered from the final fermentor by using centrifugal action to
concentrate the yeast solids. The yeast solids are subsequently filtered by a filter press or a rotary
vacuum filter to concentrate the yeast further. Next, the yeast filter cake is blended in mixers with
small amounts of water, emulsifiers, and cutting oils. After this, the mixed press cake is extruded and
cut. The yeast cakes are then either wrapped for shipment or dried to form dry yeast.

Raw Materials1-3 -
The principal raw materials used in producing baker’s yeast are the pure yeast culture and
molasses. The yeast strain used in producing compressed yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Other
yeast strains are required to produce each of the 2 dry yeast products, ADY and IDY. Cane molasses
and beet molasses are the principal carbon sources to promote yeast growth. Molasses contains 45 to
55 weight percent fermentable sugars, in the forms of sucrose, glucose, and fructose.

The amount and type of cane and beet molasses used depend on the availability of the
molasses types, costs, and the presence of inhibitors and toxins. Usually, a blend consisting of both
cane and beet molasses is used in the fermentations. Once the molasses mixture is blended, the pH is
adjusted to between 4.5 and 5.0 because an alkaline mixture promotes bacteria growth. Bacteria
growth occurs under the same conditions as yeast growth, making pH monitoring very important. The
molasses mixture is clarified to remove any sludge and is then sterilized with high-pressure steam.
After sterilization, it is diluted with water and held in holding tanks until it is needed for the
fermentation process.

A variety of essential nutrients and vitamins is also required in yeast production. The nutrient
and mineral requirements include nitrogen, potassium, phosphate, magnesium, and calcium, with traces
of iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and molybdenum. Normally, nitrogen is supplied by adding
ammonium salts, aqueous ammonia, or anhydrous ammonia to the feedstock. Phosphates and
magnesium are added, in the form of phosphoric acid or phosphate salts and magnesium salts.
Vitamins are also required for yeast growth (biotin, inositol, pantothenic acid, and thiamine).

1/95 Food And Agricultural Industries 9.13.4-1

 RAW MATERIALS
VOC, CO2

FERMENTATION STAGES

Flask Fermentation (F1)

Pure Culture Fermentation (F2/F3)

Intermediate Fermentation (F4)

3-02-034-04
Stock Fermentation (F5)
3-02-034-05
Pitch Fermentaion (F6)
3-02-034-06
Trade Fermentation (F7)
3-02-034-07
VOC
process water

Waste FILTRATION
Treatment
System process water
3-02-034-10 BLENDING
VOC

3-02-034-20
Drying EXTRUSION AND CUTTING
dry
yeast

PACKAGING
dried
yeast

SHIPMENT OF PACKAGED YEAST

Figure 9.13.4-1. Typical process flow diagram for the seven-stage production of baker's yeast, with
Source Classification Codes shown for compressed yeast. Use 3-02-035-XX for compressed yeast.

Thiamine is added to the feedstock. Most other vitamins and nutrients are already present in sufficient
amounts in the molasses malt.

Fermentation1-3 -
Yeast cells are grown in a series of fermentation vessels. Yeast fermentation vessels are operated
under aerobic conditions (free oxygen or excess air present) because under anaerobic conditions (limited or
no oxygen) the fermentable sugars are consumed in the formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide, which
results in low yeast yields.

9.13.4-2 EMISSION FACTORS 1/95

 The initial stage of yeast growth takes place in the laboratory. A portion of the pure yeast
culture is mixed with molasses malt in a sterilized flask, and the yeast is allowed to grow for
2 to 4 days. The entire contents of this flask are used to inoculate the first fermentor in the pure
culture stage. Pure culture fermentations are batch fermentations, where the yeast is allowed to grow
for 13 to 24 hours. Typically, 1 to 2 fermentors are used in this stage of the process. The pure
culture fermentations are basically a continuation of the flask fermentation, except that they have
provisions for sterile aeration and aseptic transfer to the next stage.

Following the pure culture fermentations, the yeast mixture is transferred to an intermediate
fermentor that is either batch or fed-batch. The next fermentation stage is a stock fermentation. The
contents from the intermediate fermentor are pumped into the stock fermentor, which is equipped for
incremental feeding with good aeration. This stage is called stock fermentation, because after
fermentation is complete, the yeast is separated from the bulk of the fermentor liquid by centrifuging,
which produces a stock, or pitch, of yeast for the next stage. The next stage, pitch fermentation, also
produces a stock, or pitch, of yeast. Aeration is vigorous, and molasses and other nutrients are fed
incrementally. The liquor from this fermentor is usually divided into several parts for pitching the
final trade fermentations (adding the yeast to start fermentation). Alternately, the yeast may be
separated by centrifuging and stored for several days before its use in the final trade fermentations.

The final trade fermentation has the highest degree of aeration, and molasses and other
nutrients are fed incrementally. Large air supplies are required during the final trade fermentations, so
these vessels are often started in a staggered fashion to reduce the size of the air compressors. The
duration of the final fermentation stages ranges from 11 to 15 hours. After all of the required
molasses has been fed into the fermentor, the liquid is aerated for an additional 0.5 to 1.5 hours to
permit further maturing of the yeast, making it more stable for refrigerated storage.

The amount of yeast growth in the main fermentation stages described above increases with
each stage. Yeast growth is typically 120 kilograms (270 pounds) in the intermediate fermentor,
420 kilograms (930 pounds) in the stock fermentor, 2,500 kilograms (5,500 pounds) in the pitch
fermentor, and 15,000 to 100,000 kilograms (33,000 to 220,000 pounds) in the trade fermentor.

The sequence of the main fermentation stages varies among manufacturers. About half of
existing yeast operations are 2-stage processes, and the remaining are 4-stage processes. When the
2-stage final fermentation series is used, the only fermentations following the pure culture stage are the
stock and trade fermentations. When the 4-stage fermentation series is used, the pure culture stage is
followed by intermediate, stock, pitch, and trade fermentations.

Harvesting And Packaging1-2 -

Once an optimum quantity of yeast has been grown, the yeast cells are recovered from the
final trade fermentor by centrifugal yeast separators. The centrifuged yeast solids are further
concentrated by a filter press or rotary vacuum filter. A filter press forms a filter cake containing
27 to 32 percent solids. A rotary vacuum filter forms cakes containing approximately 33 percent
solids. This filter cake is then blended in mixers with small amounts of water, emulsifiers, and cutting
oils to form the end product. The final packaging steps, as described below, vary depending on the
type of yeast product.

In compressed yeast production (SCC 3-02-035-XX), emulsifiers are added to give the yeast a
white, creamy appearance and to inhibit water spotting of the yeast cakes. A small amount of oil,
usually soybean or cottonseed oil, is added to help extrude the yeast through nozzles to form
continuous ribbons of yeast cake. The ribbons are cut, and the yeast cakes are wrapped and cooled to
below 8°C (46°F), at which time they are ready for shipment in refrigerated trucks.

1/95 Food And Agricultural Industries 9.13.4-3

 In dry yeast production (SCC 3-02-034-XX), the product is sent to an extruder after filtration,
where emulsifiers and oils (different from those used for compressed yeast) are added to texturize the
yeast and to aid in extruding it. After the yeast is extruded in thin ribbons, it is cut and dried in either
a batch or a continuous drying system. Following drying, the yeast is vacuum packed or packed under
nitrogen gas before heat sealing. The shelf life of ADY and IDY at ambient temperature is 1 to
2 years.

9.13.4.3 Emissions1,4-5

Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions are generated as byproducts of the fermentation
process. The 2 major VOCs emitted are ethanol and acetaldehyde. Other byproducts consist of other
alcohols, such as butanol, isopropyl alcohol, 2,3-butanediol, organic acids, and acetates. Based on
emission test data, approximately 80 to 90 percent of total VOC emissions is ethanol, and the
remaining 10 to 20 percent consists of other alcohols and acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde is a hazardous
air pollutant as defined under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act.

Volatile byproducts form as a result of either excess sugar (molasses) present in the fermentor
or an insufficient oxygen supply to it. Under these conditions, anaerobic fermentation occurs, breaking
down the excess sugar into alcohols and carbon dioxide. When anaerobic fermentation occurs,
2 moles of ethanol and 2 moles of carbon dioxide are formed from 1 mole of glucose. Under
anaerobic conditions, the ethanol yield is increased, and yeast yields are decreased. Therefore, in
producing baker’s yeast, it is essential to suppress ethanol formation in the final fermentation stages by
incremental feeding of the molasses mixture with sufficient oxygen to the fermentor.

The rate of ethanol formation is higher in the earlier stages (pure culture stages) than in the
final stages of the fermentation process. The earlier fermentation stages are batch fermentors, where
excess sugars are present and less aeration is used during the fermentation process. These
fermentations are not controlled to the degree that the final fermentations are controlled because the
majority of yeast growth occurs in the final fermentation stages. Therefore, there is no economical
reason for manufacturers to equip the earlier fermentation stages with process control equipment.

Another potential emission source at yeast manufacturing facilities is the system used to treat
process waste waters. If the facility does not use an anaerobic biological treatment system, significant
quantities of VOCs could be emitted from this stage of the process. For more information on
waste water treatment systems as an emission source of VOCs, please refer to EPA’s Control
Technology Center document on industrial waste water treatment systems, Industrial Wastewater
Volatile Organic Compound Emissions - Background Information For BACT/LAER, or see Section 4.3
of AP-42. At facilities manufacturing dry yeast, VOCs may also be emitted from the yeast dryers, but
no information is available on the relative quantity of VOC emissions from this source.

9.13.4.4 Controls6

Only 1 yeast manufacturing facility uses an add-on pollution control system to reduce VOC
emissions from the fermentation process. However, all yeast manufacturers suppress ethanol formation
through varying degrees of process control, such as incrementally feeding the molasses mixture to the
fermentors so that excess sugars are not present, or supplying sufficient oxygen to the fermentors to
optimize the dissolved oxygen content of the liquid in the fermentor. The adequacy of oxygen
distribution depends upon the proper design and operation of the aeration and mechanical agitation
systems of the fermentor. The distribution of oxygen by the air sparger system to the malt mixture is
critical. If oxygen is not being transferred uniformly throughout the malt, then ethanol will be

9.13.4-4 EMISSION FACTORS 1/95

produced in the oxygen-deficient areas of the fermentor. The type and position of baffles and/or a
highly effective mechanical agitation system can ensure proper distribution of oxygen.

A more sophisticated form of process control involves using a continuous monitoring system
and feedback control. In such a system, process parameters are monitored, and the information is sent
to a computer. The computer is then used to calculate sugar consumption rates through material
balance techniques. Based on the calculated data, the computer continuously controls the addition of
molasses. This type of system is feasible, but it is difficult to design and implement. Such enhanced
process control measures can suppress ethanol formation from 75 to 95 percent.

The 1 facility with add-on control uses a wet scrubber followed by a biological filter.
Performance data from this unit suggest an emission control efficiency of better than 90 percent.

9.13.4.5 Emission Factors1,6-9

Table 9.13.4-1 provides emission factors for a typical yeast fermentation process with a
moderate degree of process control. The process emission factors in Table 9.13.4-1 were developed
from 4 test reports from 3 yeast manufacturing facilities. Separate emission factors are given for
intermediate, stock/pitch, and trade fermentations. The emission factors in Table 9.13.4-1 are
expressed in units of VOC emitted per fermentor per unit of yeast produced in that fermentor.

In order to use the emission factors for each fermentor, the amount of yeast produced in each
fermentor must be known. The following is an example calculation for a typical facility:

Total Yeast
Production Per
No. Of Batches Stage, tons/yr
Fermentation Yeast Yield Per Processed Per (C = A x Emission Factor, Emissions, lb Percent of Total
Stage Batch, lb (A) Year, #/yr (B) B/2,000) lb/ton (D) (E = C x D) Emissions
Intermediate 265 156 21 36 756 0.84
Stock 930 208 97 5 485 0.54
Pitch 5,510 208 573 5 2,865 3.18
Trade 33,070 1,040 17,196 5 85,980 95.44
TOTAL — — — — 90,086 100

In most cases, the annual yeast production per stage will not be available. However, a reasonable
estimate can be determined based on the emission factor for the trade fermentor and the total yeast
production for the facility. Trade fermentors produce the majority of all VOCs emitted from the
facility because of the number of batches processed per year and of the amount of yeast grown in
these fermentors. Based on emission test data and process data regarding the number of batches
processed per year, 80 to 90 percent of VOCs emitted from fermentation operations are a result of the
trade fermentors.

Using either a 2-stage or 4-stage fermentation process has no significant effect on the
overall emissions for the facility. Facilities that use the 2-stage process may have larger fermentors or
may produce more batches per year than facilities that use a 4-stage process. The main factors
affecting emissions are the total yeast production for a facility and the degree of process control used.

1/95 Food And Agricultural Industries 9.13.4-5

 Table 9.13.4-1 (Metric And English Units). VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND (VOC)
EMISSION FACTORS FOR YEAST MANUFACTURINGa

EMISSION FACTOR RATING: E

VOCc
VOC Emitted Per Stage Per VOC Emitted Per Stage Per
Amount Of Yeast Produced Amount Of Yeast Produced
In A Stage, In A Stage,
Emission Pointb kg VOC/Mg Yeast lb VOC/ton Yeast
Fermentation stagesd
Flask (F1) ND ND
Pure culture (F2/F3) ND ND
Intermediate (F4) 18 36
(SCC 3-02-034-04)
Stock (F5) 2.5 5.0
(SCC 3-02-034-05)
Pitch (F6) 2.5 5.0
(SCC 3-02-034-06)
Trade (F7) 2.5 5.0
(SCC 3-02-034-07)
Waste treatment
(SCC 3-02-034-10) See Section 4.3 of AP-42
Drying
(SCC 3-02-034-20) ND ND
a References 1,6-10. Total VOC as ethanol. SCC = Source Classification Code. ND = no data.
F numbers refer to fermentation stages (see Figure 9.13.4-1).
b Factors are for both dry yeast (SCC 3-02-034-XX) and compressed yeast (SCC 3-02-035-XX).
c Factors should be used only when plant-specific emission data are not available because of the high
degree of emissions variability among facilities and among batches within a facility.
d Some yeast manufacturing facilities use a 2-stage final fermentation process, and others use a 4-stage
final fermentation process. Factors for each stage cannot be summed to determine an overall
emission factor for a facility, since they are based on yeast yields in each fermentor rather than total
yeast production. Total yeast production for a facility equals only the yeast yield from the trade
fermentations. Note that CO2 is also a byproduct of fermentation, but no data are available on the
amount emitted.

References For Section 9.13.4

1. Assessment Of VOC Emissions And Their Control From Baker’s Yeast Manufacturing
Facilities, EPA-450/3-91-027, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, January 1992.

2. S. L. Chen and M. Chigar, "Production Of Baker’s Yeast", Comprehensive Biotechnology,

Volume 20, Pergamon Press, New York, NY, 1985.

3. G. Reed and H. Peppler, Yeast Technology, Avi Publishing Company, Westport, CT, 1973.

9.13.4-6 EMISSION FACTORS 1/95

4. H. Y. Wang, et al., "Computer Control Of Baker’s Yeast Production", Biotechnology And
Bioengineering, Cambridge, MA, Volume 21, 1979.

5. Industrial Wastewater VOC Emissions - Background For BACT/LAER, EPA-450/3-90-004,

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, March 1990.

6. Written communication from R. Jones, Midwest Research Institute, Cary, NC, to the project
file, April 28, 1993.

7. Fermentor Emissions Test Report, Gannet Fleming, Inc., Baltimore, MD, October 1990.

8. Final Test Report For Fermentor No. 5, Gannett Fleming, Inc., Baltimore, MD, August 1990.

9. Written communication from J. Leatherdale, Trace Technologies, Bridgewater, NJ, to J.

Hogan, Gist-brocades Food Ingredients, Inc., East Brunswick, NJ, April 7, 1989.

10. Fermentor Emissions Test Report, Universal Foods, Inc., Baltimore, MD, Universal Foods,
Inc., Milwaukee, WI, 1990.

1/95 Food And Agricultural Industries 9.13.4-7