ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

of the

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone into the
bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the
nervous system. Hormones are substances (chemical mediators) released from endocrine tissue into the
bloodstream that attach to target tissue and allow communication among cells. Hormones regulate
many functions of an organism, including mood, growth and development, tissue function, and
metabolism. Endocrine organs, called glands, secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones affect the activity of target sites that are often located far from the site of release.
Exocrine organs direct the function of their target sites by releasing their active.
Human endocrine system: The major endocrine organs include the hypothalamus and the
hypophysis, or pituitary gland.   Other endocrine glands within the body include: thyroid,
parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.

The Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located in the lower central part of the brain. This part of the brain is
important in regulation of satiety, metabolism, and body temperature. In addition, it secretes
hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of hormones in the pituitary gland. Many of
these hormones are releasing hormones, which are secreted into an artery (the hypophyseal
portal system) that carries them directly to the pituitary gland. In the pituitary gland, these
releasing hormones signal secretion of stimulating hormones. The hypothalamus also secretes a
hormone called somatostatin, which causes the pituitary gland to stop the release of growth
hormone.

The Pituitary gland

The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain beneath the hypothalamus and is no
larger than a pea. It is often considered the most important part of the endocrine system
because it produces hormones that control many functions of other endocrine glands. When
the pituitary gland does not produce one or more of its hormones or not enough of them, it is
called hypopituitarism.

The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The
anterior lobe produces the following hormones, which are regulated by the hypothalamus:

 Growth hormone - Stimulates growth of bone and tissue (growth hormone deficiency in
children results in growth failure. Growth hormone deficiency in adults results in
problems in maintaining proper amounts of body fat and muscle and bone mass. It is
also involved in emotional well-being.)
  Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones (A lack of thyroid hormones either because of a defect in the pituitary or the
thyroid itself is called hypothyroidism.)

 Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) - Stimulates the adrenal gland to produce several

related steroid hormones

 Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - Hormones that

control sexual function and production of the sex steroids, estrogen and progesterone in
females or testosterone in males

 Prolactin - Hormone that stimulates milk production in females

The posterior lobe produces the following hormones, which are not regulated by the
hypothalamus:

 Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) - Controls water loss by the kidneys

 Oxytocin - Contracts the uterus during childbirth and stimulates milk production

The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary are actually produced in the brain and carried
to the pituitary gland through nerves. They are stored in the pituitary gland.

The Thyroid gland

The thyroid gland is located in the lower front part of the neck. It produces thyroid hormones
that regulate the body's metabolism. It also plays a role in bone growth and development of the
brain and nervous system in children. The pituitary gland controls the release of thyroid
hormones. Thyroid hormones also help maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, digestion,
muscle tone, and reproductive functions.
The Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small glands embedded in the surface of the thyroid
gland, one pair on each side. They release parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in regulating
calcium levels in the blood and bone metabolism.

The Adrenal gland

The adrenal glands are triangular-shaped glands located on top of each kidney. The adrenal
glands are made up of two parts. The outer part is called the adrenal cortex, and the inner part
is called the adrenal medulla. The outer part produces hormones called corticosteroids, which
regulate the body's metabolism, the balance of salt and water in the body, the immune system,
and sexual function. The inner part, or adrenal medulla, produces hormones called
catecholamines (for example, adrenaline). These hormones help the body cope with physical
and emotional stress by increasing the heart rate and blood pressure.

The Reproductive glands

The reproductive glands are the main source of sex hormones. In males, the testes, located in
the scrotum, secrete hormones called androgens; the most important of which is testosterone.
These hormones affect many male characteristics (for example, sexual development, growth of
facial hair and pubic hair) as well as sperm production. In females, the ovaries, located on both
sides of the uterus, produce estrogen and progesterone as well as eggs. These hormones
control the development of female characteristics (for example, breast growth), and they are
also involved in reproductive functions (for example, menstruation, pregnancy).

The Pancreas

The pancreas is an elongated organ located toward the back of the abdomen behind the stomach. The
pancreas is both an endocrine organ and an exocrine organ. The exocrine portion of the
pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct. The endocrine portion of the
pancreas secretes hormones, including insulin and glucagon.
 Insulin is a hormone that is central to regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the
body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the
blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle. Insulin stops the use of fat as an
energy source by inhibiting the release of glucagon. When insulin is absent, glucose is
not taken up by body cells and the body begins to use fat as an energy source or
gluconeogenesis; for example, by transfer of lipids from adipose tissue to the liver for
mobilization as an energy source. As its level is a central metabolic control mechanism,
its status is also used as a control signal to other body systems (such as amino acid
uptake by body cells). In addition, it has several other anabolic effects throughout the
body.

 Glucagon is a hormone, secreted by the pancreas that raises blood glucose levels. Its
effect is opposite that of insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels. The pancreas
releases glucagon when blood glucose levels fall too low. Glucagon causes the liver to
convert stored glycogen into glucose, which is released into the bloodstream. Glucagon
also stimulates the release of insulin, so that glucose can be taken up and used by
insulin-dependent tissues. Glucagon helps maintain the level of glucose in the blood.
Glucose is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen, which is a starch-like polymer
chain made up of glucose molecules. Liver cells (hepatocytes) have glucagon receptors.
When glucagon binds to the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the glycogen
polymer into individual glucose molecules, and release them into the bloodstream, in a
process known as glycogenolysis. As these stores become depleted, glucagon then
encourages the liver to synthesize additional glucose by gluconeogenesis. Glucagon
turns off glycolysis in the liver, causing glycolytic intermediates to be shuttled to
gluconeogenesis.