World Encyclopedia

c
c (chemical symbol c, atomic number 1) is the lightest chemical element and the most
abundant of all elements, constituting roughly 75 percent of the elemental mass of the universe.[1]
Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state.
In the Earth's natural environment, free (uncombined) hydrogen is relatively rare. At standard
temperature and pressure, it takes the form of a colorless, odorless, tasteless, highly flammable
gas made up of diatomic molecules (H2). On the other hand, the element is widely distributed in
combination with other elements, and many of its compounds are vital for living systems. Its
most familiar compound is water (H2O).
Elemental hydrogen is industrially produced from hydrocarbons such as methane, after which
most elemental hydrogen is used "captively" (meaning locally, at the production site). The
largest markets are about equally divided between fossil fuel upgrading (such as hydrocracking)
and ammonia production (mostly for the fertilizer market).
The most common naturally occurring isotope of hydrogen, known as protium, has a single
proton and no neutrons. In ionic compounds, it can take on either a positive charge (becoming a
cation, H+, which is a proton) or a negative charge (becoming an anion, Hí, called a hydride). It
plays a particularly important role in acid-base chemistry, in which many reactions involve the
exchange of protons between soluble molecules. As the only neutral atom for which the
Schrödinger equation can be solved analytically, study of the energetics and bonding of the
hydrogen atom has played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics

The term (Latin: '
) can be traced to a combination of the ancient Greek
words , meaning "water," and , meaning "forming." This refers to the observation that
when hydrogen burns, it produces water.
Ñ
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up 75 percent of normal matter
by mass and over 90 percent by number of atoms.[2] This element is found in great abundance in
stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star formation. Hydrogen
plays a vital role in powering stars through proton-proton reaction nuclear fusion.
Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states whose
properties are quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and
proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity
(producing the light from the sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by
magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with Earth's
magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Hydrogen is found in the neutral
atomic state in the Interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the
damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the
universe up to redshift h=4.
Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H2 (for data
see table). However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 part per million by
volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape Earth's gravity more easily than
heavier gases. Although H atoms and H2 molecules are abundant in interstellar space, they are
difficult to generate, concentrate and purify on Earth. Still, hydrogen is the third most abundant
element on the Earth's surface.[3] Most of the Earth's hydrogen is in the form of chemical
compounds such as hydrocarbons and water.[4] Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and
algae and is a natural component of flatus. Methane is a hydrogen source of increasing
importance.
c
c
Hydrogen gas, H2, was first artificially produced and formally described by T. Von Hohenheim
(also known as Paracelsus, 1493±1541) via the mixing of metals with strong acids. He was
unaware that the flammable gas produced by this chemical reaction was a new chemical element.
In 1671, Robert Boyle rediscovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute
acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas.[5]
In 1766 Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by
identifying the gas from a metal-acid reaction as "inflammable air" and further finding that the
gas produces water when burned. Cavendish had stumbled on hydrogen when experimenting
with acids and mercury. Although he wrongly assumed that hydrogen was a liberated component
of the mercury rather than the acid, he was still able to accurately describe several key properties
of hydrogen. He is usually given credit for its discovery as an element. In 1783, Antoine
Lavoisier gave the element the name ³hydrogen´ when he (with Pierre-Simon Laplace)
reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned. Lavoisier's
name for the gas won out.
One of the first uses of H2 was for balloons, and later airships. The H2 was obtained by reacting
sulfuric acid and metallic iron. Infamously, H2 was used in the Hindenburg airship that was
destroyed in a midair fire. The highly flammable hydrogen (H2) was later replaced for airships
and most balloons by the unreactive helium (He).

Because of its relatively simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the
hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been
central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, the corresponding
simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H2+ allowed fuller
understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum
mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.
One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a
Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory
arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H2 unaccountably departs from that
of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of a
monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior arises
from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced
in H2 because of its low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy
into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier
atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect.[6]

Depiction of a hydrogen atom showing the diameter as about

twice the Bohr model radius (image not to scale)
The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen

atom is 13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of
roughly 92 nanometers.
The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly

accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as "orbiting" the
proton in analogy to Earth's orbit of the sun. However, the electromagnetic force attracts
electrons and protons to one another, while planets and celestial objects are attracted to each
other by gravity. Because of the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum
mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy certain allowed distances
from the proton, and therefore only certain allowed energies.
A more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a purely quantum mechanical
treatment that uses the Schrödinger equation or the equivalent Feynman path integral formulation
to calculate the probability density of the electron around the proton. Treating the electron as a
matter wave reproduces chemical results such as shape of the hydrogen atom more naturally than
the particle-based Bohr model, although the energy and spectral results are the same.
Modeling the system fully using the reduced mass of nucleus and electron (as one would do in
the two-body problem in celestial mechanics) yields an even better formula for the hydrogen
spectra, and also the correct spectral shifts for the isotopes deuterium and tritium. Very small
adjustments in energy levels in the hydrogen atom, which correspond to actual spectral effects,
may be determined by using a full quantum mechanical theory which corrects for the effects of
special relativity, and by accounting for quantum effects arising from production of virtual
particles in the vacuum and as a result of electric fields.
In hydrogen gas, the electronic ground state energy level is split into hyperfine structure levels
because of magnetic effects of the quantum mechanical spin of the electron and proton. The
energy of the atom when the proton and electron spins are aligned is higher than when they are
not aligned. The transition between these two states can occur through emission of a photon
through a magnetic dipole transition. Radio telescopes can detect the radiation produced in this
process, which is used to map the distribution of hydrogen in the galaxy.

Protium, the most common isotope of hydrogen, has one proton and one
electron. Unique among all stable isotopes, it has no neutrons.
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1H, 2H, and
3
H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (4H to 7H) have been synthesized in the
laboratory but not observed in nature.[7][8]
`
? c is the most common hydrogen isotope with an abundance of more than 99.98 percent.
Because the nucleus of this isotope consists of only a single proton, it is given the
descriptive but rarely used formal name
.

? c, the other stable hydrogen isotope, is known as

and contains one proton and
one neutron in its nucleus. Deuterium comprises 0.0026±0.0184 percent (by mole-
fraction or atom-fraction) of hydrogen samples on Earth, with the lower number tending
to be found in samples of hydrogen gas and the higher enrichments (0.015 percent or 150
parts per million) typical of ocean water. Deuterium is not radioactive, and does not
represent a significant toxicity hazard. Water enriched in molecules that include
deuterium instead of normal hydrogen is called heavy water. Deuterium and its
compounds are used as a non-radioactive label in chemical experiments and in solvents
for 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator and coolant for
nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also a potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusion.

? c is known as
and contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus. It is
radioactive, decaying into Helium-3 through beta decay with a half-life of 12.32 years.[4]
Small amounts of tritium occur naturally because of the interaction of cosmic rays with
atmospheric gases; tritium has also been released during nuclear weapons tests. It is used
in nuclear fusion reactions, as a tracer in isotope geochemistry, and specialized in self-
powered lighting devices. Tritium was once routinely used in chemical and biological
labeling experiments as a radiolabel (this has become less common).
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use today
(During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given names,
but such names are no longer used. The symbols D and T (instead of 2H and 3H) are sometimes
used for deuterium and tritium, but the corresponding symbol P is already in use for phosphorus
and thus is not available for protium. IUPAC states that while this use is common, it is not
preferred.

First tracks observed in liquid hydrogen bubble

chamber at the Bevatron
There are two different types of diatomic

hydrogen molecules that differ by the relative
spin of their nuclei.[9] In the orthohydrogen
form, the spins of the two protons are parallel
and form a triplet state; in the parahydrogen
form the spins are antiparallel and form a
singlet. At standard temperature and pressure,
hydrogen gas contains about 25 percent of the
para form and 75 percent of the ortho form, also
known as the "normal form."[10] The
equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to parahydrogen depends on temperature, but since the ortho
form is an excited state and has a higher energy than the para form, it is unstable and cannot be
purified. At very low temperatures, the equilibrium state is composed almost exclusively of the
para form. The physical properties of pure parahydrogen differ slightly from those of the normal
form.[11] The ortho/para distinction also occurs in other hydrogen-containing molecules or
functional groups, such as water and methylene.
The uncatalyzed interconversion between para and ortho H2 increases with increasing
temperature; thus rapidly condensed H2 contains large quantities of the high-energy ortho form
that convert to the para form very slowly.[12] The ortho/para ratio in condensed H2 is an
important consideration in the preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen: the conversion from
ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate the hydrogen liquid, leading
to loss of the liquefied material. Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversion, such as iron
compounds, are used during hydrogen cooling.[13]
A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen, or H3+, is found in the interstellar
medium (ISM), where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays. It
has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter. This molecule is relatively
stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density. H3+ is one of the
most abundant ions in the universe, and it plays a notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar
medium.[14]
å
Hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table, with an atomic mass of 1.00794 g/mol. For
lack of a better place, it is generally shown at the top of group 1 (former group 1A). It is,
however, a nonmetal, whereas the other members of group 1 are alkali metals.
The solubility and adsorption characteristics of hydrogen with various metals are very important
in metallurgy (as many metals can suffer hydrogen embrittlement) and in developing safe ways
to store it for use as a fuel. Hydrogen is highly soluble in many compounds composed of rare
earth metals and transition metals[15] and can be dissolved in both crystalline and amorphous
metals.[16] Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the
metal crystal lattice.[17]

Hydrogen gas is highly flammable and will burn at

concentrations as low as four percent H2 in air. The
combustion reaction may be written as follows:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) ĺ 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ/mol
The reaction generates a large amount of heat. The

enthalpy of combustion is ± 286 kJ/mol.
When mixed with oxygen across a wide range of proportions, hydrogen explodes upon ignition.
Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faintness
of flame from the main space shuttle engines (as opposed to the easily visible flames from the
shuttle boosters). Thus it is difficult to visually detect if a hydrogen leak is burning.
The c
airship flames seen in the adjacent picture are hydrogen flames colored with
material from the covering skin of the zeppelin which contained carbon and pyrophoric
aluminum powder, as well as other combustible materials.[18] Regardless of the cause of this fire,
this was clearly primarily a hydrogen fire since skin of the airship alone would have taken many
hours to burn.[19] Another characteristic of hydrogen fires is that the flames tend to ascend
rapidly with the gas in air, as illustrated by the c
flames, causing less damage than
hydrocarbon fires. For example, two-thirds of the c
passengers survived the hydrogen
fire, and many of the deaths that occurred were from falling or from gasoline burns.[20]

H2 reacts directly with other oxidizing elements. A violent and spontaneous reaction can occur at
room temperature with chlorine and fluorine, forming the corresponding hydrogen halides:
hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride.

With the exception of the above-mentioned reactions, H2 is not very reactive under standard
conditions. It does, however, form compounds with most elements. Millions of hydrocarbons are
known, but they are not formed by the direct reaction of elementary hydrogen and carbon
(although synthesis gas production followed by the Fischer-Tropsch process to make
hydrocarbons comes close to being an exception, as this begins with coal and the elemental
hydrogen is generated in situ). Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more
electronegative, such as halogens (e.g., F, Cl, Br, I) and chalcogens (O, S, Se); in these
compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge. When bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or
nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of strong noncovalent bonding called hydrogen
bonding, which is critical to the stability of many biological molecules. Hydrogen also forms
compounds with less electronegative elements, such as the metals and metalloids, in which it
takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides.
Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with carbon. Because of their general association
with living things, these compounds came to be called organic compounds; the study of their
properties is known as organic chemistry and their study in the context of living organisms is
known as biochemistry. By some definitions, "organic" compounds are only required to contain
carbon, but most of them also contain hydrogen, and the carbon-hydrogen bond is responsible for
many of their chemical characteristics.
In inorganic chemistry, hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that link two metal centers in
a coordination complex. This function is particularly common in group 13 elements, especially
in boranes (boron hydrides) and aluminum complexes, as well as in clustered carboranes.[4]
c
Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. To chemists,
the term "hydride" usually implies that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character,
denoted Hí. The existence of the hydride anion, suggested by G. N. Lewis in 1916 for group I
and II salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 with the electrolysis of molten
lithium hydride (LiH), that produced a stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode.[21] For
hydrides other than group I and II metals, the term is quite misleading, considering the low
electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group II hydrides is BeH2, which is polymeric. In
lithium aluminum hydride, the AlH4í anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III).
Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements, the number and
combination of possible compounds varies widely; for example, there are over one hundred
binary borane hydrides known, but only one binary aluminum hydride.[22] Binary indium hydride
has not yet been identified, although larger complexes exist.[23]
å

Oxidation of H2 formally gives the proton, H+. This species is central to discussion of acids,
though the term proton is used loosely to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen,
denoted H+. A bare proton H+ cannot exist in solution because of its strong tendency to attach
itself to atoms or molecules with electrons. To avoid the convenient fiction of the naked
"solvated proton" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain the
hydronium ion (H3O+) organized into clusters to form H9O4+.[24] Other oxonium ions are found
when water is in solution with other solvents.
Although exotic on earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H3+ ion, known as
protonated molecular hydrogen or the triatomic hydrogen cation.[25]
å
H2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a byproduct of other reactions; in
industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling
reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions.

In the laboratory, H2 is usually prepared by the reaction of acids on metals such as zinc.
Zn + 2 H+ ĺ Zn2+ + H2
Aluminum produces H2 upon treatment with an acid or a base:
2 Al + 6 H2O ĺ 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2
The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen, although the resulting
hydrogen necessarily has less energy content than was required to produce it. A low-voltage
current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen
forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when
producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to
assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals (iron, for
instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off). The theoretical
maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced) is between 80
and 94 percent.[26]
2H2O(aq) ĺ 2H2(g) + O2(g)
In 2007 it was discovered that an alloy of aluminum and gallium in pellet form added to water
could be used to generate hydrogen.[27] The process creates also creates alumina, but the
expensive gallium, which prevents the formation of an oxide skin on the pellets, can be reused.
This potentially has important implications for a hydrogen economy, since hydrogen can be
produced on-site and does not need to be transported.

Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways but the economically most important
processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons. Commercial bulk hydrogen is
usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas.[28] At high temperatures (700±1100 °C;
1,300±2,000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H2.
CH4 + H2O ĺ CO + 3 H2
This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (20 atm;
600 inHg) since high pressure H2 is the most marketable product. The product mixture is known
as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related
compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying
product ratios. One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the
formation of coke or carbon:
CH4 ĺ C + 2 H2
Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H2O.
Additional hydrogen from steam reforming can be recovered from the carbon monoxide through
the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a
common industrial source of carbon dioxide:[28]
CO + H2O ĺ CO2 + H2
Other important methods for H2 production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons:
CH4 + 0.5 O2 ĺ CO + 2 H2
and the coal reaction, which can serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above:[28]
C + H2O ĺ CO + H2
Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without being
separated. In the Haber process for the production of ammonia (the world's fifth-most produced
industrial compound), hydrogen is generated from natural gas.
Hydrogen is also produced in usable quantities as a co-product of the major petrochemical

processes of steam cracking and reforming. Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces
hydrogen as a co-product.
D
H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several

microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called
hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H2 and its
component two protons and two electrons. Evolution of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of
reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water.[29]
Water splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and
oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms. Some such organisms²
including the alga A and cyanobacteria²have evolved a second step
in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H2 gas by specialized
hydrogenases in the chloroplast.[30] Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify
cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H2 gas even in the presence of oxygen.[31]
Other rarer but mechanistically interesting routes to H2 production also exist in nature.
Nitrogenase produces approximately one equivalent of H2 for each equivalent of N2 reduced to
ammonia. Some phosphatases reduce phosphite to H2.
=
Large quantities of H2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest
application of H2 is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels, and in the production of
ammonia. The key consumers of H2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation,
hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking.[32] H2 has several other important uses. H2 is used as a
hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils
(found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol. It is similarly the source
of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H2 is also used as a reducing agent of
metallic ores.
Apart from its use as a reactant, H2 has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is used as
a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding. H2 is used as the rotor
coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity
of any gas. Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies. Since
H2 is lighter than air, having a little more than 1/15th of the density of air, it was once widely
used as a lifting agent in balloons and airships. However, this use was curtailed after the
c
disaster convinced the public that the gas was too dangerous for this purpose.
Hydrogen is still regularly used for the inflation of weather balloons.
Hydrogen's rarer isotopes also each have specific applications. Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is used
in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions.
Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope
effects. Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of
hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a radiation source in luminous
paints.
The triple point temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the
International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90).
c
Hydrogen is not an energy source, except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear
fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from development.
The sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen but this process is difficult to achieve
on Earth. Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological, or electrical sources costs more in energy to
make than is obtained by burning it. Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources (such as
methane) for less energy than required to make it, but these sources are unsustainable, and are
also themselves direct energy sources (and are rightly regarded as the basic source of the energy
in the hydrogen obtained from them).
Molecular hydrogen has been widely discussed in the context of energy, as a possible carrier of
energy on an economy-wide scale. A theoretical advantage of using H2 as an energy carrier is the
localization and concentration of environmentally unwelcome aspects of hydrogen manufacture
from fossil fuel energy sources. For example, CO2 sequestration followed by carbon capture and
storage could be conducted at the point of H2 production from methane. Hydrogen used in
transportation would burn cleanly, without carbon emissions. However, the infrastructure costs
associated with full conversion to a hydrogen economy would be substantial.[33] In addition, the
energy density of both liquid hydrogen and hydrogen gas at any practicable pressure is
significantly less than that of traditional fuel sources.
c

hydrogen ĸ helium ĺ lithium
-
Ĺ
c
Ļ
Ne
periodic table
º
Name, Symbol,
helium, He, 2
Number
Chemical series noble gases
Group, Period,
18, 1, s
Block
colorless
Appearance
Atomic mass 4.002602(2) g/mol

Electron
1s2
configuration
Electrons per shell 2
å
Phase gas
(0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
Density
0.1786 g/L
(at 2.5 MPa) 0.95 K
Melting point
(-272.2 °C, -458.0 °F)
4.22 K
Boiling point (-268.93 °C, -452.07
°F)
Critical point 5.19 K, 0.227 MPa
Heat of fusion 0.0138 kJ/mol
Heat of
0.0829 kJ/mol
vaporization
(25 °C) 20.786
Heat capacity
J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
1 10 100
å/Pa 1 10 100
k k k
at
3 4
/K
=

Crystal structure hexagonal or bcc
Ionization energies 1st: 2372.3 kJ/mol
2nd: 5250.5 kJ/mol
Atomic radius
31 pm
(calc.)
Covalent radius 32 pm
Van der Waals 140 pm
c
(chemical symbol c, atomic number 2) radius
is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere,
but it is the second most abundant element in the
universe and second lightest of all known Thermal (300 K) 151.3
elements. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, conductivity mW/(m·K)
nontoxic, and nearly inert gas that heads the noble CAS registry
gas series in the periodic table. Its boiling and 7440-59-7
number
melting points are the lowest among the elements,
Ñ
and extreme conditions are needed to convert it
into the liquid and solid forms. Extreme Main article: Isotopes of helium
conditions are also needed to create the small
handful of helium compounds, which are all Ñ= å
!"

unstable at ordinary temperatures and pressures.

3 He is stable with 1
He 0.000137%*
In the present-day universe, almost all new helium neutron
is created as a result of the nuclear fusion of 4 He is stable with 2
He 99.999863%*
hydrogen in stars. On Earth, it is produced by the neutrons
radioactive decay of much heavier elements. After *Atmospheric value, abundance may differ
its creation, part of it is trapped with natural gas, elsewhere.
at concentrations of up to 7 percent by volume.

It is commonly known that helium is used for
providing lift for balloons and airships. In addition, it is used as a component in deep-sea
breathing systems, as a coolant for superconducting magnets, and as a protective gas for many
industrial processes such as arc welding and growing silicon wafers. Researchers use helium to
study materials at very low temperatures, in a field called , and in helium dating of
radioactive rocks and minerals. Inhaling a small volume of the gas temporarily changes the tonal
quality and pitch of one's voice. It can, however, be dangerous if done in excess.
=

Helium is the second most abundant element in the known universe, after hydrogen, constituting
23 percent of the elemental mass of the universe. It is concentrated in stars, where it is formed by
two sets of nuclear fusion reactions: one involving the "proton-proton chain reaction" and the
other involving the "carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle." According to the Big Bang model of the
early development of the universe, the vast majority of helium was formed between one and
three minutes after the Big Bang, at a stage known as the D D
. Based on
this theory, the abundance of helium serves as a test of cosmological models.
In the Earth's atmosphere, the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million,
largely because most helium in the Earth's atmosphere escapes into space due to its inertness and
low mass. In the Earth's heterosphere (a part of the upper atmosphere), helium and other lighter
gases are the most abundant elements.
Nearly all helium on Earth is a result of radioactive decay. The decay product is found in
minerals of uranium and thorium, including cleveites, pitchblende, carnotite, monazite and beryl.
These minerals emit alpha particles, which consist of helium nuclei (He2+), to which electrons
readily attach themselves. In this way, an estimated 3.4 liters of helium are generated per year
per cubic kilometer of the Earth's crust.
The concentration of helium in the Earth's crust is 8 parts per billion; in seawater, it is only 4
parts per trillion. There are also small amounts in mineral springs, volcanic gas, and meteoric
iron. The greatest concentrations of helium on our planet are in natural gas, from which most
commercial helium is derived.

Pierre Janssen (1824±1907), a French astronomer, was
the first to detect evidence of a previously unknown
element (helium) in the Sun.
On August 18, 1868, during a total solar eclipse in

Guntur, India, French astronomer Pierre Janssen observed
a bright yellow line with a wavelength of 587.49
nanometers (nm) in the spectrum of the Sun's
chromosphere. This line was the first evidence that the
Sun contained a previously unknown element, but
Janssen was ridiculed because no element had been
detected in a celestial body before being found on Earth.
On October 20 of the same year, English astronomer
Norman Lockyer observed a yellow line of the same
wavelength in the solar spectrum. He named it the D3 line
(Fraunhofer line), for it was near the known D1 and D2
lines of sodium. He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. He
and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun,
>ȜȚȠȢ ( ).
On March 26, 1895, British chemist William Ramsay isolated helium on Earth by treating the
mineral cleveite with mineral acids. Ramsay was looking for argon, but after separating nitrogen
and oxygen from the gas liberated by sulfuric acid, he noticed a bright-yellow line that matched
the D3 line observed in the spectrum of the Sun.. These samples were identified as helium by
Lockyer and British physicist William Crookes. That same year, chemists Per Teodor Cleve and
Abraham Langlet in Uppsala, Sweden, independently isolated helium from cleveite. They
collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its atomic weight.1
In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrated that an alpha particle (emitted by
radioactive materials) is a helium nucleus. In 1908, Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
was the first to liquefy helium by cooling the gas to below 1 Kelvin (K). He tried to solidify it by
further reducing the temperature, but he failed because helium does not have a "triple point"
temperature where the solid, liquid, and gas phases are in equilibrium with one another. His
student, Willem Hendrik Keesom, was the first to solidify helium in 1926, by subjecting it to a
pressure of 25 atmospheres.
In 1938, Russian physicist Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa discovered that helium-4 has almost no
viscosity at temperatures near absolute zero, a phenomenon now called superfluidity. In 1972,
the same phenomenon was observed with helium-3, by American physicists Douglas D.
Osheroff, David M. Lee, and Robert C. Richardson.
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º

In the periodic table, helium is at the head of the noble gas series in group 18 (former group 8A),
and it is placed in period 1, along with hydrogen. Unlike hydrogen, helium is extremely inert and
is the least reactive member of the noble gases. As a result, it is monatomic (consists of single
atoms of He) under virtually all conditions.
The boiling and melting points of helium are the lowest among the elements. For this reason,
helium exists as a gas except under extreme conditions. Gaseous helium is colorless, odorless,
tasteless, and nontoxic. It is less water soluble than any other gas known, and its rate of diffusion
through solids is three times that of air and around 65 percent that of hydrogen. The index of
refraction of helium (ratio of speed of light in helium to that in a vacuum) is closer to unity than
any other gas.
Helium's thermal conductivity (ability to conduct heat) is greater than that of any gas except
hydrogen, and its specific heat (amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram
of helium by 1 K) is unusually high. At normal temperatures, helium heats up when allowed to
expand freely; but below about 40 K (Kelvin), it cools during free expansion. Once it has been
cooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.
Helium is an electrical insulator unless ionized. As with the other noble gases, it has metastable
energy levels that allow it to remain ionized in an electrical discharge when the voltage is kept
below its ionization potential (that is, below the energy required to strip the He atom of an
electron).
Helium is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions. Extreme conditions are needed to
create the small handful of helium compounds, which are all unstable at standard temperature
and pressure (0° C and 100 kilopascals pressure).
For instance, helium can form unstable compounds with tungsten, iodine, fluorine, sulfur, and
phosphorus when it is subjected to an electric glow discharge, through electron bombardment, or
is otherwise a plasma. HeNe, HgHe10, WHe2, and the molecular ions He2+, He2++, HeH+, and
HeD+ have been created in this manner. This technique has also allowed the production of the
neutral molecules He2 and HgHe .
Throughout the universe, helium is found mostly in a plasma state whose properties are quite
different from those of molecular helium. As a plasma, helium's electrons and protons are not
bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially
ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For
example, in the solar wind together with ionized hydrogen, they interact with the Earth's
magnetosphere giving rise to the aurora phenomenon ("Northern lights").

Unlike any other element, helium fails to solidify and remains a liquid down to absolute zero (0
K) at normal pressures. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1±1.5 K (about í272 °C or
í457 °F) and about 26 standard atmospheres (2.6 MPa) of pressure. It is often hard to distinguish
solid from liquid helium because the two phases have nearly the same refractive index. The solid
form is colorless and almost invisible; it has a crystalline structure with a sharp melting point;
and it is highly compressible²about 50 times more compressible than water.
Helium-4 (the most common isotope of helium) has two different liquid states, helium I and
helium II, depending on the temperature. The behavior of these two states is important to
researchers studying quantum mechanics (particularly the phenomenon of superfluidity) and
those studying superconductivity and other properties of matter at temperatures near 0 K.
c

Below its boiling point of 4.21 K and above a temperature of 2.1768 K (called the "lambda
point" for helium), the helium-4 isotope exists in a normal, colorless liquid state, called
.
Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when heat is added to it. It also contracts when its
temperature is lowered until it reaches the lambda point, when it stops boiling and suddenly
expands. The rate of expansion decreases below the lambda point until about 1 K is reached; at
which point expansion completely stops and helium I starts to contract again.
Helium I has a gas-like refractive index of 1.026, which makes its surface so hard to see that
floats of Styrofoam are often used to show where the surface is. This colorless liquid has a very
low viscosity and a density one-eighth that of water, which is only one-fourth the value expected
from classical physics. Quantum mechanics is needed to explain this property. For this reason,
both types of liquid helium are called ë

, meaning they display atomic properties on
a macroscopic scale.
c

Below the lambda point, liquid helium begins to exhibit very unusual characteristics, in a state
called
. Helium II cannot be boiled because it has high thermal conductivity (high
ability to conduct heat). Instead, when this liquid is heated, it evaporates directly to form gas.
Helium II will "creep" along surfaces in order to find its

own level - after a short while, the levels in the two
containers will equalize. The Rollin film also covers the
interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the
helium II would creep out and escape.
Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum-mechanical state

of matter with strange properties. For example, when it
flows through even capillaries of 10-7 to 10-8 m width, it
has no measurable viscosity. However, when
measurements were done between two moving discs, a
viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was
observed.
Helium II also exhibits a "creeping" effect. When a

surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II
moves along the surface, seemingly against the force of
gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not
sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a
warmer region, where it evaporates. It moves in a film that is
30 nm in thickness, regardless of surface material. This film is called a "Rollin film," named after
B. V. Rollin, who first characterized this trait. As a result of this creeping behavior and helium
II's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium.
Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and
through valves until it reaches a warmer place and then evaporates.
In the
, a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by
a sintered disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid
helium cannot pass. If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to
non-superfluid helium. Superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing
liquid to fountain out of the container.
The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a
million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of copper. This is because heat
conduction occurs by an exceptional quantum-mechanical mechanism. When heat is introduced,
it moves through helium II in the form of waves, at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K, in a
phenomenon called
.
The isotope helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures. As a
result, less is known about such properties of helium-3.

Although there are eight known isotopes of helium, only helium-3 and helium-4 are stable. The
nucleus of helium-3 contains two protons and one neutron, while that of helium-4 contains two
protons and two neutrons.
In the Earth's atmosphere, there is one He-3 atom for every million He-4. Helium, however, is
unusual in that its isotopic abundance varies greatly depending on its origin. In the interstellar
medium, the proportion of He-3 is around a hundred times higher. Rocks from the Earth's crust
have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of 10; this is used in geology to study the
origin of such rocks.
The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by alpha decay of heavier radioactive
elements; the alpha particles that emerge are fully ionized nuclei of helium-4. The helium-4
nucleus, consisting of two protons and two neutrons, is unusually stable. It was formed in
enormous quantities during Big Bang nucleosynthesis (noted above).
Equal mixtures of liquid helium-3 and helium-4 below 0.8 K will separate into two immiscible
phases (two phases that do not mix) due to their dissimilarity (in terms of quantum statistics).
Dilution refrigerators take advantage of the immiscibility of these two isotopes to achieve
temperatures of a few millikelvins.
There is only a trace amount of helium-3 on Earth, primarily present since the formation of the
Earth, although some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust. Trace amounts are also produced by
the beta decay of tritium. In stars, however, helium-3 is more abundant, as a product of nuclear
fusion. Extraplanetary material, such as lunar and asteroid regolith (loose material covering solid
rock), have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by solar winds.
The different formation processes of the two stable isotopes of helium produce the differing
isotope abundances. These differing isotope abundances can be used to investigate the origin of
rocks and the composition of the Earth's mantle.
It is possible to produce exotic helium isotopes that rapidly decay into other substances. The
shortest-lived isotope is helium-5, with a half-life of 7.6×10í22 second. Helium-6 decays by
emitting a beta particle and has a half life of 0.8 second. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle, as
well as a gamma ray. Helium-7 and helium-8 are "hyperfragments" that are created in certain
nuclear reactions.
c

After an oil-drilling operation in 1903 in Dexter, Kansas, produced a gas geyser that would not
burn, Kansas state geologist Erasmus Haworth collected samples of the escaping gas and took
them back to the University of Kansas at Lawrence. There, with the help of chemists Hamilton
Cady and David McFarland, he discovered that the gas contained, by volume, 72 percent
nitrogen, 15 percent methane (insufficient to make the gas combustible), 1 percent hydrogen, and
12 percent of an unidentifiable gas.2 With further analysis, Cady and McFarland discovered that
1.84 percent of the gas sample was helium.3 Far from being a rare element, helium was present in
vast quantities under the American Great Plains, available for extraction from natural gas.
This put the United States in an excellent position to become the world's leading supplier of
helium. Following a suggestion by Sir Richard Threlfall, the U.S. Navy sponsored three small
experimental helium production plants during World War I. The goal was to supply barrage
balloons with the non-flammable lifting gas. A total of 200,000 cubic feet (5,700 m ) of 92
percent helium was produced in the program even though only a few cubic feet (less than 100
liters) of the gas had previously been obtained. Some of this gas was used in the world's first
helium-filled airship, the U.S. Navy's C-7, which flew its maiden voyage from Hampton Roads,
Virginia to Bolling Field in Washington, D.C. on December 7, 1921.
Although the extraction process, using low-temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed in
time to be significant during World War I, production continued. Helium was primarily used as a
lifting gas in lighter-than-air craft. This use increased demand during World War II, as well as
demands for shielded arc welding. Helium was also vital in the Manhattan Project that produced
the atomic bomb.
In 1925, the U.S. government set up the National Helium Reserve at Amarillo, Texas, with the
goal of supplying military airships in time of war and commercial airships in peacetime. Helium
use following World War II was depressed, but the reserve was expanded in the 1950s to ensure
a supply of liquid helium as a coolant when creating oxygen/hydrogen rocket fuel (among other
uses) during the Space Race and Cold War. Helium use in the United States in 1965 was more
than eight times the peak wartime consumption.
After the "Helium Acts Amendments of 1960" (Public Law 86±777), the U.S. Bureau of Mines
arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas. For this

program, the Bureau built a 425-mile pipeline from Bushton, Kansas, to connect those plants
with the government's partially depleted Cliffside gas field near Amarillo, Texas. This helium-
nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside gas field until needed, when it then was
further purified.
By 1995, a billion cubic meters of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US $1.4 billion
in debt, prompting the Congress of the United States in 1996 to phase out the reserve.4 The
resulting "Helium Privatization Act of 1996" (Public Law 104±273) directed the U.S.
Department of the Interior to start liquidating the reserve by 2005.
Helium produced before 1945 was about 98 percent pure (2 percent nitrogen), which was
adequate for airships. In 1945, a small amount of 99.9 percent helium was produced for welding
use. By 1949, commercial quantities of Grade A 99.995 percent helium were available.
For many years, the United States produced over 90 percent of commercially usable helium in
the world. As of 2004, over 140 million cubic meters of helium were produced annually, with 85
percent of production from the United States, 10 percent from Algeria, and most of the
remainder from Russia and Poland. The principal sources in the world are the natural gas wells
in the American states of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas.
Given that helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, it can be extracted from
natural gas by liquefying nearly all the other elements in the mixture, at low temperature and
high pressure. The resulting crude helium gas is purified by successive exposures to low
temperatures, by which almost all the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of
the mixture. Activated charcoal is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995
percent pure helium. The principal impurity in such helium is neon.

Because of its low density, helium is the gas of choice to fill

airships such as this USGS blimp.
Helium is used for many purposes that take advantage of its

unique properties, such as its low boiling point, low density, low
solubility, high thermal conductivity, and inertness. A number of
these uses are listed below.
? As helium is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. In
airships, helium is preferred over hydrogen for it is not flammable and has 92.64 percent
of the lifting power of hydrogen.
? Given its inertness and low solubility in water, helium is a component of air mixtures
used in deep-sea breathing systems to reduce the high-pressure risk of nitrogen narcosis,
decompression sickness, and oxygen toxicity. For these breathing systems, helium may
be mixed with (a) oxygen and nitrogen ("Trimix"), (b) oxygen alone ("Heliox"), or (c)
hydrogen and oxygen ("Hydreliox").
? The extremely low melting and boiling points of helium make it ideal for use as a coolant
in magnetic resonance imaging, superconducting magnets, and cryogenics. Liquid helium
is used to produce superconductivity in some ordinary metals (such as lead), allowing for
completely free flow of electrons in the metal.
? Because helium is inert, it is used as a protective gas in growing silicon and germanium
crystals, in titanium and zirconium production, in gas chromatography, and in providing
an atmosphere suitable for protecting historical documents. Its inertness also makes it
useful in supersonic wind tunnels.
? Based on its inertness and high thermal conductivity, helium is used as a coolant in some
nuclear reactors (such as pebble-bed reactors) and in arc welding.
? In rocketry, helium is used as an ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage
tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge
fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to precool liquid
hydrogen in space vehicles.
? Because it diffuses through solids at a rate three times that of air, helium is useful for
detecting leaks in high-vacuum equipment and high-pressure containers.
å
The voice of a person who has inhaled helium temporarily sounds high-pitched, resembling those
of the cartoon characters = A
(although their voices were produced by
shifting the pitch of normal voices). This is because the speed of sound in helium is nearly three
times that in air. Although this effect may be amusing, it can be dangerous if done in excess,
because the helium displaces oxygen needed for normal respiration. Unconsciousness, brain
damage, and even asphyxiation followed by death may result in extreme cases. Also, typical
commercial helium may contain unhealthy contaminants. If helium is inhaled directly from
pressurized cylinders, the high flow rate can fatally rupture lung tissue.
Although neutral helium at standard conditions is nontoxic, a high-pressure mixture of helium

and oxygen (Heliox) can lead to high-pressure nervous syndrome. A small proportion of nitrogen
can alleviate the problem.
Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be treated as if they have liquid inside. This is due
to the rapid and large increases in pressure and volume that occur when helium gas at that
temperature is warmed to room temperature.

helium ĸ lithium ĺ beryllium

H
Ĺ

Ļ
Na periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number lithium, Li, 3
Chemical series alkali metals
Group, Period, Block 1, 2, s
silvery white/gray
Appearance

Electron configuration 1s2 2s1
Electrons per shell 2, 1
å
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 0.534 g/cm
Liquid density at m.p. 0.512 g/cm
453.69 K
Melting point
(180.54 °C, 356.97 °F)
1615 K
Boiling point
(1342 °C, 2448 °F)
(extrapolated)
Critical point
3223 K, 67 MPa
Heat of vaporization 147.1 kJ/mol
Heat capacity (25 °C) 24.860 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
å/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at /K 797 885 995 1144 1337 1610
=

Crystal structure cubic body centered
1
Oxidation states
(strongly basic oxide)
Electronegativity 0.98 (Pauling scale)
2nd: 7298.1 kJ/mol
3rd: 11815.0 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 145 pm
Atomic radius (calc.) 167 pm
Van der Waals radius 182 pm

Magnetic ordering nonmagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 92.8 nȍ·m

(chemical symbol , atomic Thermal conductivity (300 K) 84.8 W/(m·K)
number 3) is the lightest solid chemical
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 46 µm/(m·K)
element and a member of the group of
elements known as alkali metals. It is Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 °C) 6000 m/s
flammable, corrosive to the skin, and Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 4.9 m/s
readily reacts with water and air. Pure
Shear modulus 4.2 GPa
lithium is soft and silvery white in color,
but it tarnishes rapidly. It is one of only Bulk modulus 11 GPa
four elements theorized to have been Mohs hardness 0.6
created in the first three minutes of the
CAS registry number 7439-93-2
origin of the universe, through a process
called "Big Bang nucleosynthesis." Ñ
Main article: Isotopes of lithium
Lithium, its alloys, and compounds have a
wide range of applications. For instance,
Ñ= !" å

6
lithium is used in specialized rechargeable Li 7.5% Li is stable with 3 neutrons
batteries, alloys for aircraft parts, and 7
Li 92.5% Li is stable with 4 neutrons
appliances like toasters and microwave 6
Li content may be as low as 3.75% in
ovens. Lithium niobate is used in mobile
natural samples. 7Li would therefore
phones, lithium stearate is a high-
have a content of up to 96.25%.
temperature lubricant, lithium hydroxide is
an efficient air purifier, and lithium
chloride and bromide are used as
desiccants. In addition, lithium salts are used in mood-stabilizing drugs.

Toward the end of the 1700s, Brazilian scientist José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva discovered
the lithium-containing mineral petalite (LiAl(Si2O5)2) on a trip to Sweden. When Johan
Arfvedson analyzed a petalite ore in 1817, he discovered lithium. In 1818, Christian Gmelin was
the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color when held in a flame. Both
Arfvedson and Gmelin tried to isolate the element from its salts but failed.
The element was not isolated until William Thomas Brande and Sir Humphry Davy later
performed electrolysis on lithium oxide in 1818. Robert Bunsen and Matiessen isolated larger
quantities of the metal by electrolysis of lithium chloride in 1855. Commercial production of
lithium metal was achieved in 1923 by a German company (Metallgesellschaft), by the
electrolysis of molten lithium chloride and potassium chloride.
The name "lithium" (from the Greek U meaning "stone") was chosen apparently
because it was discovered from a mineral, while other common alkali metals were first
discovered from plant tissue.

The Earth's crust contains about 65 parts per million (ppm) of lithium. The element is widely
distributed in nature, but because of its reactivity, it is always found combined with other
elements.
Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II. The metal is separated
from other elements in igneous rocks, and is also extracted from the water of mineral springs.
Lepidolite, spodumene, petalite, and amblygonite are the more important minerals containing it.
In the United States, lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[1] Today, most commercial
lithium is recovered from brine sources in Argentina and Chile. The metal is produced by
electrolysis from a mixture of fused (molten) lithium chloride and potassium chloride. Chile is
currently the world's leading producer of pure lithium metal.
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Lithium pellets (covered in white lithium hydroxide)
Lithium leads the family of elements known as "alkali metals" in

group 1 of the periodic table. Two well-known elements in this
group are sodium and potassium. Lithium is also at the start of
period 2, located just before beryllium. The atomic number of
lithium is 3, which places it right after helium (atomic number 2). Thus lithium is the lightest
metallic element.
Like all other alkali metals, lithium has a single electron in its outermost shell, and it can readily
lose this electron to become a positive ion. For this reason, lithium readily reacts with water and
does not occur freely in nature. Nevertheless, it is less reactive than the chemically similar
sodium.
Lithium is soft enough to be cut with a knife, though this is significantly more difficult to do than
cutting sodium. The fresh metal has a silvery color, but it rapidly tarnishes to black in the air.
Lithium has only about half the density of water, because of which sticks of this metal have the
odd heft of a light wood such as balsa.
In its pure form, lithium is highly flammable and slightly explosive when exposed to water and
air. It is the only metal that reacts with nitrogen at room temperature. Lithium fires are difficult
to extinguish, requiring special chemicals designed to smother them. For these reasons, storage
of lithium in the laboratory involves placing sticks of the metal in jars of nonreactive, liquid
hydrocarbons. Given their low density, the sticks tend to float, so they need to be held down
mechanically by the lid of the jar and other sticks.
When placed over a flame, lithium gives off a striking crimson color, but when it burns strongly,
the flame becomes brilliant white. Lithium has a high specific heat capacity (3582 J/(kg·K)),
which means that a large amount of heat is required to raise the temperature of a unit mass (1
kilogram or 1 gram) of the substance by 1 kelvin. In addition, its liquid form has a great
temperature range. These properties make lithium a useful chemical.
In humans, lithium compounds play no natural biological role and are considered slightly toxic.
The metal is corrosive to the touch and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. By
contrast, lithium (in the ionic form) appears to be an essential trace element for goats and
possibly rats. When used as a drug, blood concentrations of Li+ must be carefully monitored.

Naturally occurring lithium is composed of 2 stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li, of which the latter is
the more abundant (92.5% natural abundance). In addition, seven radioisotopes have been
characterized. Among them, 8Li has a half-life of 838 milliseconds (ms), 9Li has a half-life of
178.3 ms, and the others have half-lives that are less than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of
lithium is 4Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.58043x10-23
seconds.
According to the "Big Bang" model of the origin of the universe, the nuclei of 7Li were among
the few types of atomic nuclei formed shortly after the Big Bang, during a phase called the "Big
Bang nucleosynthesis" ("nucleosynthesis" refers to the synthesis of atomic nuclei). It is thought
that the nuclei of hydrogen, helium, and beryllium atoms were also formed at that time.
=
Given that the specific heat capacity of lithium is higher than that of any other solid, lithium is
used in heat-transfer applications, such as in toasters and microwave ovens. It is also an
important material in rechargeable lithium ion batteries. Besides being lighter than the standard
dry cells, these batteries produce a higher voltage (3 volts versus 1.5 volts). Additional uses of
lithium, its alloys, and its compounds are as follows:
Manufacture of materials, parts, and commercial products
? Alloys of lithium with aluminum, cadmium, copper, and manganese are used to make
high-performance aircraft parts.
? Lithium is used as a flux to promote the fusing of metals during welding and soldering. It
also eliminates the formation of oxides during welding by absorbing impurities. This
fusing quality is also important as a flux for producing ceramics, enamels, and glass.
? Lithium niobate is used extensively in telecommunication products, such as mobile
phones and optical modulators.
? Lithium stearate is a common, all-purpose, high-temperature lubricant.
? Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is a strong base that, when heated with a fat, produces a
lithium soap. This soap has the ability to thicken oils and is used commercially to
manufacture lubricating greases.
Chemical uses
? Some lithium compounds, such as lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4), are used to
synthesize organic compounds.
? Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are extremely hygroscopic (that is, they readily
absorb moisture) and are frequently used as desiccants.
Medicine
? Lithium salts such as lithium carbonate, lithium citrate, and lithium orotate are mood
stabilizers used in the treatment of bipolar disorder (manic depression). Unlike most other
mood-altering drugs, they counteract both mania and depression. The active principle in
these salts is the lithium ion (Li+), which interacts with the normal functioning of the
sodium ion (Na+) to produce numerous changes in neurotransmitter activity in the brain.
? Lithium can also be used to augment other antidepressant drugs. For these treatments,
useful amounts of lithium are only slightly lower than toxic levels, so the blood levels of
lithium must be carefully monitored during such use.
Nuclear reactions
? Lithium is used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei. When 7Li is bombarded
by accelerated protons, an isotope of beryllium (8Be) is formed, which undergoes
spontaneous fission to form two alpha particles. This was the first manmade nuclear
reaction, produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1929.
? Lithium deuteride was the nuclear fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen
bomb. When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium (an isotope of
hydrogen). Tritium fuses with deuterium (another isotope of hydrogen) in a nuclear
fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium
apparently no longer plays a role in modern nuclear weapons, having been replaced
entirely for this purpose by elemental tritium, which is lighter and easier to handle than
lithium salts.
Miscellaneous
? Lithium hydroxide is an efficient and lightweight air purifier. In confined areas, such as
in spacecraft and submarines, carbon dioxide concentrations can approach unhealthy or
toxic levels. Lithium hydroxide absorbs the carbon dioxide from the air by reacting with
it to form lithium carbonate. (Any alkali hydroxide will absorb CO2, but lithium
hydroxide is preferred because of its low atomic weight.) Even better materials for this
purpose include lithium peroxide (Li2O2) and lithium superoxide (LiO2) because, in the
presence of moisture, they not only absorb carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate but
they also release oxygen.
? Lithium metal is used as a catalyst in some types of methamphetamine production,
particularly in illegal amateur "meth labs."

Consumption of lithium increased by 4-5 percent per year between 2002 and 2005, driven by the
demand in lithium secondary batteries. Batteries accounted for 20 percent of total consumption
in 2005, a rise from under 10 percent in 2000.
Continued expansion in the portable electronic products market and commercialization of hybrid
electric vehicles using lithium batteries suggest growth of up to 10 percent per year in lithium
carbonate consumption in this market through 2010.
Between 2002 and 2005, lithium minerals production rose by 7 percent per year to reach 18,800
tons lithium. Chile and Australia account for over 60 percent of total output. China may emerge
as a significant producer of brine-based lithium carbonate by 2010. Potential capacity of up to
45,000 tons per year could come on-stream if projects in Qinghai province and Tibet proceed [1].

Some jurisdictions limit the sale of lithium batteries, which are the most readily available source
of lithium metal for regular consumers. Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and
ephedrine to methamphetamine by the Birch reduction method, which employs alkali metals
dissolved in ammonia. The effectiveness of such restrictions in controlling the illegal production
of methamphetamine remains indeterminate and controversial.
Carriage and shipment of some types of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard aircraft,
because most types of lithium batteries can discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, leading
to overheating and possible explosion. Most consumer lithium batteries, however, have built-in
thermal overload protection to prevent this type of incident, or their design limits short-circuit
currents.
D

# lithium ĸ beryllium ĺ boron

-
Ĺ
D
Ļ
Mg periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number beryllium, Be, 4
Chemical series alkaline earth metals
white-gray metallic
Appearance

Electron configuration 1s2 2s2
å
Phase solid
1560 K
Melting point
(1287 °C, 2349 °F)
2742 K
Boiling point
(2469 °C, 4476 °F)
Heat of vaporization 297 kJ/mol
Vapor pressure
å/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at /K 1462 1608 1791 2023 2327 2742
=

Crystal structure hexagonal
2
Oxidation states
(amphoteric oxide)
(more) 2nd: 1757.1 kJ/mol
3rd: 14848.7 kJ/mol

Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 200 W/(m·K)
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 11.3 µm/(m·K)
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 12870 m/s
Shear modulus 132 GPa
D
(chemical symbol D, atomic Bulk modulus 130 GPa
number 4) ranks among the lightest of all
Poisson ratio 0.032
known metals. Steel-gray in color, it is
strong but brittle. It is classified as an Mohs hardness 5.5
alkaline earth metal, along with calcium Vickers hardness 1670 MPa
and magnesium. Precious forms of its
Brinell hardness 600 MPa
mineral beryl are aquamarine and emerald.
This metal, its alloys, and compounds are CAS registry number 7440-41-7
toxic and need to be handled with care. Ñ
One needs to especially avoid inhaling
their dust and vapors. Main article: Isotopes of beryllium
Ñ= !" å

Alloys of beryllium with copper or nickel İ - 7

Li
7
are strong and wear-resistant, and are Be syn 53.12 d
Ȗ 0.477 -
widely used in the manufacture of such
9
items as computer parts, gyroscopes, Be 100% Be is stable with 5 neutrons
electrodes, springs, and nonsparking tools. 10Be trace 1.51×106 y ȕ- 0.556 10
B
In addition, its alloys are useful as
lightweight structural materials for high-
speed aircraft, missiles, spacecraft, and
satellites. The nuclear power industry uses beryllium in nuclear reactors as a neutron reflector
and moderator. In X-ray lithography, beryllium is used for the reproduction of microscopic
integrated circuits. Beryllium oxide is useful for applications that require an excellent heat
conductor and electrical insulator, with a very high melting point and high strength and hardness.

Beryllium ore
Beryllium is a significant constituent of about 100 minerals. The

most important of these are beryl (Al2Be3Si6O18), bertrandite
(Be4Si2O7(OH)2), chrysoberyl (Al2BeO4), and phenakite
(Be2SiO4). Precious forms of beryl are aquamarine and emerald.
The main commercial sources of beryllium and its compounds are beryl and bertrandite.
Beryllium metal did not become readily available until 1957. Currently, the chief method of
production is by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium metal. The chemical reaction can
be written in terms of the following equation.
BeF2 + Mg ĺ MgF2 + Be

The name beryllium comes from the Greek word , for "beryl." That, in turn, can be
traced back to the Prakrit
, from Pāli
. These words appear akin to the Tamil

or , meaning "to whiten, become pale."[1] At one time, beryllium was referred to as

(from the Greek word , meaning "sweet"), based on the sweet taste of its salts.
Beryllium was discovered by Louis Vauquelin in 1798, as the oxide in beryl and emeralds. In
1828, Friedrich Wöhler and Antoine Bussy independently isolated the metal by reacting
potassium with beryllium chloride.

Ñ
Beryllium is a member of the family of alkaline earth metals and lies at the top of group two
(former group 2A) of the periodic table, just above magnesium. In addition, it is situated in
period two, between lithium and boron. Among the light metals, beryllium has one of the highest
melting points. Its modulus of elasticity (a measure of its elasticity) is approximately one-third
more than that of steel. It is nonmagnetic and an excellent conductor of heat. The speed of sound
in beryllium is about 12,500 meters per second²greater than that through any other element.
Highly permeable to X-rays, it liberates neutrons when struck by alpha particles.
Beryllium resists attack by concentrated nitric acid. In addition, at standard temperature and
pressure (0°C, 100 kPa), it resists oxidation when exposed to air. It appears, however, that its
ability to scratch glass may be due to the formation of a thin layer of its oxide.

Beryllium has ten isotopes, of which only 9Be is stable. The isotope 10Be is produced in the
atmosphere by the impact of cosmic rays on oxygen and nitrogen. This beryllium (being soluble
in water at pH below 5.5) readily dissolves in rainwater (which generally has a pH less than five)
and is transported to the Earth's surface. As this water quickly becomes more alkaline, 10Be drops
out of solution and accumulates at the soil surface. Given its half-life of 1.51 million years, 10Be
has a long residence time before it decays to 10B (an isotope of boron). The isotope 10Be and its
daughter products have therefore been used to examine soil erosion, soil formation from regolith,
and the development of lateritic soils. It has also been used to check variations in solar activity
and the age of ice cores.
The instability of the isotopes 7Be and 8Be has profound consequences for cosmological theory.
It means that elements heavier than beryllium could not have been produced by nuclear fusion at
the time of the Big Bang. Moreover, the nuclear energy levels of 8Be are such that carbon can be
produced within stars, thus making it possible for the eventual development of living organisms.
The shortest-lived isotope of beryllium is 13Be, which has a half-life of 2.7 × 10-21 seconds and
decays through neutron emission. The isotope 6Be also is also very short-lived, with a half-life of
5.0 × 10-21 seconds.
=
A square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case is

ready to be used as a window between a vacuum
chamber and an X-ray microscope. Beryllium filters
out visible light but is highly transparent to X-rays.
? Beryllium-copper alloys (containing about

two percent beryllium) are strong, hard, wear-
resistant, and good conductors of heat and
electricity. They are useful for gyroscopes, computer
parts, and instruments requiring such properties.
? The alloy with nickel (98 percent nickel, two
percent beryllium) is used in the manufacture of spot-welding electrodes, springs, and
nonsparking tools.
? In addition, beryllium alloys are used by the defense and aerospace industries in the
production of lightweight structural materials for high-speed aircraft, missiles, space
vehicles, and communication satellites.
? Thin sheets of beryllium foil are used with X-ray detection diagnostics, as the foil can
filter out visible light and allow only X-rays to pass through.
? In the field of X-ray lithography, beryllium is used for the reproduction of microscopic
integrated circuits.
? In the telecommunications industry, beryllium is made into tools that can be safely used
for tuning the highly magnetic klystrons (specialized vacuum tubes) employed in high-
power microwave transmissions.
? The nuclear power industry uses this metal in nuclear reactors as a neutron reflector and
moderator.
? Beryllium is used in nuclear weapons for similar reasons. For example, the critical mass
of a plutonium sphere is significantly reduced if the plutonium is surrounded by a
beryllium shell.
? Beryllium is sometimes used in neutron sources, in which the beryllium is mixed with an
alpha emitter such as 210Po, 226Ra, 239Pu, or 241Am.
? Beryllium is also used in making gyroscopes and various computer components, where
lightweight materials with rigidity and dimensional stability are needed.
? Beryllium is being used in the Joint European Torus fusion research facility, to condition
the plasma-facing components
? Beryllium oxide is useful for applications that require an excellent heat conductor and
electrical insulator, with a very high melting point and high strength and hardness.
c
Beryllium, its alloys, and its salts are toxic, and one should especially avoid inhaling their dust
and fumes. Exposure to these materials can lead to two types of conditions: acute beryllium
disease (acute berylliosis) and chronic beryllium disease (chronic berylliosis).[2] In addition,
long-term exposure can increase the risk of developing lung cancer.
An acute condition is that which develops after a short, heavy exposure and lasts for no more
than a year. Depending on the type of exposure, acute beryllium disease may involve
inflammation of the skin (contact dermatitis), nose and throat (nasopharyngitis), windpipe
(tracheobronchitis), or lungs (pneumonitis).
Chronic beryllium disease develops after prolonged (months or years) of exposure to beryllium.
The time lapse between first exposure and symptoms of the disease may be as much as ten to 15
years. The chronic disease affects mainly the lungs but its effects may also be seen in other
organs. The condition produces lesions and granulomas (tissue masses) mainly in the lungs, but
it may also affect other organs, such as the skin, liver, kidney, heart, bone, lymphatic system, and
nervous system. Symptoms of the chronic disease include coughing, chest pain, and breathing
difficulties.
Acute chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in
1943. Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants
manufacturing fluorescent lamps in Massachusetts, and the use of beryllium compounds in
fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949. The potential for exposure to beryllium
exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries, the refining of beryllium metal, melting of
beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacture of electronic devices, and the handling of other
beryllium-containing materials.
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness, to verify its
presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure, and
no attempt should be made to ingest this substance. Beryllium and its compounds should be
handled with great care, and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity
that may involve the release of beryllium dust. No attempt should be made to work with
beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures.
A successful test for beryllium on different surface areas has been recently developed. This
technique, in which beryllium is bound to a fluorescent chemical (sulfonated
hydroxybenzoquinoline), enables the detection of beryllium at concentrations up to ten times
below the recommended limit for the workplace.

Typical levels of beryllium that industries may release into the air are on the order of 0.01
micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m ), averaged over a 30-day period, or two µg/m of workroom
air for an eight-hour work shift. The current U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) permissible exposure limit for beryllium is two µg/m , but this figure has been
challenged as inadequate for protecting workers from developing beryllium sensitization and
CBD. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), an
independent organization of experts in the field of occupational health, has proposed a threshold
limit value (TLV) of 0.05 µg/m , in a 2006 Notice of Intended Change (NIC). As it can be
difficult to control industrial exposures to beryllium, it is advisable to use any methods possible
to reduce airborne and surface contamination by beryllium, to minimize the use of beryllium and
beryllium-containing alloys whenever possible, and to educate people about the potential hazards
if they are likely to encounter beryllium dust or fumes.
D
$ beryllium ĸ boron ĺ carbon

-
Ĺ
D
Ļ
Al periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number boron, B, 5
Chemical series metalloids
Group, Period, Block 13, 2, p
black/brown
Appearance
Atomic mass 10.811 (7) g/mol

Electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p1
å
Phase solid
2349 K
Melting point
(2076 °C, 3769 °F)
Boiling point 4200 K
D (chemical symbol ³B,´ atomic (3927 °C, 7101 °F)
number ³5´) is a chemical element that is
classified as a metalloid²its chemical
properties are intermediate between those Heat of vaporization 480 kJ/mol
of metals and nonmetals. It can take the Heat capacity (25 °C) 11.087 J/(mol·K)
form of a brown, amorphous powder or a
hard, black, crystalline material. The Vapor pressure
element is not found free in nature but å/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
occurs abundantly in the ore borax. at /K 2348 2562 2822 3141 3545 4072
Elemental boron is used as a dopant in the =

semiconductor industry and as a material Crystal structure rhombohedral
that produces a green flame in pyrotechnic
3
flares. Boron filaments are useful for Oxidation states
(mildly acidic oxide)
making composites for advanced aerospace
structures, golf clubs, and fishing rods. Electronegativity 2.04 (Pauling scale)
Boric acid is used in textiles and Ionization energies 1st: 800.6 kJ/mol
insecticides, and borates are used in (more) 2nd: 2427.1 kJ/mol
making insulating fiberglass, laundry
detergents, antiseptics, adhesives, and a 3rd: 3659.7 kJ/mol
variety of other products. The isotope Atomic radius 85 pm
boron-10 is used to control reactions in Atomic radius (calc.) 87 pm
nuclear reactors and as a shield against
radiation from radioactive materials. Covalent radius 82 pm

Boron is an essential plant nutrient, but its Magnetic ordering nonmagnetic
physiological role (if any) in humans and
animals is poorly understood. The element Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 1.5×104 ȍ·m
is nontoxic to humans, and common Thermal conductivity (300 K) 27.4 W/(m·K)
compounds (such as boric acid and Thermal expansion (25 °C) 5±7 µm/(m·K)
borates) have low toxicity, but some
specialized boron hydrogen compounds are Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 °C) 16200 m/s
toxic and highly flammable. Bulk modulus (ȕ form) 185 GPa
Mohs hardness 9.3
Vickers hardness 49000 MPa
In nature, boron does not appear in
elemental form but is found combined in Ñ
borax, boric acid, colemanite, kernite Main article: Isotopes of boron
(rasorite), ulexite, and borates. Boric acid
is sometimes found in volcanic spring Ñ= !" å

10
waters. Also, a boron-containing natural B 19.9%* B is stable with 5 neutrons
antibiotic named boromycin has been 11
B 80.1%* B is stable with 6 neutrons
isolated from .[1][2]
*Boron-10 content may be as low as 19.1% and as
high as 20.3% in natural samples. Boron-11 is
the remainder in such cases.

Borax crystals.
Economically important sources of boron are kernite and borax ores, both of which are found in
the Mojave Desert of California, with borax being the main source there. Extensive borax
deposits are also found in Turkey. The United States and Turkey are the world's largest
producers of boron.
c
Compounds of boron have been known for thousands of years. The name can be traced to
the Arabic
ë, Persian
, and Turkish , which are words for borax. In early Egypt, the
process of mummification depended on an ore known as natron, which contained borates as well
as some other common salts. Borax glazes were used in China from 300 C.E., and boron
compounds were used in glassmaking in ancient Rome.
The element was first isolated in 1808 by the English chemist Sir Humphry Davy and
independently by French chemists Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard. By
reducing boric acid (H3BO3 or B(OH)3) with sodium or magnesium, they obtained boron at about
50 percent purity. It was not until 1824, however, that boron was recognized as a chemical
element by Jöns Jakob Berzelius. It is generally thought that the first pure boron was produced
by American chemist W. Weintraub in 1909, but some researchers have cast doubt on the
accuracy of that claim.[3]
Pure, elemental boron is not easy to prepare. When boric acid is melted, it is converted to boron
oxide (B2O3), which can then be reduced with a metal such as magnesium or aluminum. The
boron produced, however, is almost always contaminated with the metal boride. Pure boron can
be prepared by reducing volatile boron halogenides with hydrogen at high temperatures. Highly
pure boron, for use in the semiconductor industry, is produced by the high-temperature
decomposition of diborane (B2H6), followed by what is called the Czochralski process.
Ñ
In the periodic table, boron is situated at the top of group 13 (former group 3A), just above
aluminum, and in period 2, between beryllium and carbon. It is classified as a metalloid.
Boron exists in different allotropic forms. Amorphous boron is a brown powder and is produced
by certain chemical reactions. It contains boron atoms randomly bonded to one another, without
long-range order. By contrast, crystalline (metallic) boron is black in color and extremely hard
(9.3 on Mohs' scale). It has a high melting point and exists in many polymorphs²forms of boron
that differ in their crystal lattice structure.
The best characterized crystalline forms are: two rhombohedral forms, Į-boron and ȕ-boron,
containing 12 and 106.7 atoms in each rhombohedral unit cell, respectively; and a tetragonal, 50-
atom form. These forms are somewhat analogous to diamond crystals, but unlike diamond, boron
has various possible structures because each boron atom can form three bonds, forcing the atoms
to be asymmetrically bonded in three-dimensional space.
Crystalline boron can transmit infrared light. At standard temperatures, it is a poor conductor of
electricity, but it becomes is a good conductor at high temperatures.
Boron is similar to carbon in terms of being able to form stable, covalently bonded molecular
networks. On the other hand, each boron atom has one less electron than a carbon atom, and
boron behaves as an electrophile²it seeks to form a covalent bond with an element that can
provide a pair of electrons to form the bond. The reactions of boron are dominated by this
requirement for electrons. Based on this property, boron is called a Lewis acid.

There are 13 known isotopes of boron. Two stable isotopes occur in nature: 11B (about 80
percent) and 10B (about 20 percent). Also, 11B is a by-product of the nuclear power industry. The
shortest-lived isotope is 7B which has a half-life of 3.26500x10-22 seconds and decays through
proton emission and alpha decay.
The 10B isotope is good at capturing thermal neutrons, such as from cosmic rays. It then
undergoes nuclear fission, producing a gamma ray, an alpha particle, and a lithium ion. When
this happens within an integrated circuit, the fission products may dump charge into nearby chip
structures, resulting in data loss. To avoid this effect in critical semiconductor designs, "depleted
boron" (consisting almost entirely of 11B) is used.
D
Boron nitride is a material in which the extra electron of the nitrogen atom (compared to a
carbon atom) in some ways compensates for the boron atom's deficiency of an electron
(compared to carbon). Boron nitride can be used to make crystals that are extremely hard²
second in hardness only to diamond. Also, like diamond, boron nitride acts as an electrical
insulator, but it is an excellent conductor of heat.
Like carbon, boron nitride exists in a second form that has structural and lubricating qualities
similar to those of graphite. Like graphite, this form of boron nitride is composed of layers of
fused hexagonal sheets. Yet, unlike graphite, these sheets are "in registry." This means that the
layers are placed directly above one another, such that a viewer looking down onto the structure
would view only the top layer. The polar B-N bonds interfere with electron transfer, so that
boron nitride in this form is not an electrical conductor. (By contrast, graphite conducts
electricity through a network of pi bonds in the plane of its hexagonal sheets.)
Boron nitride nanotubes can be constructed in a form analogous to carbon nanotubes.
=
There are several hundred uses of boron and its compounds. Some of the notable ones are
highlighted below.
? Amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares, to produce a distinctive green flame.

? In trace amounts, boron is used as a dopant for P-type semiconductors.
? Sodium borate pentahydrate (Na2B4O7 5H2O) is used in large amounts in making
insulating fiberglass and sodium perborate bleach.
? Sodium borate decahydrate (Na2B4O7 10H2O, or borax) is used in laundry detergents,
antiseptics, adhesives, and anti-corrosion systems, among others.
? Boric acid (or orthoboric acid, H3BO3)is an important compound used in textile products.
When applied to cotton fibers, it acts as a nontoxic flame retardant. [1]
? Boric acid is also traditionally used as an insecticide, notably against ants and
cockroaches.
? As boron is an essential plant micronutrient, borates are used in agriculture.
? Compounds of boron are used extensively in organic chemical syntheses. For example,
sodium borohydride (NaBH4) is used for converting aldehydes and ketones to alcohols.
? Some compounds of boron are used in the manufacture of borosilicate and
borophosphosilicate glasses.
? Other compounds are used as wood preservatives, and are particularly attractive in this
regard because they have low toxicity.
? Given the ability of 10B to capture thermal neutrons, this isotope is used to control
reactions in nuclear reactors, as a shield against radiation and in neutron detection.
? Purified 11B ("depleted boron," separated from 10B) is used for borosilicate glasses in
"rad-hard" (radiation hardened) electronics.
? Sodium borohydride (NaBH4) is a popular chemical reducing agent. For example, it is
used for converting aldehydes and ketones to alcohols.
? Boron filaments are high-strength, lightweight materials that are chiefly used in
composites for advanced aerospace structures. They are also used in such items as golf
clubs and fishing rods.
å
? Boron compounds are being investigated for use in a broad range of applications,
including as components in sugar-permeable membranes, carbohydrate sensors, and
bioconjugates.
? Some boron compounds show promise in medicine, for drug delivery and treating
arthritis.
? A medical application being investigated is neutron capture therapy for treating tumors. If
a compound containing 10B is attached to a tumor and the tissue is exposed to a low dose
of thermal neutrons, the 10B absorbs neutrons and releases short-range alpha radiation.
This radiation kills the tumor cells.
? Hydrides of boron are oxidized easily and liberate a considerable amount of energy. They
have therefore been studied for use as possible rocket fuels, along with elemental boron.
However, issues of cost, incomplete combustion, and boric oxide deposits have so far
made this use infeasible.
D
Boron occurs in all foods produced by plants. Its nutritional value has been argued since at least
1989. The U.S. Department of Agriculture conducted an experiment in which postmenopausal
women took three milligrams of boron a day. The results showed that boron can drop excretion
of calcium by 44 percent, and activate estrogen and vitamin D.
å
Elemental boron is nontoxic and common boron compounds such as borates and boric acid have
low toxicity (approximately similar to table salt, with the lethal dose being two to three grams
per kilogram) and therefore do not require special precautions while handling. Some of the more
exotic boron hydrogen compounds, however, toxic as well as highly flammable and do
require special handling care.

(chemical symbol ; atomic number 6) is a remarkable chemical element that plays a
vital role in the structures and processes of the living and nonliving worlds. Without it, our
physical existence and that of other organisms would not be possible. Its different forms include
graphite, one of the softest substances, and diamond, the hardest naturally occurring material.
Carbon is known to be part of a huge variety of compounds, including some that occur in the
Sun, stars, and planetary atmospheres. We use carbon compounds for fuel and the synthesis of a
wide range of materials such as plastics, paints, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. Researchers are
now investigating the uses of new forms of carbon, known as fullerenes, leading to the
developing field of nanotechnology.
The careless disposal of paints, plastics, and other carbon-containing materials has polluted the
environment, and the misuse of drugs has caused needless suffering and pain. Such practices are
symptomatic of an inadequate understanding of the values and principles of the natural world.
While efforts are now being made to clean up the environment and combat drug abuse, humanity
needs to restore its sense of values as well,
to prevent these problems from recurring.
boron ĸ carbon ĺ nitrogen
-
Ĺ

Ļ
Si periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number carbon, C, 6
Chemical series nonmetals
black (graphite)
colorless (diamond)
Appearance

å
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) (graphite) 2.267 g/cm
Density (near r.t.) (diamond) 3.513 g/cm
? triple point, ca. 10 MPa
Melting point and (4300±4700) K
(? °C, ? °F)
subl. ? ca. 4000 K
Boiling point
(? °C, ? °F)
Heat of fusion (graphite) ? 100 kJ/mol
Heat of fusion (diamond) ? 120 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization ? 355.8 kJ/mol
(25 °C) (graphite)
Heat capacity
8.517 J/(mol·K)
(25 °C) (diamond)
Heat capacity
6.115 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure (graphite)
å/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at /K 2839 3048 3289 3572 3908
=

#, 2
Oxidation states
(mildly acidic oxide)
Carbon is an abundant nonmetal that has (more) 2nd: 2352.6 kJ/mol
been known since prehistory. Early peoples
produced it in the form of charcoal by 3rd: 4620.5 kJ/mol
burning organic material (such as wood) in Atomic radius 70 pm
insufficient oxygen. Atomic radius (calc.) 67 pm
The name carbon comes from the French Covalent radius 77 pm
word which in turn is derived Van der Waals radius 170 pm
from the Latin meaning charcoal. In
German and Dutch, the names for carbon
are and respectively, Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
both of which literally mean "coal-stuff." (300 K) (graphite)
Thermal conductivity
(119±165) W/(m·K)
Pure carbon can occur in a variety of forms (300 K) (diamond)
known as , such as graphite and Thermal conductivity
(900±2320) W/(m·K)
diamond. In addition, carbon can bind to
itself and various other elements to form (300 K) (diamond)
Thermal diffusivity
compounds. (503±1300) mm /s
Mohs hardness (graphite) 0.5
On Earth, carbon and its compounds are Mohs hardness (diamond) 10.0
widely dispersed in the air, water, and land.
They are also present in the Sun and stars,
and it is thought that carbon atoms were Ñ
first formed by nuclear reactions² Main article: Isotopes of carbon
particularly, the collision of three alpha
particles (helium nuclei)²in the interior of Ñ= !" å

12
stars. Moreover, carbon is found in comets C 98.9% C is stable with 6 neutrons
and in the atmospheres of most planets in 13
C 1.1% C is stable with 7 neutrons
the solar system. Some meteorites contain 14
microscopic diamonds that may have been C trace 5730 y beta- 0.156 14
N
created when the solar system was in its
formative stages.
In the United States, graphite is found in large quantities in New York and Texas. It is also
abundant in Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India.
Natural diamonds occur in the mineral kimberlite found in ancient volcanic or Most
diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the
Congo and Sierra Leone. Other deposits have been found in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian
Arctic, Brazil, and Northern and Western Australia.
Additional allotropic forms of carbon, classified as fullerenes, were discovered as byproducts of

molecular beam experiments in the 1980s.
Ñ
The chemical symbol for carbon is , and its atomic number (the number of protons in the
nucleus of each atom) is 6. Each carbon atom is capable of forming strong chemical bonds,
called with up to four other atoms. Carbon is therefore said to be
Carbon has the highest melting/sublimation point of all elements. If heated at atmospheric
pressure, carbon does not melt but sublimates (the solid form vaporizes) above 4000 K. Thus,
carbon remains a solid at higher temperatures than metals with the highest melting points,
including tungsten and rhenium.
Carbon that has exceptionally high surface area is known as or
It is produced by treating charcoal (or other carbon-rich materials) with certain acids or
gases at high temperature. It can adsorb (absorb on its surface) various materials, and is therefore
useful for removing pollutants from water and air.

Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes: carbon-12 (12C) and carbon-13 (13C), at
relative abundances of approximately 98.9 percent and 1.1 percent, respectively. In 1961, the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis
for atomic weights.
One naturally occurring radioisotope, carbon-14 (14C), has a half-life of about 5,730 years.
Twelve other radioisotopes have been produced artificially. Of these, the shortest lived is 8C,
which has a half-life of about 1.987x10-21 seconds.
=
The unit cell of a diamond crystal. Each carbon atom (sphere) is bonded to four others.
Basic phase diagram of carbon, which shows

the state of matter for varying temperatures and
pressures. The hatched regions indicate
conditions under which one phase is metastable,
so that two phases can coexist.
Carbon can exist in different structural states

known as Two well-known
allotropes are graphite, one of the softest
substances, and diamond, the hardest naturally
occurring mineral.
Graphite has a crystalline structure in which the carbon atoms are arranged in layers of flat
sheets. Each sheet consists of a network of hexagonal (six-membered) rings in which each
carbon atom is bonded to three other atoms. While each sheet is exceptionally stable, it interacts
loosely with adjacent sheets so that they can readily slide past one another.
Diamond, which is formed in the Earth at very high pressures, adopts a different crystalline
structure. Each carbon atom is bonded to four others, which together form a tetrahedral shape
surrounding the central carbon. The overall structure is a three-dimensional network of puckered
six-membered rings of carbon atoms. In this manner, each diamond crystal regardless of size can
be thought of as a single molecule of carbon atoms. At room temperature, a diamond crystal
undergoes an extremely slow transition to graphite.
Diamond and graphite have certain diametrically opposite features. Diamond is transparent and
hard; it acts as an excellent electrical insulator, and can be used as an abrasive. By contrast,
graphite is opaque and soft. It conducts electricity, and is a good lubricant. Diamond crystallizes
in the cubic system but graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.
Carbon that lacks an overall crystalline structure is known as amorphous carbon. Although it is
possible to produce carbon that is entirely amorphous (non-crystalline), material that is described
as amorphous usually includes small crystals of graphite or diamond. Amorphous carbon is the
main constituent of charcoal, soot (lampblack or carbon black), and activated carbon.
In addition, several exotic allotropes have been synthesized or discovered, including fullerenes,
carbon nanotubes, lonsdaleite, carbon nanofoam, and aggregated diamond nanorods. The carbon
atoms in these allotropes have different structural arrangements.
Fullerene C540. A lattice of five- and six-membered

rings of carbon atoms, forming an overall spherical
shape.
A fullerene is composed of a sheet of carbon atoms

linked together in hexagonal and pentagonal rings to
take the overall form of a hollow sphere or ellipsoid. A
spherical fullerene is also called a
The most
well-known buckyball is Buckminsterfullerene
(containing 60 carbon atoms per sphere), named after
Richard Buckminster Fuller, the architect who
developed the geodesic dome.
A carbon nanotube likewise consists of a sheet of carbon atoms linked in hexagonal and
pentagonal rings, but the overall shape is that of a hollow cylinder. Sometimes called a

it is classified as part of the fullerene family of carbon compounds.
Lonsdaleite is thought to form when meteoric graphite falls to Earth. The impact's heat and stress
transform the graphite into a structure similar to diamond, but graphite's hexagonal crystal lattice
is retained. Also known as lonsdaleite is transparent and brownish yellow in
color.
Carbon nanofoam was unexpectedly produced by scientists in Australia in 1997*. It consists of

low-density clusters of carbon atoms that are bonded in six- and seven-membered rings.
Surprisingly, the material is attracted to magnets and can be magnetized at temperatures below -
183°C.
Aggregated diamond nanorods (ADNRs) are denser and harder than diamond, and they appear to
be the least compressible material known to humankind. They were produced in 2005* by
physicists in Germany who compressed carbon-60 molecules under a pressure of 20 GPa while
heating the material to 2500 K.

Each carbon atom can form covalent bonds with other carbon atoms and various other
elements²most commonly with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine. By doing so, carbon
forms stable compounds that consist of linear and branched chains and ring-shaped molecules.
Scientists are aware of nearly 10 million carbon compounds, and new ones are synthesized
regularly. Carbon compounds constitute the vast majority of all known chemical compounds.
Most compounds of carbon are classified as
which form the basis for the
field of organic chemistry.
When combined with only hydrogen, carbon forms a variety of hydrocarbons, including
methane, propane, butane, benzene, and naphthalene. Natural sources of hydrocarbons are coal,
petroleum, and natural gas.
When bound to oxygen alone, carbon forms carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and
the uncommon carbon suboxide, C3O2. Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is essential for
plants to perform photosynthesis, and, as a greenhouse gas, it helps retain heat from the Sun and
keep our planet warm enough to sustain life. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and
highly poisonous gas formed by incomplete combustion.
When attached to both oxygen and hydrogen, carbon forms various types of compounds,
including those classified as alcohols, esters, aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids.
Thousands of carbon compounds²including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids²

are produced in and used by living systems. Other compounds²particularly the carbonates of
metals such as calcium, magnesium, and iron²are major components of rocks, including
limestone, dolomite, and marble.
In exceptional cases, carbon takes the form of an anion. With reactive metals such as tungsten,
carbon forms either carbides (C-) or acetylides (C22-) to form materials with very high melting
points. On the other hand, some carbides, such as carborundum (SiC), are lattices held together
by covalent bonds.
=
Exquisitely cut diamonds are ready to be used in

jewelry.
Carbon and its compounds play significant roles in both

natural and artificial systems. The structures and
functions of all known living organisms are vitally
dependent on carbon compounds. Some of the human
uses of carbon and its compounds are listed below.
? Diamonds, being rare and attractive, have long been used in jewelry. Given their extreme
hardness, they are also useful for drill bits and other industrial applications.
? Graphite is combined with clays to form the 'lead' used in pencils.
? In the porous, caked form known as charcoal, carbon is used for cooking and artwork.
? Carbon is added to iron to make steel.
? Carbon is used as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors.
? Activated carbon is used in removing pollutants from the air and water streams, both in
nature and in industrial processes. It is also used in medicine to absorb toxins or poisons
from the digestive system.
? The isotope carbon-14 is used extensively for radioactive dating of carbon-containing
materials.
? Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes have many potential uses in the nascent field of
nanotechnology. Nanoparticles, however, might be toxic.
? Natural gas and petroleum (or crude oil), composed mainly of hydrocarbons, are
important sources of fuel.
? Various materials derived from petroleum are used in synthesizing new substances such
as plastics.

å
Carbon and its compounds are usually safe materials, but there are some exceptions. For
instance, inhalation of fine soot in large quantities can be dangerous. Also, carbon may catch fire
at very high temperatures and burn vigorously. Some carbon compounds, such as carbon
monoxide and cyanides (CN-), are lethally poisonous.

Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how much carbon is stored in various
reservoirs, in billions of tons ("GtC" stands for GigaTons of Carbon). The blue numbers indicate
how much carbon moves between reservoirs each year.
The paths that carbon follows in the environment are collectively called the It is
usually thought of as the processes of exchange of carbon involving four reservoirs: the Earth's
atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere (including freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments
(including fossil fuels). The carbon exchanges between reservoirs are the result of various
chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes.
The is the balance of exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon between
the carbon reservoirs or within one specific loop of the carbon cycle. The carbon budget of a
reservoir can provide information, for example, about whether the reservoir is functioning as a
source or sink for carbon dioxide.
%
Several non-biological processes are involved in the exchange of carbon between reservoirs.
Some of these processes are as follows.
? Deposits of limestone and marble are composed mainly of calcium carbonate. As these
rocks are eroded by water (especially acidic water), the calcium carbonate is broken
down to form, among other things, carbon dioxide and carbonic acid.
? When limestone is heated to produce cement and lime (calcium oxide), a substantial
amount of carbon dioxide is generated.
? At the surface of the oceans near the poles, the water becomes cooler and dissolves
carbon dioxide from the air.
? At the surface of the oceans, in areas where the water becomes warmer, dissolved carbon
dioxide is released back into the atmosphere.
? Volcanic eruptions release various gases into the atmosphere, including water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.
? Burning fossil fuels²such as coal, petroleum products, and natural gas²releases carbon
dioxide and carbon particles into the air.
%
Living organisms play an important role in the carbon cycle, as outlined below.
? Certain organisms, called autotrophs, produce organic compounds using carbon dioxide
from the air or water in the presence of an external source of energy. Most often, the
source of energy is solar radiation, and the process is called photosynthesis; but a small
number of autotrophs exploit chemical energy sources, and the process is called
chemosynthesis. The main autotrophs involved in the carbon cycle are trees on land and
phytoplankton in the oceans.
? Many organisms, called heterotrophs, feed on other organisms or their parts (such as
fruits). Examples of heterotrophs are animals that feed on plants and other animals. Other
heterotrophs are fungi and bacteria, which take up dead organic material (detritus) for
fermentation or decay processes.
? Most carbon leaves the terrestrial biosphere through respiration. In the presence of
oxygen, aerobic respiration releases carbon dioxide; in the absence of oxygen, anaerobic
respiration releases methane. These gases eventually make their way into the air or water.
? Carbon may also leave the terrestrial biosphere when dead organic matter (such as peat)
becomes incorporated in the geosphere. In particular, animal shells (made of calcium
carbonate) may eventually become limestone through the process of sedimentation.
Ñ
& carbon ĸ nitrogen ĺ oxygen

-
Ĺ
Ñ
Ļ
P periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number nitrogen, N, 7
Appearance colorless
å
Phase gas
(0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
Density
1.251 g/L
63.15 K
Melting point
(-210.00 °C, -346.00 °F)
77.36 K
Boiling point
(-195.79 °C, -320.42 °F)
Heat of fusion (N2) 0.720 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization (N2) 5.57 kJ/mol
(25 °C) (N2)
Heat capacity
29.124 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
å/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at /K 37 41 46 53 62 77
=

, 5, 4, 2
Oxidation states
(strongly acidic oxide)
(more) 2nd: 2856 kJ/mol
3rd: 4578.1 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 65 pm

Magnetic ordering no data
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 25.83 mW/(m·K)
Speed of sound (gas, 27 °C) 353 m/s
Ñ
Main article: Isotopes of nitrogen
Ñ= !" å

13 13
N syn 9.965 m _ 2.220 C
14
N 99.634 percent N is stable with 7 neutrons
Ñ (symbol Ñ, atomic number 7) is 15
N 0.366 percent N is stable with 8 neutrons
the chief constituent of the Earth's
atmosphere and a vital element in all
known forms of life. At ordinary
temperatures and pressures, free nitrogen (unbound to any other element) is a colorless, odorless,
and tasteless gas. As an inert gas, it reduces the amount of oxygen available for the oxidation of
natural materials, thus restricting spontaneous combustion of flammable materials and the
corrosion of metals. It also protects living organisms from the toxic effects of breathing pure (or
highly concentrated) oxygen. The Earth's nitrogen continually cycles through the atmosphere,
biosphere, and lithosphere, effected by such processes as nitrogen fixation by bacteria, metabolic
processing in living things, and decomposition of dead organic matter.
In living organisms, nitrogen atoms are part of the molecular structures of such key substances as
amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. In industry, nitrogen gas is used as an inert replacement
for air in the packaging of foods and the manufacture of steel and electronic components. Liquid
nitrogen is a cryogen (low-temperature refrigerant) used for freezing and transport of food and
other perishable products. Ammonia, a significant compound of nitrogen, is useful for fertilizers
and for the synthesis of nitric acid and other valuable compounds. Nitric acid is an oxidizing
agent used in liquid-fueled rockets, potassium nitrate is used in gunpowder, and trinitrotoluene
(TNT) is a significant explosive. In addition, nitrogen is a constituent element in every major
class of drugs.

Nitrogen makes up 78.084 percent of the volume (and 75.5 percent of the mass) of air. Its most
common isotope, nitrogen-14 (14N), appears to be created through nuclear fusion processes in
stars.
Compounds that contain this element have been observed by astronomers, and molecular
nitrogen has been detected in interstellar space by David Knauth and coworkers using the Far
Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer. Molecular nitrogen occurs in trace amounts in the
atmospheres of various planets, but it is a major constituent of Titan, the planet Saturn's largest
moon.
Nitrogen is present in all living organisms, as part of the molecular structures of proteins, nucleic
acids, and other important substances. It is a large component of animal waste, usually in the
form of urea, uric acid, and their derivatives.

Nitrogen (Latin
, Greek meaning "native soda"; meaning "forming") is
formally considered to have been discovered in 1772 by the chemist Daniel Rutherford, who
knew that there was a fraction of air that did not support combustion. He called it "noxious air"
or "fixed air." Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry
Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as "burnt air" or "phlogisticated air."
Nitrogen gas was inert (unreactive) enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as "azote," from
the Greek word ĮȗȦĲȠȢ meaning "lifeless." It was the principle component of air in which
animals had suffocated and flames had burned to extinction. This term became the French word
for nitrogen and later spread to many other languages.
The alchemists of the Middle Ages experimented with various compounds of nitrogen. For
instance, they knew nitric acid as ë
(strong water). The mixture of nitric acid and
hydrochloric acid was called ë
(royal water), celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold
(the "king" of metals). In the earliest industrial and agricultural applications of nitrogen
compounds, saltpeter (sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate) was used in gunpowder, much later as
fertilizer, and later still as a chemical feedstock.
Ñ
A computer rendering of the nitrogen molecule, N2
Nitrogen is a chemical element in the periodic table, situated at the

head of group 15 (former group 5A), just above phosphorus. In
addition, it lies in period 2, flanked by carbon and oxygen. Classified as
a nonmetal, it has an electronegativity of 3.0. Each atom of nitrogen
has five electrons in its outer shell, and it forms three covalent bonds in most compounds.
Nitrogen gas consists of diatomic molecules, each of which has the chemical formula N2. The
two nitrogen atoms in each molecule are attached to each other by a strong, triple covalent bond.
For this reason, nitrogen gas is extremely stable and inert.
The gas condenses to the liquid form at 77 Kelvin (K) at atmospheric pressure and freezes at 63
K. Liquid nitrogen is a common cryogen (an extremely low-temperature refrigerant) that can
cause instant frostbite on direct contact with living tissue.

There are two stable isotopes of nitrogen: 14N and 15N. By far the most common is 14N (99.634
percent), which is thought to be produced in stars by a set of nuclear fusion reactions called the
"carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle" (CNO cycle). Of the 10 isotopes produced synthetically, 13N has
a half life of nine minutes, and the remaining isotopes have half lives on the order of seconds or
less. In the Earth's atmosphere, 0.73 percent of molecular nitrogen consists of 14N15N, and almost
all the rest is 14N2.
D
Nitrogen is an essential element in the molecules of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, and
other substances vital to life. Specific bacteria (such as those of the genus * h
) possess
certain enzymes ("nitrogenases") that can fix atmospheric nitrogen (see nitrogen fixation) into a
form (ammonium ion) that is chemically useful for higher organisms. This process requires a
large amount of energy and anoxic (oxygen-free) conditions. Usually, these bacteria exist in a
symbiotic relationship in the root nodules of leguminous plants such as clover or the soya bean
plant. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria can also be symbiotic with other plant species, such as alders,
lichens, casuarina, myrica, liverwort, and gunnera.
As part of the symbiotic relationship, the plant converts the ammonium ions to nitrogen oxides
and amino acids to form proteins and other biologically useful molecules, such as alkaloids. In
return, the plant secretes sugars that the bacteria can use.
Some plants can assimilate nitrogen directly in the form of nitrates, which may be present in the
soil from natural mineral deposits, artificial fertilizers, animal waste, or organic decay (as the
product of bacteria that are not specifically associated with the plant). Nitrates absorbed in this
fashion are converted to nitrites by the enzyme nitrate reductase, and then converted to ammonia
by another enzyme called nitrite reductase.
Nitrogen compounds are basic building blocks in animal biology. Animals use nitrogen-
containing amino acids from plant sources as starting materials for all nitrogen-compound animal
biochemistry, including the manufacture of proteins and nucleic acids. Many saltwater fish
manufacture large amounts of trimethylamine oxide to protect them from the high osmotic
effects of their environment. In animals, nitric oxide (NO) is derived from an amino acid and
serves as an important regulatory molecule for circulation.
Animal metabolism of nitrogen in proteins generally results in the excretion of urea, while
animal metabolism of nucleic acids results in the excretion of urea and uric acid. The
characteristic odor of animal flesh decay is caused by nitrogen-containing long-chain amines,
such as putrescene and cadaverine. The decay of organisms and their waste products may
produce small amounts of nitrate, but most decay processes eventually return nitrogen content to
the atmosphere, as molecular nitrogen.

Nitrogen is produced industrially in large quantities by a method known as the
of liquefied air. Isolated in the liquid form, this nitrogen is often referred to by the
quasi-formula LN2, but it is more accurately written as N2( ). Technologies that isolate nitrogen
from gaseous air include methods known as
and
. In addition, commercial nitrogen is often obtained as a byproduct of air processing
during the industrial concentration of oxygen for steelmaking and other purposes. The formula
for gaseous nitrogen is N2().
=

Nitrogen gas has a wide variety of applications, including serving as an inert replacement for air
where oxidation is undesirable. Some examples are as follows.
? It helps preserve the freshness of packaged or bulk foods by delaying the onset of
rancidity and other forms of oxidative damage.
? It is placed on top of liquid explosives for safety.
? It is used in the manufacture of electronic parts such as transistors, diodes, and integrated
circuits.
A tank of liquid nitrogen that supplies a cryogenic freezer (for storing

laboratory samples at a temperature of about -150 °C)
? Dried and pressurized nitrogen is used as a dielectric gas for

high-voltage equipment.
? It is used in the manufacture of stainless steel.
? Given its inertness and lack of moisture (as opposed to air),
nitrogen gas is used to fill race-car and aircraft tires, though this is not
necessary for consumer automobiles.[1][2]
When appropriately insulated from ambient heat, liquid nitrogen serves

as a compact, readily transportable source of nitrogen gas without
pressurization. Furthermore, its ability to maintain temperatures far
below the freezing point of water as it boils at (77 K, -196 °C or -320
°F) makes it extremely useful in a wide range of applications as an open-cycle refrigerant. Some
uses of liquid nitrogen include:
? The immersion freezing and transportation of food products.

? The cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells (sperm and egg), and other biological
samples and materials.
? The cryonic preservation of humans and pets in the hope of future revival with molecular
repair technology.
? The study of cryogenics.
? Demonstrations in science education.
? As a coolant, it is used for highly sensitive sensors and low-noise amplifiers.
? In dermatology, it is used for removing unsightly or potentially malignant skin lesions
such as warts and actinic keratosis.
? It is a cooling medium during machining of high strength materials.
? It is a supplement for cooling computer hardware such as a central processing unit or a
graphics processing unit.

Nitrogen forms part of various inorganic compounds, some of which are noted below.
: The main neutral hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH3), although hydrazine (N2H4)
is also common. Ammonia is a chemical base² more basic than water by 6 orders of magnitude.
In solution, ammonia combines with protons (H+ ions) to form ammonium ions (NH4+). Liquid
ammonia (boiling point 240 K) is "amphiprotic"²that is, it can behave as an acid as well as a
base. As an acid, it donates a proton (H+) to another molecule to form the amide ion (NH2í); as a
base, it receives a proton (H+) from another molecule to form the ammonium ion (NH4+).
=
: An inorganic amide is a compound in which a metal cation is combined with the amide
anion (NH2-) mentioned above. An example is sodium amide (NaNH2). An inorganic amide is an
extremely strong base and decomposes in water. Note that inorganic amide salts are distinctly
different from organic amide compounds mentioned below.
Ñ : In the molecule of a nitride compound, a nitrogen atom is attached to an atom of a

more electropositive element. Some nitrides, such as lithium nitride (Li3N), are salt-like, in
which the nitrogen exists as an ion with three negative charges (N3í). The salt-like nitrides are
strong bases and readily decompose in water. Other nitrides, such as boron nitride (BN), are
inert.
= : An inorganic azide is a salt in which a metal cation is combined with one or more azide
anions (N3í). Each azide anion has a linear structure, Ní=N+=Ní, with a net charge of -1. Sodium
azide is used in airbags, but the azide anion is toxic. Organic azides are noted below.
% and % : Nitrogen forms a variety of oxides. The most prominent ones are nitrogen
monoxide (NO) (known more commonly as nitric oxide in biology) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Both types of molecules contain an unpaired electron. The latter shows some tendency to form
dimers and is a significant component of smog. In addition, nitrogen forms dinitrogen monoxide
(or nitrous oxide) (N2O), which is also known as laughing gas. The more standard oxides,
dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) and dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5), are fairly unstable and explosive.
The corresponding acids (oxoacids, or oxygen-containing acids) are (HNO2) and
(HNO3), and the corresponding salts are called and .

Nitrogen is also an important element in many organic compounds, in which it is directly bound
to one or more carbon atoms. Some examples are given below.
? =
: Between one and four carbon-containing groups ("alkyl" or "aryl" groups) are
attached to a nitrogen atom, and the corresponding products are known as primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quarternary amines. Many amines are commercially and
biologically important compounds.
? =
: In an organic amide, a "carbonyl" group (C=O) is directly attached to a nitrogen
atom, and the bond is called an "amide bond." The general chemical formula of an
organic amide is R1(CO)NR2R3, where R2 or R3 or both may represent a hydrogen atom
(each). A peptide or protein consists of a chain of amino acids linked to one another
through amide bonds.
? Ñ
: The nitro compounds are organic compounds containing one or more
"nitro" (-NO2) functional groups attached directly to carbon atoms. Many of these
compounds are highly explosive. Examples are trinitrotoluene (TNT) and trinitrophenol
(picric acid).
? = : An organic azide is an organic compound in which the functional group N3 is
directly attached to a carbon atom.
?
: An imine is a compound containing a carbon-nitrogen double bond. The general
formula may be written as R1R2C=NR3. When the imine is made to react with hydrogen,
it is converted to the amine.
=

The ability to combine or "fix" molecular nitrogen is a key feature of modern industrial
chemistry, where nitrogen and hydrogen are made to react to form ammonia, by what is called
the c. Ammonia, in turn, can be used directly as a fertilizer and in the synthesis of
nitrated fertilizers, or it can be used as a precursor of many other important materials, largely
through the production of nitric acid by the .
The salts of nitric acid include important compounds such as potassium nitrate (or saltpeter,
important historically for its use in gunpowder) and ammonium nitrate, an important fertilizer
and explosive. Various other nitrated organic compounds, such as nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene,
and nitrocellulose, are used as explosives and propellants for modern firearms. Nitric acid is used
as an oxidizing agent in liquid fueled rockets. Hydrazine and its derivatives find use as rocket
fuels. For all these compounds, the basic instability and tendency to burn or explode is derived
from the fact that nitrogen is present as an oxide, and not as the far more stable nitrogen
molecule (N2). When nitrates burn or explode, the formation of the powerful triple bond in the
resultant (N2) generates most of the energy of the reaction.
In medicine, nitrogen is a constituent of molecules in every major drug class. Nitrous oxide
(N20) was discovered early in the nineteenth century to be a partial anesthetic, though it was not
used as a surgical anesthetic until later. Called "laughing gas," it was found capable of inducing a
state of social disinhibition resembling drunkenness. Other notable nitrogen-containing drugs,
such as morphine, are derived from plant alkaloids. Many alkaloids are known to have
pharmacological effects, and some of them may play a role in the plants' natural defenses against
predation. Organic nitro drugs, such as nitroglycerin and nitroprusside, help reduce blood
pressure by widening blood vessels.
%
' nitrogen ĸ oxygen ĺ fluorine

-
Ĺ

Ļ
S periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8
Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens
colorless
Appearance

å
Phase gas
(0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
Density
1.429 g/L
54.36 K
Melting point
(-218.79 °C, -361.82 °F)
90.20 K
Boiling point
(-182.95 °C, -297.31 °F)
Heat of fusion (O2) 0.444 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization (O2) 6.82 kJ/mol
(25 °C) (O2)
Heat capacity
29.378 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
å/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at /K 61 73 90
=

Crystal structure cubic
í, í1
Oxidation states
(neutral oxide)
3rd: 5300.5 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 60 pm

Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 26.58 mW/(m·K)
% (chemical symbol , atomic Ñ
number 8) is the second most common
element on Earth and the third most Main article: Isotopes of oxygen
common element in the universe. At Ñ= !" å

ordinary temperatures and pressures, free 16

O 99.76% O is stable with 8 neutrons
oxygen (unbound to any other element) is a 17
colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that makes O 0.038% O is stable with 9 neutrons
18
up about 21% (by volume) of air. In O 0.21% O is stable with 10 neutrons
combination with other elements, oxygen

forms a variety of compounds, the most
important of which is water. The Earth's
oxygen continually cycles through the atmosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere, effected by such
processes as photosynthesis and surface weathering.
Oxygen is essential for the respiratory function of humans, animals, plants, and some types of
bacteria. If the human body is deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes, the person's
brain, heart, and other organs will suffer damage, leading to unconsciousness and death. On the
other hand, relatively high concentrations of oxygen, if breathed at relatively high pressures or
for prolonged periods, can have toxic effects.

Oxygen is the most common component of the Earth's crust (46.6% by mass), the second most
common component of the Earth as a whole (28.2% by mass), and the second most common
component of the Earth's atmosphere (20.947% by volume). Most of the oxygen is bonded to
other elements.
Unbound oxygen (called molecular oxygen or molecular dioxygen, O2) is thought to have first
appeared in significant quantities on our planet during the Paleoproterozoic era (2500±1600
million years ago), produced by the metabolic action of early single-celled organisms classified
as and . According to expert opinion, this new presence of large amounts of free
oxygen drove most of the organisms then living to extinction. The atmospheric abundance of
free oxygen in later geological epochs up to the present has been driven largely by
photosynthetic organisms²roughly three quarters by phytoplankton and algae in the oceans and
one quarter by terrestrial plants.

Oxygen was first discovered by Michał Sędziwój, a Polish alchemist and philosopher, in the late
sixteenth century. Sędziwój realized that air is a mixture of substances, one of which (later called
oxygen) is a life-giving substance. He correctly equated this "elixir of life" with the gas given off
by heating niter (or saltpeter, the mineral form of potassium nitrate).
Oxygen was rediscovered by the Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele sometime before
1773, but his finding was not published until after the independent discovery by Joseph Priestley
on August 1, 1774. Priestley published his discovery in 1775, and Scheele, in 1777;
consequently, Priestley is usually given the credit.
Priestley's interpretation of his observations was marred by the then-prevalent "phlogiston

theory." According to that theory, a burning material releases an invisible, weightless substance
called , and the surrounding air (or gas) needs to have the capacity to absorb this
phlogiston. Priestley found that the gas he discovered could support combustion for longer than
ordinary air. He surmised that this gas contained no phlogiston and could absorb more of it than
could ordinary air. He therefore called the gas .
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, who helped disprove the phlogiston theory, named the gas "oxygen."
He coined the term from two Greek words² , meaning acid or sharp, and
, meaning to engender²based on the belief that all acids contain oxygen and are
formed from oxygen. Since then, the definition of an acid has been revised so that oxygen is not
necessarily part of the molecular structure of every acid.
Ñ
The most common form of oxygen in the air is symbolized as O2,

indicating that each molecule consists of two oxygen atoms bound to
each other.
Oxygen is classified as a nonmetal. In the periodic table, it is located at

the top of group 16 (formerly group 6A), which is a family of elements
called the or the In addition, it lies between
nitrogen and fluorine in period 2.
At ordinary temperatures and pressures, free oxygen (unbound to any

other element) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that makes up about
21% (by volume) of air. Ordinarily, each molecule of oxygen gas consists of two oxygen atoms
bound to each other, so the molecular formula is written as O2.
This molecular oxygen (O2) is essential for the human body's metabolic processes, which sustain
our lives. The human body cannot store oxygen for later use as it does with food. If the body is
deprived of oxygen for more than a few minutes, unconsciousness results. The body's tissues and
organs (notably the heart and brain) are damaged if deprived of oxygen for much longer than
four minutes.
Gaseous oxygen becomes a liquid at temperatures below -297°F (-183°C), and it solidifies at
about -362°F (-219°C). The liquid and solid forms of O2 are light blue in color and highly
paramagnetic (attracted by an external magnetic field).
Oxygen can dissolve in water at low concentrations, but even this small amount of oxygen is
adequate to support respiration by fish and other aquatic organisms.
Readily combining with other elements, oxygen can form a variety of compounds, as noted
below. It is classified as a highly element²in other words, when it is involved in
a chemical bond, it strongly attracts bonding electrons to itself.
Perhaps the most familiar reaction of oxygen with other materials is

. For this
reaction to proceed, the relatively strong double bond between each pair of oxygen atoms (in O2)
needs to be broken. The combustion of common fuels such as wood, coal, and oil produces
carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat.
=
Ozone, symbolized as O3, is an allotrope of oxygen in which each

molecule consists of 3 oxygen atoms.
Ozone, a minor constituent of the Earth's atmosphere, is classified as an

of oxygen. Each molecule of ozone is composed of three
atoms of oxygen, so its molecular formula is O3. At ordinary
temperatures and pressure, ozone is a pale blue gas. In its liquid and solid states, ozone has a
deep blue color.
Ozone is formed by the effects of an electrostatic discharge on diatomic oxygen. It is also

produced when nitrogen oxides (emitted by automotive vehicles) react with volatile organic
compounds (such as gasoline vapors and chemical solvents) in the presence of sunlight.
If the concentration of ozone near ground level increases, it can be detrimental to health. It can
irritate the lungs and cause inflammation, wheezing, coughing, and breathing difficulties, and
repeated exposure can permanently damage the lungs. Ozone is a major component of city smog.
By contrast, ozone in the stratosphere plays an important role in sustaining life. It forms the
"ozone layer," which absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation that would otherwise damage living
tissue and genetic material.
The absorbed solar energy also raises the temperature of the atmosphere within the ozone layer,
creating a thermal barrier that helps trap the atmosphere below (as opposed to bleeding out into
space).
Recently, a different allotrope of oxygen, tetraoxygen (O4), was discovered. It is a deep red solid
created by pressurizing O2 to the order of 20 gigapascals (GPa). Its properties are being studied
for use in rocket fuels and similar applications, as it is a much more powerful oxidizer than either
O2 or O3.

Oxygen has 17 known isotopes, with atomic masses ranging from 12.03 u to 28.06 u (where u =
unified atomic mass unit). Three of these isotopes²16O, 17O, and 18O²are stable, and 16O is the
most abundant (over 99.7%). The remaining isotopes are radioactive, with half-lives shorter than
three minutes.
%
The oxygen cycle.
The Earth's oxygen cycles through three major reservoirs: (a) the atmosphere; (b) the biosphere,
which is the part of the Earth's shell in which life occurs; and (c) the lithosphere, which is the
Earth's crust and uppermost layer of the mantle. This cyclical movement, called the ,
is classified as a ²that is, it involves biological, geological, and chemical
processes.
The vast majority (99.5%) of molecular oxygen is contained in rocks and minerals within the
Earth. Only small fractions of it occur in the biosphere (0.01%) and atmosphere (0.49%).
The main source of oxygen in the biosphere and atmosphere is photosynthesis, which is
responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life as we know it. If all photosynthetic
processes were to cease, the atmosphere would be devoid of all but trace amounts of oxygen
within 5,000 years. Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of light
energy, into sugars and oxygen. In simplified form, this conversion may be written as:
CO2 + H2O + energy ĺ CH2O + O2
An additional source of atmospheric oxygen involves reactions known as , whereby

high-energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down certain molecules in the atmosphere:
2H2O + energy ĺ 4H + O2
2N2O + energy ĺ 4N + O2
Free H and N atoms generated by these processes escape into space, leaving O2 in the
atmosphere.
The atmosphere loses oxygen in various ways. The main route consists of respiration and decay
mechanisms in which animal life consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. In addition,
surface weathering of exposed rocks consumes oxygen. An example of surface-weathering
chemistry is the formation of iron oxides (rust), as found in the red sands of Australia:
4FeO + O2 ĺ 2Fe2O3
Oxygen is also cycled between the biosphere and lithosphere. Marine organisms in the biosphere
create carbonate shell material (CaCO3) that is rich in molecular oxygen. When the organism
dies, its shell is deposited on the shallow seafloor and buried over time to create limestone rock
in the lithosphere.
Weathering processes initiated by organisms can release oxygen from the lithosphere. Plants and
animals extract nutrient minerals from rocks and release oxygen in the process.
The following tables offer estimates of oxygen cycle reservoir capacities and fluxes. (These
numbers are based primarily on estimates from J. C. G. Walker, 1980, referenced below.)
`: Major reservoirs involved in the oxygen cycle
) %*

(" ( " "
Atmosphere 1.4 * 1018 30,000 * 1010 4,500
Biosphere 1.6 * 1016 30,000 * 1010 50
Lithosphere 2.9 * 1020 60 * 1010 500,000,000
: Annual gain and loss of atmospheric oxygen (Units of 1010 kg O2 per year)
º
Photosynthesis (land) 16,500

Photosynthesis (ocean) 13,500
Photolysis of N2O 1.3
Photolysis of H2O 0.03
Total Gains ~ 30,000
!* "
Aerobic Respiration 23,000

Microbial Oxidation 5,100
Combustion of Fossil Fuel (anthropologic) 1,200
Photochemical Oxidation 600
Fixation of N2 by Lightning 12
Fixation of N2 by Industry (anthropologic) 10
Oxidation of Volcanic Gases 5
!#
Chemical Weathering 50
Surface Reaction of O3 12
Total Losses ~ 30,000
=
An oxygen-enriched mixture of gases is useful for several forms of medical treatment. For
instance, "hyperbaric oxygen therapy" involves the use of high levels of oxygen for the treatment
of specific conditions in which body tissues require an increased supply of oxygen. In addition, a
mixture of 30 percent oxygen with 70 percent nitrous oxide is the common basic anesthetic
mixture, and a 50 percent mixture of the same gases (Entonox) is often used as an analgesic.
On the other hand, high levels of oxygen administered to newborn babies can cause blindness by
promoting overgrowth of new blood vessels in the eye, obstructing sight. Also, high levels of
oxygen given to patients with severe emphysema and high blood carbon dioxide reduce the
respiratory drive, precipitating retention of more carbon dioxide. (See Oxygen toxicity below.)
Oxygen must be present in every type of "breathing gas," including gas mixtures used in
submarines, scuba gear, and space suits. In addition, people who climb mountains or fly in
airplanes sometimes have supplemental oxygen supplies.
In industry, oxygen-enriched air is used in the manufacture of such products as steel and
methanol. In addition, the high-temperature oxyacetylene torch used in welding involves the
burning of acetylene in oxygen. Moreover, liquid oxygen is used in rocket propulsion.

Oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements. It binds to nonmetals through
covalent bonds, and to metals through ionic bonds. For instance, the oxides of carbon, nitrogen,
and sulfur involve covalent bonding, while metal oxides involve ionic bonding. The most famous
oxide is water (H2O). Another well-known example is carbon dioxide (CO2). Iron forms two
types of oxides: iron(II) oxide (FeO), and iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3). Oxygen does not, however,
combine with some of the noble gases.
Atoms of oxygen form part of the structures of many inorganic acids²such as sulfuric acid,
nitric acid, and carbonic acid²and alkaline substances such as sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide. In addition, oxygen atoms are contained in the anions of many salts, including
carbonates, nitrates, and sulfates.
Moreover, oxygen is part of numerous classes of organic compounds, including amino acids (the
building blocks of proteins), nucleotides (the building blocks of nucleic acids), carbohydrates,
alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, ethers, epoxides, and carboxylic acids.
One unexpected oxygen compound is dioxygen hexafluoroplatinate (O2+PtF6í). Neil Bartlett

discovered it when studying the properties of platinum hexafluoride (PtF6), which changes color
when exposed to air.
%

In the past, chemists used the term "oxidation" to describe the reaction in which oxygen
combined with another element. Oxygen was called an "oxidizer," and the other element was
said to have been "oxidized." Later, the term "oxidation" was redefined to mean the loss of
electrons by an element (in the course of a reaction). Chemists recognized that there was a
simultaneous gain of electrons by oxygen or other element, and that gain was called "reduction."
More recently, the definition of oxidation was further broadened to refer to an increase in the
"oxidation number" of an element, while the term reduction refers to a decrease in the oxidation
number of an element. Each element in a molecule may be assigned an oxidation number, which
represents the theoretical charge on the element if all the attached atoms and shared electron
pairs were (theoretically) removed from it.
å
)
Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion and therefore are fire and
explosion hazards in the presence of fuels. The fire that killed the Apollo 1 crew on a test launch
pad spread extremely rapidly because the capsule was pressurized with pure oxygen at slightly
higher than atmospheric pressure, instead of the 1/3 pressure that would be used in flight. Similar
hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high "oxidative potential," such as chlorates,
perchlorates, and dichromates; they can also cause chemical burns.
% %
If a person breathes pure oxygen or an oxygen-rich mixture of gases at higher-than-normal

pressures, or at normal atmospheric pressure for a prolonged period of time, the body's tissues
become damaged. The person is said to suffer from , , or
severe . This syndrome may occur, for example, when a diver breathes any breathing
gas at a depth that exceeds the maximum operating depth for that gas.
There are several types of oxygen toxicity:
?

Ñ"% % is manifested as dizziness, nausea, and
twitching (especially of the face), leading to convulsions. A diver who encounters such
problems may drown or suffer lethal pressure damage during a rapid ascent to the
surface.
? å
% % is caused by exposure to high concentrations of oxygen (at
partial pressures of 0.5 bar or more) for more than 16 hours. It may lead to breathing
difficulty, pain, and irreversible lung damage. This is a rare complication for divers but
may be of concern for patients in intensive care.
? % % causes damage to the retina.
There is an increased risk of CNS oxygen toxicity on deep dives, long dives, or dives where
oxygen-rich breathing gases are used. For these types of diving, some diver training courses
teach divers to plan and monitor the "oxygen clock" of their dives.
% %
Certain derivatives of oxygen²such as ozone, singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl

radicals, and superoxide²are also highly toxic. The body, however, has developed mechanisms
to protect against these toxic compounds. For instance, glutathione can act as an antioxidant, as
can bilirubin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin. To protect against the destructive nature of
peroxides, nearly every organism has developed some form of the enzyme catalase, which
quickly converts peroxide into water and diatomic oxygen.
Oxygen derivatives are prone to form free radicals, especially in metabolic processes. Because
they can cause severe damage to cells and their DNA, they form part of theories of
carcinogenesis and aging.
Ñ
` fluorine ĸ neon ĺ sodium

He
Ĺ
Ñ
Ļ
Ar periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number neon, Ne, 10
Chemical series noble gases
colorless
Appearance

å
Phase gas
(0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
Density
0.9002 g/L
Ñ (chemical symbol Ñ, atomic number 24.56 K
10) is the fourth most abundant chemical Melting point
(-248.59 °C, -415.46 °F)
element in the universe, but it is just a trace
27.07 K
element in the air. As a member of the noble Boiling point
(-246.08 °C, -410.94 °F)
gas series, it is nearly inert. Under ordinary
conditions, it is colorless, but in a vacuum Critical point 44.4 K, 2.76 MPa
discharge tube, it gives a reddish-orange Heat of fusion 0.335 kJ/mol
glow. Consequently, the main use of neon is
Heat of vaporization 1.71 kJ/mol
to make flashy signs for advertising. In
addition, a mixture of helium and neon Heat capacity (25 °C) 20.786 J/(mol·K)
gases is used to make a gas laser, and liquid Vapor pressure
neon is a low-temperature refrigerant.
å/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at /K 12 13 15 18 21 27

=

Neon (from the Greek word , meaning Crystal structure cubic face centered
"new") was discovered by Scottish chemist
William Ramsay and English chemist Oxidation states no data
Morris Travers in 1898, during their studies Ionization energies 1st: 2080.7 kJ/mol
of liquefied air. (more) 2nd: 3952.3 kJ/mol
3rd: 6122 kJ/mol
Neon is the fourth most abundant element in
the universe.[1] In the Earth's atmosphere, Atomic radius (calc.) 38 pm
however, it occurs in only trace amounts² Covalent radius 69 pm
at 1 part in 65,000. It is industrially
produced by cryogenic fractional distillation
of liquefied air.
Ñ Thermal conductivity (300 K) 49.1 mW/(m·K)
Neon is part of the noble gas series in the
periodic table. As such, it is an extremely CAS registry number 7440-01-9
unreactive element. It follows helium in Ñ
group 18 (former group 8A) and is placed
Main article: Isotopes of neon
after fluorine in period 2. The gas is
composed of single atoms and is therefore Ñ= !" å

20
described as "monatomic." Ne +#', Ne is stable with 10 neutrons
21
Ne 0.27% Ne is stable with 11 neutrons
Neon is less dense than air and is the 22
second-lightest noble gas, after helium. Its Ne 9.25% Ne is stable with 12 neutrons
low density suggests that it may slowly leak
out of the Earth's atmosphere and escape
into space, thus providing an explanation for its scarcity on Earth. By contrast, argon (another
noble gas) is denser than air and remains within the Earth's atmosphere.
Neon has over 40 times the refrigerating capacity of liquid helium and three times that of liquid
hydrogen (on a per unit volume basis). For most applications, it is a less expensive refrigerant
than helium.
Of all the rare gases, neon has the most intense discharge at normal voltages and currents. As
noted above, it glows reddish-orange in a vacuum discharge tube.

Neon has three stable isotopes:

20
? Ne (90.48%), with 10 neutrons in the nucleus of each atom;
21
? Ne (0.27%), with 11 neutrons in the nucleus of each atom; and
22
? Ne (9.25%), with 12 neutrons in the nucleus of each atom.

Given the extreme inertness of neon, its compounds are hard to find. It does, however, appear to
form an unstable hydrate. In addition, research involving specialized techniques (including
) has shown that neon can form various ions, either by itself or in combination with
other elements. These ions include Ne+, (NeAr)+, (NeH)+, and (HeNe+).
=
Neon is often used in signs
The reddish-orange color that neon emits in neon lamps is

widely used for advertising signs. The word "neon" has
become a generic term for these types of lights, although
many other gases are used to produce different colors of light.
Neon and helium may be used together to make a type of gas laser called a
! . In
addition, liquefied neon is commercially used as a cryogenic refrigerant in applications not
requiring the lower temperature range attainable with liquid helium, which is more expensive.
Neon is also used in the following devices:
? vacuum tubes
? high-voltage indicators
? lightning arrestors
? wave meter tubes
? television tubes

` sodium ĸ magnesium ĺ aluminium
Be
Ĺ

Ļ
Ca periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number magnesium, Mg, 12
Chemical series alkaline earth metals
Appearance silvery white
Electron configuration [Ne] 3s2
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 2
å
Phase solid
923 K
Melting point
(650 °C, 1202 °F)
1363 K
Boiling point
(1090 °C, 1994 °F)
Heat of vaporization 128 kJ/mol
Vapor pressure
å/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at /K 701 773 861 971 1132 1361
=

2
Oxidation states
(strongly basic oxide)
3rd: 7732.7 kJ/mol

Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 156 W/(m·K)
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 24.8 µm/(m·K)
(r.t.) (annealed)
Speed of sound (thin rod)
4940 m/s
Shear modulus 17 GPa
Bulk modulus 45 GPa

(chemical symbol , atomic Poisson ratio 0.29
number 12) is the eighth most abundant
Mohs hardness 2.5
chemical element in the Earth's crust,
constituting about 2 percent of the crust by Brinell hardness 260 MPa
weight. It is the third most plentiful CAS registry number 7439-95-4
element dissolved in seawater. Silvery
Ñ
white in color, it is classified as an alkaline
earth metal and is not found as a free metal Main article: Isotopes of magnesium
in nature.
Ñ= !" å

24
In its ionic form, magnesium is one of the Mg 78.99% Mg is stable with 12 neutrons
25
most essential elements for all known Mg 10% Mg is stable with 13 neutrons
living organisms. Its salts, therefore, are 26
Mg 11.01% Mg is stable with 14 neutrons
used as additives in foods and fertilizers.
When alloyed with aluminum, it is widely
used to make beverage cans, airplanes, and
missiles. The brilliant white light produced by burning magnesium is used in flashlight
photography and fireworks. Magnesium oxide is used for lining furnaces, the hydroxide (in the
form of "milk of magnesia") is a laxative and antacid, its sulfate (Epsom salt) is used in
medicine. Magnesium carbonate is used in brick, flooring, fireproofing, and fire-extinguishing
compositions.

The name
originates from the Greek word for a district called Magnesia in Thessaly.
The element, which is always combined with other elements in nature, is found in deposits of
over 60 minerals. Of these, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc, and olivine are of
commercial importance.
In England in 1755 Joseph Black recognized magnesium as being an element. In 1808 Sir
Humphry Davy electrolytically isolated pure magnesium metal from a mix of magnesia
(magnesium oxide, MgO) and mercuric oxide (HgO). French chemist Antoine Bussy described
another method of preparing it in 1831.
In the United States, this metal is principally obtained by electrolysis of fused magnesium
chloride from brines, wells, and seawater:
cathode: Mg2+ + 2 e- ĺ Mg
anode: 2 Cl- ĺ Cl2 (gas) + 2 e-
The United States has traditionally been the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45
percent of world production even as recently as 1995. Today, the U.S. market share is at 7
percent.[1] As of 2005, China has taken over as the dominant supplier, pegged at 60 percent
world market share, which increased from 4 percent in 1995. To isolate the metal, China relies
almost completely on what is called the å , in which magnesium oxide is reduced
at high temperatures with silicon.
Ñ

As a member of the series of alkaline earth metals, magnesium lies in group 2 (former group 2A)
of the periodic table, between beryllium and calcium. In addition, it is placed in period 3,
immediately following sodium.
Elemental magnesium is a fairly strong, lightweight metal (two thirds the density of aluminum).
It slightly tarnishes when exposed to air, although unlike the alkaline metals, storage in an
oxygen free environment is unnecessary because magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide
that is fairly impermeable and hard to remove.
Like calcium, magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, although it reacts much more
slowly than calcium. When it is submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles begin to form almost
unnoticeably on the metal's surface, but the powdered metal reacts much more rapidly. At higher
temperatures, the reaction will occur faster (see precautions).
Magnesium is a highly flammable metal that is easy to ignite when powdered or shaved into thin
strips. It is, however, difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. Once ignited, it is difficult to extinguish,
being able to burn in both nitrogen (forming magnesium nitride), and carbon dioxide (forming
magnesium oxide and carbon). It burns at a temperature of approximately 2,500 K (2200 °C,
4000 °F). The autoignition temperature of magnesium is approximately 744 K (473 °C, 883 °F).
When it burns in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light. This property was applied in
the early days of photography, when magnesium powder (flash powder) was used as a source of
illumination. Later, magnesium ribbon was used in electrically ignited flash bulbs.
When glowing white at high temperatures, magnesium has many chemical properties that it does
not possess at lower temperatures. It also becomes more toxic, but the high temperature alone is
extremely dangerous.
Magnesium compounds are typically white crystals. Most are soluble in water, providing the
sour-tasting magnesium ion Mg2+. Small amounts of dissolved magnesium ion contributes to the
tartness and taste of natural waters. In large amounts, magnesium ion is an ionic laxative. The so-
called "milk of magnesia" is a water suspension of one of the few insoluble magnesium
compounds, magnesium hydroxide, and it is named after the appearance of the undissolved
particles. Milk of magnesia is a mild base.

Three isotopes of magnesium are found in nature: 24Mg, 25Mg, and 26Mg, at abundances of
approximately 79%, 10%, and 11%, respectively. All three isotopes are stable.
26
Mg has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminum. 26Mg is a radiogenic
daughter product of 26Al, which has a half-life of 717,000 years. Large enrichments of stable
26
Mg have been observed in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some carbonaceous chondrite
meteorites. The anomalous abundance of 26Mg is attributed to the decay of its parent 26Al in the
inclusions. Therefore, the meteorite must have formed in the solar nebula before the 26Al had
decayed. Hence, these fragments are among the oldest objects in the solar system and have
preserved information about its earliest history.
c
Magnesium ions are essential for the cells of all known living organisms. Many enzymes require
the presence of magnesium ions for their catalytic action. Plants have an additional use for
magnesium in that chlorophylls contain magnesium. The adult human daily nutritional
requirement (which depends on various factors including sex and body size) is 300-400
milligrams (mg) per day.
Too much magnesium in the diet can make it difficult for the human body to absorb calcium. On
the other hand, inadequate magnesium intake has been associated with muscle spasms,
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, anxiety disorders, and osteoporosis. Acute
deficiency is rare, and is more common as a drug side effect (such as chronic alcohol or diuretic
use) than from low food intake per se. The incidence of chronic deficiency, resulting in less than
optimal health, is debated.
The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) upper tolerated limit for supplemental magnesium is 350
mg/day (calculated as mg of Mg elemental in the salt). The most common symptom of excess
oral magnesium intake is diarrhea. Given that the kidneys of adult humans excrete excess
magnesium efficiently, oral magnesium poisoning in adults with normal renal function, is very
rare. Infants have reduced ability to excrete excess magnesium even when healthy, so they
should not be given magnesium supplements, except under a physician's care.
)
Magnesium is present in many foods, but it usually occurs in small amounts. As with most
nutrients, daily needs for magnesium cannot be met from a single food. Eating a wide variety of
foods, including fruits, vegetables, and plenty of whole grains, helps ensure an adequate intake of
magnesium. Green vegetables such as spinach provide magnesium because the center of the
chlorophyll molecule contains magnesium. Nuts²especially almonds), seeds, and some whole
grains²are also good sources of magnesium.
The magnesium content of refined foods is usually low. Whole-wheat bread, for example, has
twice as much magnesium as white bread because the magnesium-rich germ and bran are
removed when white flour is processed.
Water can provide magnesium, but the amount varies according to the water supply. "Hard"
water contains more magnesium than "soft" water. Dietary surveys do not estimate magnesium
intake from water, which may lead to underestimating total magnesium intake and its variability.
The following figures indicate the amount of magnesium in some foods:
? spinach (1/2 cup): 80 mg

? peanut butter (2 tablespoons): 50 mg
? black-eyed peas (1/2 cup): 45 mg
? milk: low fat (1 cup): 40 mg
=
-

Magnesium is the third most commonly used structural metal, following steel and aluminum. In
its purest form, magnesium can be compared to aluminum. Like aluminum, it is strong and light.
Its principal use is as an alloying additive to aluminum²these aluminum-magnesium alloys,
sometimes called
or
, are used mainly for beverage cans.
Magnesium alloy is also used in several high-volume parts manufacturing applications, including
automotive and truck components. Specialty, high-grade car wheels of magnesium alloy are
called "mag wheels." In 1957, a Corvette SS, designed for racing, was constructed with
completely magnesium body panels. Volkswagen has used magnesium in its engine components
for many years. For a long time, Porsche used magnesium alloy for its engine blocks, due to the
weight advantage.
Recently, there appears to be renewed interest in magnesium engine blocks, as featured in the
2006 BMW 325i and 330i models. The award-winning BMW engine uses an aluminum alloy
insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high-temperature magnesium
alloy AJ62A. The application of magnesium AE44 alloy in the 2006 Corvette Z06 engine cradle
has advanced the technology of designing robust automotive parts in magnesium. Both these
alloys are recent developments in high-temperature, low-creep magnesium alloys. New alloy
development and lower costs, which are becoming competitive with aluminum, will increase the
number of automotive applications.
Magnesium is also used in electronic devices. Given its low weight and good mechanical and
electrical properties, it is widely used in the manufacture of mobile phones, laptops, cameras, and
so forth.
There are several other uses of magnesium, some of which are listed below.
? It is a reducing agent for the production of pure uranium and other metals from their salts.
It is also used for the removal of sulfur from iron and steel.
? The printing industry uses it for photoengraved plates.
? As an alloying agent, it improves the mechanical, fabrication, and welding characteristics
of aluminum.
? Combined in alloys, it is essential for airplane and missile construction.
? It is an additive agent for conventional propellants and used in producing nodular
graphite in cast iron.
? The extremely high temperature at which magnesium burns makes it a handy tool for
starting emergency fires during outdoor recreation.
? As burning magnesium produces a brilliant white light, it is used in flashlight
photography, flares, pyrotechnics, sparklers, and incendiary bombs.
-

? Magnesium compounds, primarily magnesium oxide, are used mainly as refractory

materials in furnace linings for producing iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and
cement.
? The hydroxide of magnesium, or milk of magnesia, is used as a laxative and antacid; its
chloride and citrate are used as oral magnesium supplements; and its sulfate (Epsom
salts) is used for various purposes in medicine.
? Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) is used in making bricks and in flooring, fireproofing,
and fire-extinguishing compositions. Its powder is used by gymnasts and weightlifters to
improve their grip on objects such as the lifting bar.
? Magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder with lubricative properties. The
pharmaceutical industry uses it in the manufacture of tablets, to prevent the tablets from
sticking to the equipment during the tablet compression process.
? Given that magnesium (in the ionic form) is necessary for living organisms, magnesium
salts are additives in foods, fertilizers, and tissue culture media.
å
Pure magnesium metal and its alloys are highly flammable when in the molten state, powdered
form, or ribbon form. Burning or molten magnesium metal reacts violently with water.
Magnesium powder is an explosive hazard. One should wear safety glasses while working with
magnesium. The bright white light (including ultraviolet) produced by burning magnesium can
damage the eyes. Water should not be used to extinguish magnesium fires, because it can
actually feed the fire, according to the following reaction:[2]
Mg (s) + 2 H2O (v) ĺ Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

or in words:
Magnesium (solid) + steam ĺ Magnesium hydroxide (aqueous) + Hydrogen (gas)
Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers should not be used either, because magnesium can burn in
carbon dioxide (forming magnesium oxide, MgO, and carbon).[3] A dry chemical fire
extinguisher (Class D) should be used if available, or else the fire should be covered with sand or
magnesium foundry flux. An easy way to put out small metal fires is to place a polyethene bag
filled with dry sand on top of the fire. The heat of the fire will melt the bag and the sand will
flow out onto the fire.
=

` magnesium ĸ aluminum ĺ silicon

B
Ĺ
=
Ļ
Ga Periodic Table - Extended Periodic Table
º
Name, Symbol, Number aluminum, Al, 13
Chemical series poor metals
silvery
Appearance
Standard atomic weight 26.9815386(8)cg·molí1

Electron configuration [Ne] 3s2 3p1
å
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 2.70 gÂ·cmí3
Liquid density at m.p. 2.375 gÂ·cmí3
933.47 K
Melting point
(660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F)
2792 K
Boiling point
(2519 °C, 4566 °F)
Heat of fusion 10.71 kJÂ·molí1
Heat of vaporization 294.0 kJÂ·molí1
Heat capacity (25 Â°C) 24.200 JÂ·molí1Â·Kí1
Vapor pressure
å/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at /K 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790
=

face centered cubic
Crystal structure
0.4032 nm
3
Oxidation states
(amphoteric oxide)
Ionization energies 1st: 577.5 kJ·molí1
(more) 2nd: 1816.7 kJ·molí1
¢=

¢ 3rd: 2744.8 kJ·molí1
=

(or

)
(chemical symbol =, atomic Atomic radius (calc.) 118 pm
number is 13) is a soft, lightweight Covalent radius 118 pm
metal with a silvery appearance and

the ability to resist corrosion. It is
the most abundant metallic element Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
in the Earth's crust (estimated at Electrical resistivity (20 Â°C) 26.50 nȍÂ·m
between 7.5 and 8.1 percent). The
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 237 WÂ·mí1Â·Kí1
free element, rarely found in nature,
occurs in oxygen-deficient Thermal expansion (25 Â°C) 23.1 µmÂ·mí1Â·Kí1
environments such as volcanic Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (rolled) 5000 mÂ·sí1
mud. Its main ore is bauxite.
Young's modulus 70 GPa
Whether measured in terms of
quantity or value, the global use of Shear modulus 26 GPa
aluminum exceeds that of any other Bulk modulus 76 GPa
metal except iron, and it is
Poisson ratio 0.35
important in virtually all segments
of the world economy. Mohs hardness 2.75
Vickers hardness 167 MPa
Structural components made from Brinell hardness 245 MPa
aluminum and its alloys are vital to
the aerospace industry and very CAS registry number 7429-90-5
important in other areas of
transportation and building. In
Main article: Isotopes of aluminum
addition, aluminum and its alloys
are used in packaging, cooking Ñ= !"
å
utensils, electrical transmission + 26
ȕ 1.17 Mg
lines, water purification processes, 26
Al syn 7.17×105y İ - 26
Mg
electronic devices and compact
discs, paint, and pyrotechnics. Ȗ 1.8086 -
Aluminum compounds also serve a 27
Al 100% Al is stable with 14 neutrons
wide variety of purposes. For
instance, aluminum ammonium
sulfate is a mordant for dyeing, and
is used in water purification and sewage treatment; aluminum acetate solution is an astringent;
aluminum chloride is used in paints and anti-perspirants; and aluminum borate, phosphate, and
fluorosilicate are used in the production of glass and ceramics. Yet, aluminum is one of the few
abundant elements that appear to have no beneficial biological role; a small percentage of people
are allergic to it.
c
Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminum salts as mordants for dyeing and astringents for
dressing wounds. Alum (potassium aluminum sulfate or a related salt) is still used as a styptic. In
1761, Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the base alum
In 1808, Humphry Davy
identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at first named

and later

(see Spelling section, below).
Friedrich Wöhler is generally credited with isolating aluminum (Latin

alum) in 1827 by
mixing anhydrous aluminum chloride with potassium. The metal, however, had been produced
(albeit in impure form) for the first time two years earlier by the Danish physicist and chemist
Hans Christian Ørsted. Therefore, Ørsted can also be listed as the discoverer of the metal.[1]
Further, Pierre Berthier discovered aluminum in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it.[2] The
Frenchman Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's method in 1846 and
described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of
sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium.[3]
The statue r in Piccadilly Circus London, constructed in 1893, and is one of the first statues
to be cast in aluminum.
Before the development of methods to purify aluminum in large quantities, it was considered a
precious metal more valuable than gold. Napoleon III, Emperor of France, is reputed to have
given a banquet where the most honored guests were given aluminum utensils, while the other
guests had to make do with gold ones.[4][5]
Aluminum was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the Washington Monument in
1884, a time when a single ounce (30 grams) of the substance cost the daily wage of a common
worker on the project.[6] It had about the same value as silver.
In 1886, the American Charles Martin Hall of Oberlin, Ohio applied for a patent (U.S. Patent
400664 (PDF)) for an electrolytic process to extract aluminum using the same technique that was
independently being developed by the Frenchman Paul Héroult in Europe. The invention of the
Hall-Héroult process in 1886 made extracting aluminum from minerals cheaper, and it is now the
principal method used throughout the world. The Hall-Heroult process, however, cannot produce
Super Purity Aluminum directly. Upon approval of his patent in 1889, Hall, with the financial
backing of Alfred E. Hunt of Pittsburgh, PA, started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, which
was renamed the Aluminum Company of America in 1907 and later shortened to Alcoa.
Germany became the world leader in aluminum production soon after Adolf Hitler's rise to
power. By 1942, however, new hydroelectric power projects such as the Grand Coulee Dam
gave the United States something Nazi Germany could not compete with, provided them with
sufficient generating capacity to produce enough aluminum to manufacture sixty thousand
warplanes in four years.
Ñ
å
In the periodic table, aluminum is located in group 13 (former group 3A), between boron and
gallium. In addition, it lies in period 3, between magnesium and silicon. It is considered a
member of the "poor metal" group of chemical elements.[7] It is nontoxic, nonmagnetic, and
nonsparking. The atoms in the metal are arranged in a face-centered cubic structure.
Aluminum is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form,
making it an important component of silver paints. Pure aluminum serves as an excellent
reflector (approximately 99%) of visible light and a good reflector (approximately 95%) of
infrared. It is a good thermal and electrical conductor, by weight better than copper. It is capable
of being a superconductor, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 Kelvin.
This metal has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is ductile, and easily
machined, cast, and extruded. The yield strength of pure aluminum is 7-11 MPa, while aluminum
alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 to 600 MPa.[8] Also, pure aluminum has a low
tensile strength, but its alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties, especially
when tempered.

Aluminum is highly resistant to corrosion, due to a thin surface layer of aluminum oxide that
forms when the metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation. The strongest
aluminum alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper.[9]
When combining with other elements, aluminum can have different oxidation states: +1, +2, and
+3. Of these, the +3 oxidation state is most common.
% .[10]
? AlH is produced when aluminum is heated at 1500 °C in an atmosphere of hydrogen.

? Al2O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al2O3, with silicon at 1800 °C in a vacuum.
? Al2S can be made by heating Al2S3 with aluminum shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum. It
quickly breaks up to regenerate the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel
manner.
? AlF, AlCl, and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the corresponding tri-halide is
heated with aluminum.
% .
? Aluminum monoxide, AlO, is present when aluminum powder burns in oxygen.
% .
This heat sink is made from anodized aluminum.
? According to Fajans' rules, the simple trivalent cation Al3+ is not expected to be found in
anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al2 O3. The hydroxide is a weak base and
aluminum salts of weak acids, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. The salts of strong
acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six
molecules of water of crystallization.
? Aluminum hydride, (AlH3)n, can be produced from trimethylaluminum and an excess of
hydrogen. It burns explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of aluminum
chloride on lithium hydride in ether solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent.
? Aluminum carbide, Al4C3 is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C.
The pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute
acids to give methane. The acetylide, Al2(C2)3, is made by passing acetylene over heated
aluminum.
? Aluminum nitride, AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. It is hydrolyzed by
water to form ammonia and aluminum hydroxide.
? Aluminum phosphide, AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give phosphine.
? Aluminum oxide, Al2O3, occurs naturally as corundum, and can be made by burning
aluminum in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a gemstone, its
hardness is only exceeded by diamond, boron nitride, and carborundum. It is almost
insoluble in water.
? Aluminum hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to
an aqueous solution of an aluminum salt. It is amphoteric, being both a very weak acid
and forming aluminates with alkalis. It exists in various crystalline forms.
? Aluminum sulfide, Al2S3, may be prepared by passing hydrogen sulfide over aluminum
powder. It is polymorphic.
? Aluminum iodide, (AlI3)2, is a dimer with applications in organic synthesis.
? Aluminum fluoride, AlF3, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made
from the elements. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at
1291 °C. It is very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure.
? Aluminum fluoride/water complexes: When aluminum and fluoride are together in
aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as AlF(H2O)5+2, AlF3(H2O)30,
AlF6 -3. Of these, AlF6-3 is the most stable. This is explained by the fact that aluminum and
fluoride, which are both very compact ions, fit together just right to form the octahedral
aluminum hexafluoride complex. When aluminum and fluoride are together in water in a
1:6 molar ratio, AlF6-3 is the most common form, even in rather low concentrations.
? Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR3 exist and, if not also giant
molecules, are at least dimers or trimers. They have some uses in organic synthesis, for
instance trimethylaluminum.
? Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being
lithium aluminum hydride, Li[AlH4]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminum and
hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic
chemistry, particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure.

In the journal of January 14, 2005, it was reported that clusters of 13 aluminum atoms
(Al13) had been made to behave like an iodine atom; and, 14 aluminum atoms (Al14) behaved like
an alkaline earth atom. The researchers also bound 12 iodine atoms to an Al13 cluster to form a
new class of polyiodide. This discovery is reported to give rise to the possibility of a new
characterization of the periodic table: superatoms. The research teams were led by Shiv N.
Khanna (Virginia Commonwealth University) and A. Welford Castleman, Jr. (Penn State
University).[11]

Aluminum has many isotopes, of which only 27Al (stable isotope) and 26Al (radioactive isotope,
1/2 = 7.2 × 105 y) occur naturally. The 27Al isotope has a natural abundance of 99.9+ percent.
26
Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons.
Aluminum isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese
nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been
used to study the role of transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 105
to 106 year time scales.
Cosmogenic 26Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteorite fragments,
after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during
their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling to Earth,
atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further 26Al production, and its
decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also
shown that 26Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Many
researchers studying meteorites believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was
responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion
years ago.[12]
=

Aluminum is a reactive metal that is difficult to extract from ore, aluminum oxide (Al2O3).
Direct reduction²with carbon, for example²is not economically viable since aluminum oxide
has a melting point of about 2,000 °C. Therefore, it is extracted by electrolysis; that is, the
aluminum oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite and then reduced to the pure metal. By this
process, the operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980 °C. Cryolite is
found as a mineral in Greenland, but in industrial use it has been replaced by a synthetic
substance. Cryolite is a mixture of aluminum, sodium, and calcium fluorides: (Na3AlF6). The
aluminum oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining bauxite in the Bayer process.
(Previously, the Deville process was the predominant refining technology.)
The electrolytic process replaced the Wöhler process, which involved the reduction of anhydrous
aluminum chloride with potassium. Both of the electrodes used in the electrolysis of aluminum
oxide are carbon. Once the ore is in the molten state, its ions are free to move around. The
reaction at the cathode (the negative terminal) produces aluminum metal:
Al3+ + 3 eí ĺ Al
Here, the aluminum ion is reduced (electrons are added). The aluminum metal then sinks to the
bottom and is tapped off.
At the positive electrode (anode), oxygen is formed:
2 O2í ĺ O2 + 4 eí
This carbon anode is then oxidized by the oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide. The anodes in a
reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process:
O2 + C ĺ CO2
Unlike the anodes, the cathodes are not oxidized because there is no oxygen present at the
cathode. The carbon cathode is protected by the liquid aluminum inside the cells. Nevertheless,
cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes. After five to ten years, depending
on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be rebuilt because of cathode wear.
World production trend of aluminum.
Aluminum electrolysis with the Hall-Héroult process consumes a lot of

energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less
viable economically and/or ecologically. The world-wide average
specific energy consumption is approximately 15 0.5 kilowatt-hours per kilogram of aluminum
produced from alumina. (52 to 56 MJ/kg). The most modern smelters reach approximately 12.8
kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). Reduction line current for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA.
State-of-the-art smelters operate with about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.
Recovery of the metal via recycling has become an important facet of the aluminum industry.
Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that uses only five percent of the energy needed
to produce aluminum from ore. However, a significant part (up to 15% of input material) is lost
as dross (ash-like oxide). Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the
growing use of aluminum beverage cans brought it to the public consciousness.
Electric power represents about 20 to 40 percent of the cost of producing aluminum, depending
on the location of the smelter. Smelters tend to be situated where electric power is both plentiful
and inexpensive, such as South Africa, the South Island of New Zealand, Australia, the People's
Republic of China, the Middle East, Russia, Quebec and British Columbia in Canada, and
Iceland.
Aluminum output in 2005.
In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of

aluminum with almost one-fifth world share followed by Russia, Canada and USA reports the
British Geological Survey.
Over the last 50 years, Australia has become a major producer of bauxite ore and a major
producer and exporter of alumina.[13] Australia produced 62 million metric tons of bauxite in
2005. The Australian deposits have some refining problems, some being high in silica but have
the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.[14]
=
º
A piece of aluminum metal about 15 centimeters long.
Relatively pure aluminum is prepared only when corrosion

resistance or workability is more important than strength or hardness. This metal readily forms
alloys with many elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and silicon. Aluminum
alloys form vital components of aircraft and rockets as a result of their high strength-to-weight
ratio. Today, almost all bulk metal materials that are referred to loosely as "aluminum," are
actually alloys. For example, the common aluminum foils are alloys containing 92-99%
aluminum.[15]
Some of the many uses for aluminum metal are in:
? Transportation (particularly automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railroad cars, marine vessels,

and bicycles)
? Packaging (such as cans and foil)
? Optical coatings and mirrors, in which a thin layer of aluminum is deposited on a flat
surface.
? Water treatment
? Treatment against fish parasites such as º

? Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.)
? Cooking utensils
? Electrical transmission lines for power distribution
? MKM steel and Alnico magnets
? Super purity aluminum (SPA, 99.980 percent to 99.999 percent Al), used in electronics
and CDs.
? Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs.
? Powdered aluminum is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and
thermite.
? The blades of prop swords and knives used in stage combat.
=

? Aluminum ammonium sulfate ([Al(NH4)](SO4)2), ammonium alum is used as a mordant,

in water purification and sewage treatment, in paper production, as a food additive, and in
leather tanning.
? Aluminum acetate is a salt used in solution as an astringent.
? Aluminum borate (Al2O3 B2O3) is used in the production of glass and ceramic.
? Aluminum borohydride (Al(BH4)3) is used as an additive to jet fuel.
? Aluminum chloride (AlCl3) is used: in paint manufacturing, in antiperspirants, in

petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber.
? Aluminum chlorohydride is used as an antiperspirant and in the treatment of

hyperhidrosis.
? Aluminum fluorosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3) is used in the production of synthetic gemstones,

glass and ceramic.
? Aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is used: as an antacid, as a mordant, in water

purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of fabrics.
? Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), alumina, is found naturally as corundum (rubies and

sapphires), emery, and is used in glass making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in
lasers for the production of coherent light.
? Aluminum phosphate (AlPO4) is used in the manufacture: of glass and ceramic, pulp and
paper products, cosmetics, paints and varnishes and in making dental cement.
? Aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3) is used: in the manufacture of paper, as a mordant, in a fire

extinguisher, in water purification and sewage treatment, as a food additive, in
fireproofing, and in leather tanning.
? In many vaccines, certain aluminum salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune

response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an
immune stimulant.
=

Aluminum alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy
systems are classified by a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying
constituents (DIN and ISO).
Aluminum is used extensively in many places due to its high strength to weight ratio. However, a
designer used to working with steel will find aluminum less well-behaved in terms of flexibility.
The problems may often be addressed by redesigning parts dimensionally specifically to address
issues of stiffness.
The strength and durability of aluminum alloys varies widely, not only as a result of the
components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing
processes. A lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly
designed structures and given aluminum a bad reputation.
One important structural limitation of aluminum alloys is their fatigue strength. Unlike steels,
aluminum alloys have no well defined fatigue limit, meaning that fatigue failure will eventually
occur under even very small cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess these loads
and design for a fixed life rather than an infinite life.
Another important property of aluminum alloys is their sensitivity to heat. Workshop procedures
involving heating are complicated by the fact that aluminum, unlike steel, will melt without first
glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used therefore requires some expertise,
since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminum alloys, like all
structural alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following heating operations such as
welding and casting. The problem with aluminum alloys in this regard is their low melting point,
which make them more susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Controlled
stress relief can be done during manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by
gradual cooling - in effect annealing the stresses.
The low melting point of aluminum alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry; even for use in
constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine
used a regeneratively cooled aluminum design for some parts of the nozzle, including the
thermally critical throat region; in fact the extremely high thermal conductivity of aluminum
prevented the throat from reaching the melting point even under massive heat flux, resulting in a
reliable and lightweight component.
c
Aluminum has about 65 percent of the conductivity of copper, the traditional household wiring
material. In the 1960s aluminum was considerably cheaper than copper, and so was introduced
for household electrical wiring in the United States, even though many fixtures had not been
designed to accept aluminum wire. However, in some cases the greater coefficient of thermal
expansion of aluminum causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal
screw connection, eventually loosening the connection. Also, pure aluminum has a tendency to
"creep" under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again
loosening the connection. Finally, Galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals increased the
electrical resistance of the connection.
All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in some fires.
Builders then became wary of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in very
small sizes, in new construction. Eventually, newer fixtures were introduced with connections
designed to avoid loosening and overheating. At first they were marked "Al/Cu," but they now
bear a "CO/ALR" coding. In older assemblies, workers forestall the heating problem using a
properly done crimp of the aluminum wire to a short "pigtail" of copper wire. Today, new alloys,
designs, and methods are used for aluminum wiring in combination with aluminum terminations.
å
Aluminum is a neurotoxin that alters the function of the blood-brain barrier.[16] It is one of the
few abundant elements that appears to have no beneficial function in living cells. A small percent
of people are allergic to it ² they experience contact dermatitis from any form of it: an itchy
rash from using styptic or antiperspirant products, digestive disorders, an inability to absorb
nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminum pans, and vomiting and other symptoms of
poisoning from ingesting such products as Amphojel, and Maalox (antacids). In other people,
aluminum is not considered as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it
is consumed in excessive amounts. The use of aluminum cookware, popular because of its
corrosion resistance and good heat conduction, has not been shown to lead to aluminum toxicity
in general. Excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminum compounds and excessive
use of aluminum-containing antiperspirants are more likely causes of toxicity. In research
published in the §
= Dr. Philippa D. Darby of the University of
Reading has shown that aluminum salts increase estrogen-related gene expression in human
breast cancer cells grown in the laboratory. These salts' estrogen-like effects have lead to their
classification as metalloestrogens.
It has been suggested that aluminum is a cause of Alzheimer's disease, as some brain plaques
have been found to contain the metal. Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminum
accumulation may be a consequence of the Alzheimer's damage, not the cause. In any event, if
there is any toxicity of aluminum it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human
exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously
large over a lifetime.[17][18]
Mercury applied to the surface of an aluminum alloy can damage the protective oxide surface
film by forming amalgam. This may cause further corrosion and weakening of the structure. For
this reason, mercury thermometers are not allowed on many airliners, as aluminum is used in
many aircraft structures.
Powdered aluminum can react with Fe2O3 to form Fe and Al2O3. This mixture is known as
thermite, which burns with a high energy output. Thermite can be produced inadvertently during
grinding operations, but the high ignition temperature makes incidents unlikely in most
workshop environments.
=

Aluminum is primary among the factors that contribute to the loss of plant production on acid
soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in
acid soils of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.
The adaptation of wheat to allow aluminum tolerance is such that the aluminum induces a release
of organic compounds that bind to the harmful aluminum cations. Sorghum is believed to have
the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminum tolerance has been identified in
wheat. A group in the U.S. Department of Agriculture showed that sorghum's aluminum
tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for wheat. This is not the case in all plants.

*

The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictionary for any word used as a name for this
element is

which Humphry Davy employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to
isolate electrolytically from the mineral
The citation is from his journal å
: "Had I been so fortunate as.. to have procured the metallic substances I was in
search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, and
glucium."[19]
By 1812, Davy had settled on

which (as other sources note) matches its Latin root. He
wrote in the journal A å : "As yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a
perfectly free state."[20] But the same year, an anonymous contributor to the $
* a
British political-literary journal, objected to

and proposed the name

"for so
we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less
classical sound."[21]
The !
suffix had the advantage of conforming to the precedent set in other newly discovered
elements of the time: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy
had isolated himself). Nevertheless, !
spellings for elements were not unknown at the time, as
for example platinum, known to Europeans since the sixteenth century, molybdenum, discovered
in 1778, and tantalum, discovered in 1802.
Americans adopted !
for most of the nineteenth century, with

appearing in
Webster's Dictionary of 1828. In 1892, however, Charles Martin Hall used the !
spelling in an
advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant
use of the !
spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903.[22] It has consequently
been suggested that the spelling reflects an easier to pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or
that the spelling on the flier was a spelling mistake. Hall's domination of production of the metal
ensured that the spelling

became the standard in North America; the #
% " of 1913, though, continued to use the !
version.
In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use

in its publications;
American dictionaries typically label the spelling

as a British variant.
å
In the UK and other countries using British spelling, only

is used. In the United
States, the spelling

is largely unknown, and the spelling

predominates.[23][24] The Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers

whereas the Australian
Macquarie Dictionary prefers

In other English-speaking countries, the spellings (and associated pronunciations)

and

are both in common use in scientific and nonscientific contexts. The spelling in
virtually all other languages is analogous to the !
ending.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted

as the
standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognized

as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both, but places

first.[25]
IUPAC officially prefers the use of

in its internal publications, although several
IUPAC publications use the spelling

`# aluminum ĸ silicon ĺ phosphorus

C
Ĺ

Ļ
Ge Periodic Table - Extended Periodic Table
º
Name, Symbol, Number silicon, Si, 14
Chemical series metalloids
as coarse powder,
Appearance
dark grey with bluish tinge
Standard atomic weight 28.0855(3)cg·molí1
å
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 2.33 gÂ·cmí3
Liquid density at m.p. 2.57 gÂ·cmí3
1687 K
Melting point
(1414 °C, 2577 °F)
3538 K
Boiling point
(3265 °C, 5909 °F)
Heat of fusion 50.21 kJÂ·molí1
Heat of vaporization 359 kJÂ·molí1
Heat capacity (25 Â°C) 19.789 JÂ·molí1Â·Kí1
Vapor pressure
å/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
at /K 1908 2102 2339 2636 3021 3537
=

Crystal structure Face-centered cubic
4
Oxidation states
(amphoteric oxide)
Ionization energies 1st: 786.5 kJ·molí1
(more) 2nd: 1577.1 kJ·molí1
3rd: 3231.6 kJ·molí1

Thermal conductivity (300 K) 149 WÂ·mí1Â·Kí1
Thermal expansion (25 Â°C) 2.6 µmÂ·mí1Â·Kí1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 Â°C) 8433 m/s
Young's modulus 150 GPa
Bulk modulus 100 GPa
Mohs hardness 6.5
(chemical element symbol Band gap energy at 300 K 1.12 eV
/ atomic number 14) is a member
of a group of chemical elements
classified as metalloids. It is less Main article: Isotopes of silicon
reactive than its chemical analog Ñ= !" å
carbon. It is the eighth most

28
common element in the universe Si 92.23% Si is stable with 14 neutrons
29
(by mass) and is the second most Si 4.67% Si is stable with 15 neutrons
abundant element (after oxygen) in 30
Si 3.1% Si is stable with 16 neutrons
the Earth's crust, making up 25.7 32
percent of the crust by mass. It Si syn 170 y ȕ- 13.020 32
P
occasionally occurs as the pure free
element in nature, but is more
widely distributed in dusts,
planetoids, and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide or silicate.
Various biological systems contain silicon as an essential element. Although only tiny traces of it
appear to be required by animals, it is much more important for the metabolism of plants,
particularly many grasses. Also, silicic acid (a family of chemical compounds of silicon,
hydrogen, and oxygen) forms the basis of the array of protective shells of diatoms.
Silicon has many industrial uses. Elemental silicon is the principal component of most
semiconductor devices, particularly integrated circuits or "microchips." Given its importance in
semiconductors and high-tech devices, its name has been used for the high-tech region known as
Silicon Valley in California. In the form of silica and silicates, silicon forms useful glasses,
cements, and ceramics. It is also a component of silicones, a group of various synthetic plastic
substances made of silicon, oxygen, carbon, germanium, and hydrogen.
Given that some properties of silicon are similar to those of carbon, some individuals have
proposed the possibility of silicon-based living organisms. This possibility, however, seems
remote for a variety of reasons, including the absence of a "silicon cycle" (analogous to the
carbon cycle), the absence of an appropriate solvent for silicon compounds (analogous to water
that dissolves organic compounds), and the inability of silicon to form the diversity of
compounds required for living systems.

Measured by mass, silicon makes up 25.7 percent of the Earth's crust and is the second most
abundant element on Earth, after oxygen. Pure silicon crystals are only occasionally found in
nature; they can be found as inclusions with gold and in volcanic exhalations. Silicon is usually
found in the form of silicon dioxide (also known as silica), and silicate.
Silica occurs in minerals consisting of (practically) pure silicon dioxide in different crystalline
forms. Sand, amethyst, agate, quartz, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, jasper, and opal are some of
the forms in which silicon dioxide appears. They are known as "lithogenic" (as opposed to
"biogenic") silicas.
Silicon also occurs as silicates (various minerals containing silicon, oxygen, and one or other
metal). These minerals occur in clay, sand, and various types of rock such as granite and
sandstone. Asbestos, feldspar, clay, hornblende, and mica are a few of the many silicate
minerals.
Silicon is a principal component of aerolites, which are a class of meteoroids, and also is a
component of tektites, a natural form of glass.

The name silicon is derived from the Latin word, meaning "flint" or "hard stone,"
corresponding to the materials now called "silica" or "silicates." It was first identified by Antoine
Lavoisier in 1787, as a component of but Humphry Davy (in 1800) mistook it as a
compound. In 1811, Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard probably prepared impure
amorphous silicon through the heating of potassium with silicon tetrafluoride. The first person to
identify it as an element was Jöns Jakob Berzelius, in 1823. In the following year, Berzelius
prepared amorphous silicon using approximately the same method as Gay-Lussac. He also
purified the product by repeated washing.
Ñ
In the periodic table, silicon is located in group 14 (former group 4A), between carbon and
germanium. In addition, it lies in period 3, between aluminum and phosphorus. Elemental silicon
has a gray color and a metallic luster, which increases with the size of the crystal.
The electronic configuration in the outermost shell of a silicon atom is the same as that of a
carbon atom²both types of atoms have four bonding electrons. Consequently, both elements are
tetravalent (each atom binding up to four other atoms) and share some chemical properties. Both
are semiconductors, readily donating or sharing their four outer electrons, allowing for various
forms of chemical bonding.
Silicon is similar to glass in that it is strong but brittle and prone to chipping. Although it is a
relatively inert element, silicon reacts with halogens and dilute alkalis. Most acids (except for
some hyper-reactive combinations of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid) do not affect it.
Silicon is widely used in semiconductors because it remains a semiconductor at higher

temperatures than the semiconductor germanium, and because its native oxide is easily grown in
a furnace and forms a better semiconductor/dielectric interface than almost all other material
combinations. The electrical resistance of single-crystal silicon significantly changes under the
application of mechanical stress, due to what is called the "piezoresistive effect."

Silicon has many known isotopes, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 44. Of these, the stable
isotopes are 28Si (the most abundant isotope, at 92.23 percent), 29Si (4.67 percent), and 30Si (3.1
percent). In addition, 32Si is a radioactive isotope produced by argon decay. Its half-life has been
determined to be approximately 170 years (0.21 MeV), and it decays by beta emission to 32P
(which has a half-life of 14.29 days[1]), and then to 32S.

Examples of silicon compounds:
? Silicates
? Silane (SiH4)
? Silicic acid (H4SiO4)
? Silicon carbide (SiC)
? Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
? Silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4)
? Silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4)
? Trichlorosilane (HSiCl3)

å
Silicon is commercially prepared by the reaction of high-purity silica with wood, charcoal, and
coal, in an electric arc furnace using carbon electrodes. At temperatures over 1900 °C, the carbon
reduces the silica to silicon according to the chemical equation
SiO2 + C ĺ Si + CO2.
Liquid silicon collects in the bottom of the furnace, and is then drained and cooled. The silicon
produced via this process is called "metallurgical grade silicon" and is at least 98 percent pure.
Using this method, silicon carbide, SiC, can form. However, provided the amount of SiO2 is kept
high, silicon carbide may be eliminated, as explained by this equation:
2 SiC + SiO2 ĺ 3 Si + 2 CO.
In 2005, metallurgical grade silicon cost about $ 0.77 per pound ($1.70/kg).[2]
å
The use of silicon in semiconductor devices demands a much greater purity than afforded by
metallurgical grade silicon. Historically, a number of methods have been used to produce high-
purity silicon.
å

Silicon wafer with mirror finish (NASA)
Early silicon purification techniques were based on the fact that

if silicon is melted and re-solidified, the last parts of the mass
to solidify contain most of the impurities. The earliest method
of silicon purification, first described in 1919, and used on a
limited basis to make radar components during World War II,
involved crushing metallurgical grade silicon and then partially
dissolving the silicon powder in an acid. When crushed, the
silicon cracked so that the weaker impurity-rich regions were
on the outside of the resulting grains of silicon. As a result, the
impurity-rich silicon was the first to be dissolved when treated
with acid, leaving behind a more pure product.
In zone melting, also called zone refining, the first silicon purification method to be widely used
industrially, rods of metallurgical grade silicon are heated to melt at one end. Then, the heater is
slowly moved down the length of the rod, keeping a small length of the rod molten as the silicon
cools and re-solidifies behind it. Since most impurities tend to remain in the molten region rather
than re-solidify, when the process is complete, most of the impurities in the rod will have been
moved into the end that was the last to be melted. This end is then cut off and discarded, and the
process repeated if a still higher purity is desired.

Today, silicon is instead purified by converting it to a silicon compound that can be more easily
purified than silicon itself, and then converting that silicon element back into pure silicon.
Trichlorosilane is the silicon compound most commonly used as the intermediate, although
silicon tetrachloride and silane are also used. When these gases are blown over silicon at high
temperature, they decompose to high-purity silicon.
At one time, DuPont produced ultra-pure silicon by reacting silicon tetrachloride with high-
purity zinc vapors at 950°C, producing silicon according to the chemical equation
SiCl4 + 2 Zn ĺ Si + 2 ZnCl2.
However, this technique was plagued with practical problems (such as the zinc chloride
byproduct solidifying and clogging lines) and was eventually abandoned in favor of the Siemens
process.
In the
/ high-purity silicon rods are exposed to trichlorosilane at 1150°C. The
trichlorosilane gas decomposes and deposits additional silicon onto the rods, enlarging them
according to chemical reactions like
2 HSiCl3 ĺ Si + 2 HCl + SiCl4.
Silicon produced from this and similar processes is called . Polycrystalline
silicon typically has impurity levels of less than 10í9.
In 2006, Renewable Energy Corporation (REC) announced construction of a plant based on

fluidized bed technology using silane.[3]
3SiCl4 + Si + 2H2 ĺ 4HSiCl3

4HSiCl3 ĺ 3SiCl4 + SiH4
SiH4 ĺ Si + 2H2

The majority of silicon crystals grown for device production are produced by the Czochralski
process (CZ-Si), because it is the cheapest method available and is capable of producing large
crystals. However, silicon single-crystals grown by the Czochralski method contain impurities
because the crucible that contains the melt dissolves. For certain electronic devices, particularly
those required for high-power applications, silicon grown by the Czochralski method is not pure
enough. For these applications, float-zone silicon (FZ-Si) can be used instead. It is worth
mentioning, though, that it is difficult to grow large crystals using the float-zone method. Today,
all the dislocation-free silicon crystals used in semiconductor industry with diameter 300mm or
larger are grown by the Czochralski method, with purity level significantly improved.
=
As the second most common element on earth, silicon is a very useful element that is vital to
many human industries and impacts much of modern life. For instance, it is a major component
of glass, concrete, and cements of many kinds. In addition, one of its most valuable applications
lies in that it forms the fundamental substrate in manufacturing electronics devices such as
integrated circuits and power transistors. Further, the element and its compounds find widespread
use in explosives and pyrotechnics.[4]. Silicon is also used in mechanical seals, caulking
compounds, and high-temperature, silicon-based greases.
=
? The largest application of pure (metallurgical grade) silicon is in aluminum-silicon alloys,

often called "light alloys," to produce cast parts, mainly for automotive industry. (This
represents about 55% of the world consumption of pure silicon.)
? The second largest application of pure silicon is as a raw material in the production of
silicones (about 40% of the world consumption of silicon)
? Pure silicon is also used to produce ultra-pure silicon for electronic and photovoltaic
applications:
? Semiconductor: Ultrapure silicon can be doped with other elements to adjust its
electrical response by controlling the number and charge (positive or negative) of
current carriers. Such control is necessary for transistors, solar cells,
microprocessors, semiconductor detectors and other semiconductor devices which
are used in electronics and other high-tech applications.
? Photonics: Silicon can be used as a continuous wave Raman laser to produce
coherent light. (Though it is ineffective as a light source.)
? LCDs and solar cells: Hydrogenated amorphous silicon is widely used in the
production of low-cost, large-area electronics in applications such as LCDs. It has
also shown promise for large-area, low-cost thin-film solar cells.
? Steel and cast iron: Silicon is an important constituent of some steels, and it is used in the
production process of cast iron. It is introduced as ferrosilicon or silicocalcium alloys.

? Construction: Silicon dioxide or silica in the form of sand and clay is an important
ingredient of concrete and brick and is also used to produce Portland cement.
? Pottery/Enamel is a refractory material used in high-temperature material production and
its silicates are used in making enamels and pottery.
? Glass: Silica from sand is a principal component of glass. Glass can be made into a great
variety of shapes and with a many different physical properties. Silica is used as a base
material to make window glass, containers, insulators, and many other useful objects.
? Abrasives: Silicon carbide is one of the most important abrasives.
? Medical materials: Silicones are flexible compounds containing silicon-oxygen and
silicon-carbon bonds; they are widely used in applications such as artificial breast
implants and contact lenses. Silicones are also used in many other applications.
? Silly Putty was originally made by adding boric acid to silicone oil. Now name-brand
Silly Putty also contains significant amounts of elemental silicon. (Silicon binds to the
silicone and allows the material to bounce 20 percent higher.)

Granular silicon Polycrystal silicon Silicon monocrystalNanocrystalline silicon
Silicon Ingot
One can notice the color change in silicon nanopowder. This is caused by the quantum effects
which occur in particles of nanometric dimensions. See also Potential well, Quantum dot, and
Nanoparticle.

Given that silicon is similar to carbon, particularly in its valency, some have pondered over the
possibility of silicon-based life. For instance, A. G. Cairns-Smith has proposed that the first
living organisms may have been forms of clay minerals, which were probably based around the
silicon atom.
Although there are no known forms of life that rely entirely on silicon-based chemistry, there are
some that rely on silicon minerals for specific functions. Some bacteria and other forms of life,
such as the protozoa radiolaria, have silicon dioxide skeletons, and the sea urchin has spines
made of silicon dioxide. These forms of silicon dioxide are known as biogenic silica. Silicate
bacteria use silicates in their metabolism.
Yet, life as it is known today could not have developed based on a silicon biochemistry. The
main reason is that life on Earth depends on the carbon cycle: Autotrophic organisms use carbon
dioxide to synthesize organic compounds with carbon, which is then used as food by
heterotrophic organisms, which produce energy and carbon dioxide from these compounds. If
carbon were to be replaced by silicon, there would be a need for a / involving the
participation of silicon dioxide. However, unlike carbon dioxide, silicon dioxide is a solid that
does not dissolve in water and cannot be transported through living systems by common
biological means. Consequently, another solvent would be necessary to sustain silicon-based life
forms. It would be difficult (if not impossible) to find another common compound with the
unusual properties of water that make it an ideal solvent for carbon-based life.
Larger silicon compounds (silanes) that are analogous to common hydrocarbon chains are
generally unstable, owing to the larger atomic radius of silicon and the correspondingly weaker
silicon-silicon bond. Silanes decompose readily and often violently in the presence of oxygen,
making them unsuitable for an oxidizing atmosphere such as our own. Moreover, unlike carbon,
silicon does not have the tendency to form double and triple bonds.
Some silicon rings (cyclosilanes) have been synthesized and are analogous to the cycloalkanes
formed by carbon, but the cyclosilanes are rare whereas the cycloalkanes are common. Synthesis
of the cyclosilanes suffers from the difficulties inherent in producing any silane compound. On
the other hand, carbon will readily form five-, six-, and seven-membered rings by a variety of
pathways, even in the presence of oxygen.
Silicon's inability to readily form multiple bonds, long silane chains, and rings severely limits the
diversity of compounds that can be synthesized from it. Under known conditions, silicon
chemistry simply cannot begin to approach the diversity of organic chemistry, a crucial factor in
carbon's role in biology.
Some have construed silicon-based life as existing under a computational substrate. This
concept, yet to be explored in mainstream technology, receives ample coverage by science
fiction authors.

` phosphorus ĸ sulfur ĺ chlorine
O
Ĺ

Ļ
Se periodic table
º
Name, Symbol, Number sulfur, S, 16
lemon yellow
Appearance

å
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) (alpha) 2.07 g/cm
Density (near r.t.) (beta) 1.96 g/cm
Density (near r.t.) (gamma) 1.92 g/cm
388.36 K
Melting point
(115.21 °C, 239.38 °F)
717.8 K
Boiling point
(444.6 °C, 832.3 °F)
Critical point 1314 K, 20.7 MPa
Heat of fusion (mono) 1.727 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization (mono) 45 kJ/mol
Vapor pressure
å/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at /K 375 408 449 508 591 717
=

Crystal structure orthorhombic
í1, 2, 4,
Oxidation states
(strongly acidic oxide)
(more) 2nd: 2252 kJ/mol
3rd: 3357 kJ/mol

or (see spelling below) Magnetic ordering no data
(chemical symbol , atomic number 16) is a
(20 °C) (amorphous)
yellow crystalline solid at ordinary Electrical resistivity
2×1015 ȍ·m
temperatures and pressures. It is tasteless and
odorless and is classified as a nonmetal. It (300 K) (amorphous)
Thermal conductivity
forms stable compounds with all elements 0.205 W/(m·K)
except the noble gases. Abundant in nature, it Bulk modulus 7.7 GPa
can be found as the pure element or as sulfide
Mohs hardness 2.0
and sulfate minerals. Many of the unpleasant
odors of organic matter, including garlic odor CAS registry number 7704-34-9
and "skunk stink," are produced by sulfur- Ñ
containing compounds.
Main article: Isotopes of sulfur
This element is essential for living Ñ= !" å

organisms, particularly as part of the 32

S 95.02% S is stable with 16 neutrons
structures of certain amino acids and 33
proteins. Moreover, sulfur and its compounds S 0.75% S is stable with 17 neutrons
34
are important for a host of practical S 4.21% S is stable with 18 neutrons
applications. Its derivative, sulfuric acid, 35
S syn 87.32 d ȕ- 0.167 35
Cl
ranks among the most important industrial 36
S 0.02% S is stable with 20 neutrons
raw materials. In addition, sulfur is used in
producing batteries, detergents, fungicides,
and fertilizers, and for the vulcanization of
rubber. As a flammable material, sulfur is used in making matches, gunpowder, and fireworks.
Several of the compounds of sulfur should be handled with care. For instance, hydrogen sulfide
is quite toxic, and both sulfurous acid and sulfuric acid can harm biological tissue.

Sulfur crystalites at Waiotapu hot springs, New Zealand.
Elemental sulfur can be found near hot springs and volcanic

regions in many parts of the world, especially along the Pacific
"Ring of Fire"²a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions encircling the Pacific Ocean. Such volcanic deposits are
currently exploited in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan.
Significant deposits of elemental sulfur also exist in salt domes along the coast of the Gulf of
Mexico and in evaporites in Eastern Europe and western Asia. (Evaporites are mineral sediments
that are left behind after evaporation of the water in shich they were once dissolved) The sulfur
in these deposits is believed to come from the action of anaerobic bacteria on sulfate minerals,
especially gypsum. Such deposits form the basis for commercial production in the United States,
Poland, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine.
Sulfur extracted from oil, gas, and the Athabasca Oil Sands has led to a glut on the market, and
huge stockpiles of sulfur can be seen throughout Alberta.
Common sulfur compounds in nature include:
? metal sulfides, such as pyrite (iron sulfide), cinnabar (mercury sulfide), galena (lead
sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide), and stibnite (antimony sulfide);
? metal sulfates, such as gypsum (calcium sulfate), alunite (potassium aluminum sulfate),
and barite (barium sulfate).
Sulfur is present in many types of meteorites. In addition, the distinctive colors of Jupiter's
volcanic moon Io are thought to correspond to various forms of gaseous, molten, and solid
sulfur. There is also a dark area near the lunar crater Aristarchus that may be a sulfur deposit.
c
Sulfur crystal
Sulfur (Sanskrit,
; Latin

) was known in ancient
times, and is referred to in several books of the Bible, including
the book of Genesis. It has been suggested that the word may have
been derived from the Arabic
meaning yellow, which is the color of the naturally
occurring form of the element.
In the eighth century B.C.E., Homer mentioned "pest-averting sulfur"; and in 424 B.C.E., the tribe
of Boeotia destroyed the walls of a city by burning a mixture of coal, sulfur, and tar under them.
Sometime in the twelfth century, the Chinese invented gunpowder, which is a mixture of
potassium nitrate (KNO3), carbon, and sulfur. Early alchemists gave sulfur its own alchemical
symbol²a triangle at the top of a cross. In the late 1770s, Antoine Lavoisier helped convince the
scientific community that sulfur was an element, not a compound.
Furniture makers of the late eighteenth century used molten sulfur to produce decorative inlays
in their craft. That craft, however, was soon abandoned because of the sulfur dioxide produced
during the process of melting sulfur.
In 1867, sulfur was discovered in underground deposits in Louisiana and Texas. The overlying
layer of earth was quicksand, prohibiting ordinary mining operations. Therefore, it was removed
by the Frasch process²the underground sulfur was melted by pumping superheated steam
through pipes set in the ground, and the molten sulfur was pumped out.
D

In the Bible, sulfur is referred to as "brimstone." The book of Genesis, in particular, mentions
that God punished evildoers in Sodom and Gomorrah by raining "brimstone and fire" upon them.
Accordingly, a "fire and brimstone" sermon is one in which listeners are reminded of the fate of
eternal damnation that awaits the unrepentant sinner. Also, hell is implied as having the smell of
sulfur, although, as mentioned above, sulfur is odorless. The "smell of sulfur" usually refers to
the odor of sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, which has the smell of rotten eggs.
Ñ
A piece of sulfur melts to a blood-red liquid. When burned, it

emits a blue flame.
In the periodic table, sulfur is located in group 16 (formerly group

6A), between oxygen and selenium. It is thus a member of the
oxygen family of elements, also called the In addition,
it lies between phosphorus and chlorine in period 3.
Elemental sulfur is odorless, as noted above. The common belief

that it smells like rotten eggs is actually an association with the
smell of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas. When it burns, sulfur produces a blue flame and emits
sulfur dioxide²a gas that is notable for its peculiar, suffocating odor, like that of burnt matches.
Sulfur is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide and, to a lesser extent, in other organic
solvents such as benzene.
Sulfur can combine with other elements in different proportions, and it is therefore described as
being multivalent. Common oxidation states of sulfur include í2, +2, +4 and +6. In combination
with metals and oxygen, it forms sulfides (such as sodium sulfide, Na2S), sulfates (such as
copper sulfate, CuSO4), and sulfites (such as sodium sulfite, Na2SO3). It also forms hydrogen
sulfide (H2S)²a colorless, flammable, toxic gas that is responsible for the odor of rotten eggs²
and carbon disulfide (CS2), a colorless liquid with a pleasant smell.
In the solid state, sulfur ordinarily exists as cyclic, crown-shaped S8 molecules. In addition, it has
many allotropes. Removing one atom from the crown gives S7, which is responsible for sulfur's
distinctive yellow color. Many other rings have been prepared, including S12 and S18. By
contrast, its lighter neighbor, oxygen, exists in only two significant allotropic states: O2 and O3.
Selenium, the heavier analog of sulfur, can form rings but is more often found as a polymer
chain. Depending on the specific conditions, the sulfur allotropes form several distinct crystal
structures, of which rhombic and monoclinic S8 are best known.
The structure of the S8 molecule. Two of the S atoms in this

structure lie in the back and cannot be seen.
The viscosity of molten sulfur, unlike that of most other liquids,

increases with temperature because of the formation of polymer
chains. Once a specific temperature is reached, the viscosity starts
dropping because there is enough energy to break the chains.
Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur can be produced through the rapid cooling of molten sulfur.
Studies using a technique known as X-ray crystallography show that the amorphous form may
have a helical structure, with eight atoms per turn. At room temperature, this form is metastable
and gradually reverts back to the crystalline state. This process happens within a matter of hours
to days but can be speeded up by using a catalyst.

Sulfur has 18 isotopes, of which four are stable: 32S (95.02 percent), 33S (0.75 percent), 34S (4.21
percent), and 36S (0.02 percent). The radioactive isotope 35S is formed from cosmic ray spallation
of 40Ar in the atmosphere. It has a half-life of 87 days. The other radioactive isotopes of sulfur
are all short lived.
Sulfur with a distinctive isotopic composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and
enriched sulfur has been added as a tracer in hydrologic studies. Differences in the natural
abundances can also be used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the 34S of
ecosystem components.
=
Sulfur powder.
Sulfur and its compounds have many uses. Its main derivative is
sulfuric acid (H2SO4), through which sulfur ranks as one of the most
important industrial raw materials. The consumption of sulfuric acid has been regarded as one of
the best indices of a nation's industrial development. More sulfuric acid is produced in the United
States every year than any other industrial chemical.
Sulfur is also used in batteries, detergents, the vulcanization of rubber, fungicides, and the
manufacture of phosphate fertilizers. Sulfites are used to bleach paper and as preservatives in
wine and dried fruit. Given its flammable nature, sulfur also finds use in matches, gunpowder,
and fireworks. Sodium and ammonium thiosulfates are used as photographic fixing agents.
Magnesium sulfate, better known as Epsom salts, can be used as a laxative, a bath additive, an
exfoliant, or a magnesium supplement for plants. Sulfur is used as the light-generating medium
in the rare lighting fixtures known as sulfur lamps.
D
The amino acids cysteine and methionine contain sulfur, as do all peptides and proteins that
contain these amino acids. In protein assembly and structure, bonds between sulfur atoms²
known as "disulfide bonds"²play an important role. Thus, sulfur is a necessary component of all
living cells.
Some forms of bacteria use hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in place of water as the electron donor in a
primitive, photosynthesis-like process. Sulfur is absorbed by plants via the roots from soil as the
sulfate ion and reduced to sulfide before being incorporated into cysteine and other organic
sulfur compounds²a process called sulfur assimilation. Inorganic sulfur forms a part of iron-
sulfur clusters, and sulfur is the bridging ligand in the CuA site of the enzyme cytochrome c
oxidase. Sulfur is also an important component of coenzyme A. The amino acids homocysteine
and taurine also contain sulfur, but they are not part of the primary structure of proteins.

The burning of coal and petroleum by industry and power plants liberates huge amounts of sulfur
dioxide (SO2), which reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfuric acid. This
acid is a component of acid rain, which causes soil and freshwater bodies to become acidic,
thereby harming the natural environment. It also causes substantial damage to statues and
architecture. Fuel standards increasingly require sulfur to be extracted from fossil fuels, to
prevent the formation of acid rain. This extracted sulfur is then refined and represents a large
portion of sulfur production.

.
? Hydrogen sulfide has the characteristic smell of rotten eggs. When dissolved in water, it
is acidic and will react with metals to form metal sulfides.
? Sulfides are a complex family of compounds usually composed of metal cations bound to
S2í anions. Natural metal sulfides are common. Iron sulfide, for instance, occurs as the
mineral called pyrite²the so-called & . Interestingly, pyrite can show
semiconductor properties.[1] Galena, a naturally occurring lead sulfide, was the first
semiconductor discovered, and was used as a signal rectifier in the "cat's whiskers" of
early crystal radios.
? Phosphorus sulfides are important in the synthesis of certain organic substances. For
example, P4S10 and its derivatives are used to replace oxygen in some organic molecules
with sulfur.
2í
? Sulfites (containing the anion SO3 ) are salts of sulfurous acid (H2SO3), which is
generated by dissolving SO2 in water. Sulfurous acid and its corresponding sulfites are
fairly strong reducing agents. Other compounds derived from SO2 include the pyrosulfite
or metabisulfite ion (S2O52í).
? Sulfates (containing the anion SO42í) are salts of sulfuric acid. This acid can react with
SO3 to form pyrosulfuric acid (H2S2O7).
? Thiosulfates (containing the anion S2O32í) are sometimes referred to as thiosulfites or
hyposulfites ("HYPO"). They are used in photographic fixing as reducing agents.
Ammonium thiosulfate is being investigated as a replacement for cyanide in leaching
gold.[2]
? Sodium dithionite, Na2S2O4, is the highly reducing dianion derived from
hyposulfurous/dithionous acid.
? Sodium dithionate is Na2S2O6.
? Polythionic acids have the formula H2SO6, where can range from 3 to 80.
? Peroxymonosulfuric acid (H2SO5) is made by the action of SO3 on concentrated hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2); and peroxydisulfuric acid (H2S2O8) is made by the action of sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) on concentrated H2O2.
? Sodium polysulfides have the formula Na2Sx.
? Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is a dense gas at ambient conditions and is used as an
unreactive, nontoxic propellant.
? Sulfur nitrides are chain and cyclic compounds containing only sulfur and nitrogen.
Tetrasulfur tetranitride (S4N4) is an example. Polymeric sulfur nitride, which can be made
from tetrasulfur tetranitride, has metallic properties although it does not contain any
metal atoms. It also has unusual electrical and optical properties.
? Thiocyanates contain the SCNí group. Oxidation of thiocyanate gives thiocyanogen
((SCN)2), with the structure NCS-SCN.

(where R, R', and R" are organic groups such as CH3):
? Thioethers have the form *-S-*. These compounds are structurally similar to ethers,
which contain O atoms instead of S atoms.
? Sulfonium ions have the formula RR'S-'R," that is, where three groups are attached to the
cationic sulfur center. Dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP; (CH3)2S+CH2CH2COOí) is a
sulfonium ion that is important in the marine organic sulfur cycle.
? Thiols, also known as , have the form R-SH. These are the sulfur equivalents
of alcohols (which have O atoms instead of S atoms). methyl and ethyl mercaptans are
used to scent natural gas so that leaks are readily detectable. Grapefruit mercaptan is
responsible for the characteristic scent of grapefruit.
? Thiolate ions have the form R-S-. These anions are produced by treatment of thiols with a
base.
? Sulfoxides have the form *-S(=O)-*ƍ. A common sulfoxide is dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO).
? Sulfones have the form *-S(=O)2-*ƍ. A common sulfone is sulfolane C4H8SO2.
å
Carbon disulfide, carbon oxysulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide should all be handled
with care. Sulfur dioxide is sufficiently safe to be used as a food additive in small amounts, but at
high concentrations it reacts with moisture to form sulfurous acid. This acid, in sufficient
quantities, may harm biological tissue, including the lungs and eyes. In creatures without lungs,
such as insects and plants, it prevents respiration.
Hydrogen sulfide is quite toxic²more toxic than cyanide. Although very pungent at first, it
quickly deadens the sense of smell, so potential victims may be unaware of its presence until it is
too late.

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Depiction of a hydrogen atom showing the diameter as about

The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen

The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly

First tracks observed in liquid hydrogen bubble

There are two different types of diatomic

Hydrogen gas is highly flammable and will burn at

2 H2(g) + O2(g) ĺ 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ/mol

The reaction generates a large amount of heat. The

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Aluminum produces H2 upon treatment with an acid or a base:

2H2O(aq) ĺ 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H2O.

Other important methods for H2 production include partial oxidation of hydrocarbons:

Hydrogen is also produced in usable quantities as a co-product of the major petrochemical

H2 is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several

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Atomic mass 4.002602(2) g/mol

unstable at ordinary temperatures and pressures.

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On August 18, 1868, during a total solar eclipse in

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Helium II will "creep" along surfaces in order to find its

Helium II is a superfluid, a quantum-mechanical state

Helium II also exhibits a "creeping" effect. When a

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Because of its low density, helium is the gas of choice to fill

Helium is used for many purposes that take advantage of its

Although neutral helium at standard conditions is nontoxic, a high-pressure mixture of helium

helium ĸ lithium ĺ beryllium

Atomic mass 6.941(2) g/mol

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Lithium pellets (covered in white lithium hydroxide)

Lithium leads the family of elements known as "alkali metals" in

Manufacture of materials, parts, and commercial products

# lithium ĸ beryllium ĺ boron

Atomic mass 9.012182(3) g/mol

Alloys of beryllium with copper or nickel İ - 7

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Beryllium is a significant constituent of about 100 minerals. The

A square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case is

? Beryllium-copper alloys (containing about

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$ beryllium ĸ boron ĺ carbon

Atomic mass 10.811 (7) g/mol

Elemental boron is used as a dopant in the =

Boron nitride nanotubes can be constructed in a form analogous to carbon nanotubes.

? Amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares, to produce a distinctive green flame.

Atomic mass 12.0107(8) g/mol

Additional allotropic forms of carbon, classified as fullerenes, were discovered as byproducts of

Basic phase diagram of carbon, which shows

Carbon can exist in different structural states

Fullerene C540. A lattice of five- and six-membered

A fullerene is composed of a sheet of carbon atoms

Carbon nanofoam was unexpectedly produced by scientists in Australia in 1997*. It consists of

Thousands of carbon compounds²including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids²

Exquisitely cut diamonds are ready to be used in

Carbon and its compounds play significant roles in both

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? Beryllium-copper alloys (containing about

? Amorphous boron is used in pyrotechnic flares, to produce a distinctive green flame.

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? Dried and pressurized nitrogen is used as a dielectric gas for

? The immersion freezing and transportation of food products.

Ñ : In the molecule of a nitride compound, a nitrogen atom is attached to an atom of a

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Perhaps the most familiar reaction of oxygen with other materials is

An additional source of atmospheric oxygen involves reactions known as , whereby

`: Major reservoirs involved in the oxygen cycle

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? spinach (1/2 cup): 80 mg

? Magnesium compounds, primarily magnesium oxide, are used mainly as refractory

Friedrich Wöhler is generally credited with isolating aluminum (Latin

? AlH is produced when aluminum is heated at 1500 °C in an atmosphere of hydrogen.

? Aluminum monoxide, AlO, is present when aluminum powder burns in oxygen.

? Transportation (particularly automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railroad cars, marine vessels,

? Aluminum ammonium sulfate ([Al(NH4)](SO4)2), ammonium alum is used as a mordant,

? Aluminum acetate is a salt used in solution as an astringent.

? Aluminum borohydride (Al(BH4)3) is used as an additive to jet fuel.