1.
SPEED SENSORLESS CONTROL OF INDUCTION
MOTOR
Abstract – This paper presents a novel speed sensor
less vector control for induction motor. Indirect
field orientation concept is used to realize speed
and flux controllers. Speed and rotor flux estimator
has been designed using Extended Kalman Filter
(EKF) technique. With this choice, the sensor less
speed control scheme can achieve fast response as
good as that of drives with sensors, and at the same
time maintain a wide speed control range, with
kalman filter. The performance of the proposed
solution is simulated in Matlab environment.
KEYWORDS: Induction motor, Sensorless control,
Flux estimation, speed estimation, Kalman algorithm
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, a large number of speed Sensorless
vector control systems for induction motor (IM) have
been proposed. Speed information is generally
provided by a speed transducer on the motor shaft;
recently, low cost and high performance digital signal
processors (DSP) become available allowing obtaining
speed by means of digital estimators integrated with
motor control. This solution represents an advantage in
terms-of costs, simplicity and mechanical reliability of
the drive. Several schemes of speed estimators have
been proposed in the literature; among them, the
model reference adaptive system (MRAS) approach is
very attractive and gives good performance [1,2]. The
classical MRAS method is based on the Adaptation of
the rotor flux [3, 4]; with this scheme, some
difficulties in terms of precise and robust speed
estimation arise, especially at low speed. The need of a
pure integration in the speed estimator represents a
drawback in the low speed region, due to drift and low
frequency disturbances; moreover, Parameter
sensitivity (in particular to stator resistance) represents
a usual disadvantage for all model-based estimators
[5]. To overcome these problems, alternative MRAS
schemes based on back-EMF or reactive power [6]
have been presented, but it seems that they don’t solve
troubles at low speed. The common approach to
increase dynamic performance and stability of speed
Sensorless field oriented control systems is the on-line
Parameter adaptation [7, 8, and 9].
The main contribution of this paper is a novel
speed Sensorless vector control based on: a) a speed
and rotor resistance estimator, designed using EKF
technique, b) Indirect field oriented control (IFOC), c)
Suitable adjustments to improve robustness with
respect to parameter variations, measurement errors
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and plant non-ideality. Rotor flux estimation and
other compensations adopted allow enhanced
dynamic performance. Simulation results
illustrate the good performance of this solution,
also in the low speed region. Induction motors
are increasingly used in variable speed drive
applications with the development of vector
control technology [1, 2].There are two forms of
vector or field oriented control: direct field
orientation, which relies on direct measurement
or estimation of the rotor flux, and indirect field
orientation, which utilizes an inherent slip
relation. Though indirect field orientation
essentially uses the command (reference) rotor
flux, some recent works using the actual rotor
flux are reported to achieve perfect decoupling.
In many applications it is neither possible
nor desirable to install speed sensors from the
standpoints of cost, size, noise immunity and
reliability of the induction motor drive. So, the
Development of shaft sensor less adjustable
speed drive has become an important research
topic [9, 10]. There are two major concerns in the
sensorless speed control of induction motor
drive. One is the control scheme, and other one is
the estimation procedure. Both are highly
dependent on the motor parameters. Accurate
estimation of flux and speed in the presence of
measurement and system noise, and parameter
variations is a challenging task. Kalman filter
named after Rudolph E. Kalman1 is one of the
most well known and often used tools for
stochastic estimation. An extensive literature on
Kalman filter and its applications is also
available [12]. The Kalman filter is essentially a
set of mathematical equations that implement a
predictor-corrector type estimator that is optimal
in the sense that it minimizes the estimated error
covariance, when some presumed conditions are
met. For the flux and speed estimation problem
of induction motor, where parameter variation
and measurement noise is present, Kalman filter
is the ideal one.In the present paper, induction
motor model is reviewed in section 2. Input-
output linearization and decoupling scheme is
also discussed. In section 3, the Kalman filter for
flux and speed estimation is presented. Section 4
details the sensor less control scheme. Results
are discussed in section 5.
136
2. INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL
From the voltage equations of the induction motor in Vds =
1
( )
ω i + u1 ................(6)
c e qs
the arbitrary rotating d-q reference frame, the state
1 u2 
space model with stator current and rotor flux Vqs =  pωr (ids + a3ψ dr )+  .......(7)
components as state variables is8
c Ktψ dr 
The induction motor system with these new
d  i s   A11 A12   i s   B1  inputs is decoupled into two linear subsystems:
=  + V
dt ψ r  A 21 A 22  ψ r   0  S electrical, and mechanical. The electrical
subsystem is described by eqns.
Where
T T (8-9).
is = y = ids iqs  , ψ r = ψ dr ψ qr  .
T
i ds = −a1i ds + a2ψ dr + u1.....................(8)
Vs = Vds Vqs  .
ψ dr = ( −a4ψ dr + a4 ids ) .................(9)
A11 = a1I − ωe J , A12 = a2 I − pa3ωr J ,
The mechanical subsystem is described by torque
A 2 = a5 I and speed dynamic eqns. (10-11).
1 0  0 −1 .
T e = ( a1 + a4 − βωr ) Te + u2 ..................(10)
I =  , J =  ……………… (1)
0 1 1 0  .

c = Lr / ( Ls L r − Lm 2 ) ,
a1 = cR s + cR r Lm 2 / Lr 2 ,
a2 = cRr Lm / Lr 2 , a3 = cLm / Lr , a4 = Rr / Lr ,
a5 = Rr Lm / Lr ,
The torque developed by the motor is:
( )
Te = K t ψ dr iqs − ψ qr ids ..........(2)
Where, torque constant, Kt=3PLm/2Lr, P-number of
pole pairs.
The speed dynamics of the motor is given as,
ωr = ( T e −T1 − βωr ) / J ……… (3)
Equations (1) and (3) describe the fifth order state
model of the induction motor. In the motor model
described by eqns (1-3), nonlinearities and interactions
exist. The conditions required for decoupling control
.
of the motor areψ
qr = 0,ψ qr = 0..........(4)
From (1), decoupling is obtained, when
Rr Lm iqs
ωsl = . .............(5)
Lr ψ dr
The nonlinearity in the overall system are eliminated
by using input-output linear zing control
approach8.This approach consists of change of
coordinates and use of nonlinear inputs to linearize the
system equations. Developed torque, Te is considered
as a state variable, replacing iqs to describe the motor
dynamics. Nonlinear control inputs U1 and U2 are
used to linearize8 the input voltages, vds, vqs to the
motor in terms of U1 and U2 are:
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ω r = − ( Te − Tl − βωr ) / J ..................(11)
The state space model of the electrical subsystem
is:
.
x1 = ( A1 x1 + B1u1 ) .................(12)
y1 = C1 x1 ..................(13)
Where X1= [ids ψdr] T, y1-ids , B1= [1 0]T , C1=[1
0]
The state model of the mechanical subsystem is:
.
x 2 = ( A2 x2 + B2u2 + D2TL ) .................(14)
y2 = C2 x2 ..................(15)
Where X2= [Te ωr] T, y2=Te , B2= [1 0]T , C2=[1
0]
D2=[0 -1/J]T
The rotor flux is estimated by applying The
Kalman Filter to discrete time form of eqns.
(12-13). The motor speed ωr is estimated by
applying the same algorithm to discrete time
form of eqns. (14-15). The Kalman’s
algorithm for state estimation in linear systems
is explained in the next section.
3. KALMAN FILTER FOR FLUX AND
SPEED ESTIMATION:
The discrete time model of both electrical
subsystem and mechanical subsystem is:
x(k+1)=F(k)x(k)+u(k)……………………. (16)
y(k)=H(k)x(k)+w(k)………………………(17)
Where, x(k) and y(k) are the state vector and
output, respectively at the k-th sampling instant.
F(k) is the state transition matrix (2×2). is the
measurement matrix (1×2). is the random
disturbance input. It is the sum of physical input
and the system noise. w(k) is the measurement
137
noise. Both u(k) and w(k) are assumed to be white
noise with zero mean.
Let, x^(k)=estimate of x(k) by Kaman’s algorithm
from the measurement of y(k)
x-(k)=extrapolated value of x(k) from the previous
estimate, x^(k)
x^(0) = priori estimate of x(k), or the initial guess of
x^(k)
P(0) = Error covariance matrix of initial guess x^(0)
The first step of Kalman’s algorithm in estimating is to
determine the extrapolated value as follows:
− ^
x(1) = F (0) x(0)
For a general notation at any sampling instant,
dropping the arguments:
− ^
x = F x ..............(18)
Where, x^ is the previous estimate, and x- is the present
extrapolated value based on previous estimate.The
error covariance matrix of the new x- is:
−
P (1) = FP (0) F T + Q
Again dropping arguments for a general notation,
−
P = FPF T + Q..........(19)
Dr. Kalman says the new optimal estimate is:
^ − −
(x=
x + K ( y − H x ..........(20)
Where, K is the Kalman filter gain
The optimal gain of Kalman filter is given by12 :
− −
K = P H T ( H P H T + R )T ..........(21)
The new estimate x^has an error covariance matrix,
which is given
− through eqns. (18-22). Then the estimated rotor
P = ( I − KH ) P( I − KH )T + KRK T .........(22)
The Kalman filter consists of repeated use of eqns .
(18-22) for each measurement.
4. SENSORLESS CONTROL SCHEME
The block diagram of the sensorless speed control
scheme is shown in Fig. 1. This sensorless speed
control system consists of three major parts: P-I
controllers for speed and current, flux weakening
Controller, flux and speed estimator.
4.1 P-I Controllers for speed and current
One P-I controller is used for the flux, or flux
component of current as it is adequate for good
dynamic response. One P-I controller is used for the
speed control, and another for the torque, or torque
component of current. The reason for using two P-I
controllers (one for speed and the other for torque) in a
nested fashion is the significant difference in the time
constants of the speed and current, or the
electromagnetic torque. The design procedure for these
P-I controllers are detailed8. The gains are:
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Kpd = 151.24, Kid = 43640, Kpw = 0.26, Kiw =
1.98, Kpq = 100, Kiq = 29877.
4.2 Flux weakening controller
The flux weakening controller is used to regulate
the magnitude of rotor flux linkage command
such that the motor will operate in constant
torque mode when motor speed is below base
speed and in constant power mode when motor
speed is above the base speed. The flux
weakening control algorithm is as follows.
 ^

 Rψ if ω r ≤ ωb

ψ dr* =  ωb ^  ...............(23)
ψ R ^ if ω r ≥ ωb 
 ω r 
where, ψr = rated rotor flux linkage in V· s
ωb= base speed in rad/s,
ωr^ estimated rotor angular (mechanical) speed
The rotor flux command is then converted to an
equivalent field current command in the rotating
reference frame.
4.3 Flux and Speed Estimator
The flux and speed estimator using Kalman filter
is described in section 3. Only two voltage
sensors and two current sensors are used. Current
measurements are required for both estimation
and control purposes. But, voltage measurements
are taken only for control purpose. Measured
currents are transformed from 3-phase to rotating
d-q reference frame components, ids and iqs,
through the flux vector angle,θe. Current
component, ids is used to estimate the rotor flux
flux and the current component, iqs are used to
determine the developed torque, Te using eqns.
(2) and (4). The speed is estimated by Kalman
filter eqns.(18-22) using this developed torque.
The estimated speed added with slip speed, given
by eqn.(5) is integrated to obtain the flux vector
angle,θe Which is used in coordination
138
transformation.

Fig 1: Block diagram of the sensorless speed control

scheme Fig 2.Simmulation response for speed and flux
5.EXPECTED RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS estimation with step change in speed: (a)Actual
speed,(b)Actual Rotor flux linkages,(c)Estimated
The simulation study of the drive system has been speed,(d)Estimated Rotor Flux Linkages, (e)
carried out with an induction motor whose rating and Error in estimated speed, (f) Error in Estimated
parameters are given in Table 1. Rotor Flux Linkages
Table – 1 Rating and Parameters of the Induction
Motor
Three phase, 50 Hz, 0.75 kW, 220V, 3A, 1440 rpm
Stator and rotor resistances: Rs = 6.37 ., Rr = 4.3
Stator and rotor self inductances: Ls = Lr = 0.26 H
Mutual inductance between stator and rotor: Lm
=0.24 H
Moment of Inertia of motor and load: J = 0.0088 Kg
·m2
Viscous friction coefficient: â = 0.003 N ·m ·s/rad

The rotor flux is estimated by Kaman’s algorithm.

Using the estimated rotor flux speed is also estimated
by Kalman flter. Then the estimated rotor flux and the
estimated speed are used in the input-output
decoupling and linearizing control algorithm. The
simulation result is presented in Fig. 2, for flux and
speed estimation with a step decrease in speed
command from 1500 r/min to 1000 r/min. The
command flux linkage is 0.45 V·s. The estimated FIG 3. Simulation response for speed and flux
speed is similar to the actual speed response, except estimating with step increase in speed and flux
the temporary deep of 27r/min. The actual rotor flux, weakening (a) Actual Speed,(b) Actual Rotor
estimated rotor flux and error in estimation of flux and Flux Linkages,(c) Estimated Speed, (d)Estimated
speed are also shown. For a step increase in speed Rotor Flux Linkages,(e) Error in estimated
command from 1500 r/min to 1800 r/min with Speed,(f)Error in Estimated Rotor Flux Linkages.
weakening of command flux linkage from 0.45
V·s to 0.375 V·s, the simulation result is presented in
Fig. 3. The Estimated speed is similar to the actual
speed response, except the temporary spike of 18
r/min.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 139
6. CONCLUSIONS
The estimation of rotor flux and speed of induction
motor, using Kalman filter is presented. Torque and
rotor flux are decoupled and the induction motor
model is linearize using input output linearization
approach. Rotor flux and speed are estimated by
Kalman filter. Sensorless control of the linearize and
decoupled drive using estimated flux and speed, is
simulated and results presented. Kalman filter is found
to be very good and fast for flux and speed estimation
in the presence of system and measurement noise. The
dynamic response of the sensorless drive is as fast as
that of drives with physical sensors. Sensorless speed
control scheme works for a wide speed control range.
7.REFERENCES
[1] K. S. Narendra and A. M. Annaswamy. Stable
adaptiveSystems. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1989.
[2] Y. D. Landau. Adaptive control - The model
referenceapproach. Marcel Dekker Inc., 1979.
[3]Colin Schauder. Adaptive speed identification for
vectorcontrol of induction motors without rotational
transducers.IEEE Trans. Indust. Appl., 28(5):1054–
1061, Set1992.
[4] H. Tajima and Y. Hori. Speed sensorless field-
orientation control of the induction machine. IEEE
Trans. Indust.Appl., 29(1):175–180, Jan/Feb 1993.
[5]R. Blasco-Gimenez, G. M. Asher, M. Sumner, and
K.J.Bradley. Dynamic performance limitations for
MRASbased sensorless induction motor drives. Part 1:
Stability analysis for the closed loop drive. IEEE Proc.
Electr.
Power Appl., 143(2):113–122, Mar 1996.
[6] Fang-Zheng Peng and Tadashi Fukao. Robust
speed identification for speed-sensorless vector control
of induction motors. IEEE Trans. Indust. Appl.,
30(5):1234–1240, Sep/Oct 1994.
[7] W. Leonhard, Control of Electrical Drives,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
[8] D. W. Novotny,and R. D. Lorenz (eds.),
“Introduction to Field Orientation and High
Performance AC Drives”, IAS Annual Meetings:
Tutorial book, IEEE, 1986.
[9]H. Kubota, and K. Matsuse, “Flux observer of
induction motor with parameter adaption for wide
speed range motor drives”, Proc. IPEC, pp. 1213-
1218, Tokyo, 1990
[10] Y. Hori,V. Cotter,and Y. Kaya, “A novel
induction machine flux observer and its application to
a high performance ac drive system”, Procc. of 10th
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com
IFAC World Congress, IFAC, Munich, July
1987.
[11]G.C.Verghese,and S. R. Sanders, “Observers
for flux estimation in induction machines”, IEEE
Trans. on Indust. Elec, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 85-94,
1988.
[12] P. L. Jansen, and R. D. Lorenz, “A
physically insightful approach to the design and
accuracy assessment of flux observers for field
oriented induction machine drives”, IEEE Trans.
on Ind. Appl., vol. IA-30, no. 1, pp. 101-110,
1994.
[12]. Y. Hori, and T. Umeno, “Flux observer
based field orientation (FOFO) controller for
high performance torque control”, Proc. IPEC,
pp. 1219-1226, Tokyo, 1990.
[13] K. B. Mohanty, Study of Different
Controllers and Implementation for an Inverter
Fed Induction Motor Drive, Ph. D. Thesis, IIT
Kharagpur, May 2001.
[14] K. Ohnishi, N. Matsui, and Y. Hori,
“Estimation, identification and sensorless control
in motion control system,” Proc. of IEEE, vol.
82, no. 8, pp. 1253-1265, Aug. 1994.
8. BIOGRAPHIES
K.Bhaskar, He received B.Tech. in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering from N.I.T
WARANGAL in 2006 and perusing M.Tech
(2006-2008)in Electrical Engineering from
Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of
Technology(PS&PE) (C.B.I.T).
K.Krishnaveni, she is working as ASSOCIATE
PROPESSOR in Chitanya Bharathi Institute of
technology, gandipeta (Hyderabad) she has
presented a thesis On FLEXIBLE A.C.
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS in J.N.T.U
HYDERABAD
140
 2. Modelling and Simulation of Interline Power Flow
Controller
D. Ravishankar, Dr. K.Udayakumar, professor

Abstract—An Interline power flow controller is VSC
based FACTS controller for series compensation with
in same corridor of a transmission line. FACTS
controllers can control series impedance, shunt
impedance, current, voltage and phase angle. Real power
can be transferred via common dc-link between the
VSC’S and each VSC is capable of exchanging reactive
power with its own transmission system .In this paper,
the different controller circuit models of IPFC is modeled
and simulated in PSPICE software package and the
power balance between two transmission lines is clearly
analyzed.
Index Terms—flexible ac transmission, static
synchronous series compensator ,interline power flow
controller
unique capability of power flow management
among multi lines with
active/reactive power between transmission lines
and transfer power from overloaded lines to
under loaded lines.[10]
2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF IPFC
The interline power flow controller employs a
number of dc to ac inverters each providing series
compensation for a different line. and the
compensating inverters is shown in fig 1.

1. INTRODUCTION

T HE ac transmissible power can be approximated

as P=(Vs*Vr*sin δ)/X .Suitable adjustments of any
of these parameters can achieve power flow control.
Mechanical switches based traditional approaches
cannot realize full utilization of transmission system
due to large stability margin. FACTS controllers can
be grouped into two types—Thyristor controlled
FACTS controllers and VSC based FACTS controllers
.Power electronic based FACTS controllers can
internally generate both real power and reactive power
without the use of ac capacitors or reactors and
facilitate both real power and reactive power flow.
[1,2]VSC based FACTS controllers include static
synchronous(
compensator(STATCOM),for shunt reactive power
compensation static synchronous series compensator
Fig1.interline power flow controller (ipfc)
(SSSC)for series reactive power compensation, unified
comprising n converters
power flow controller (UPFC) with unique capability
of independently both the active and reactive power
flow in the line and interline power flow controller.
[2,3,4]
The interline power flow controller(IPFC) Concept
compensates the problem of compensating a number
of transmission lines at sub station .the IPFC consists
of two or more SSSC with a common dc link ,so,each
SSSC contains a VSC that is in series with the
transmission line through a coupling transformer and
injects a voltage with controllable magnitude and Fig.2.Schematic diagram of two-converter IPFC.
phase angle. IPFC provide independent control of
reactive power of each individual line , while active Consider an IPFC scheme consisting of two
power could be transferred via dc link between back to back dc to ac inverters, each
compensated lines. An IPFC used to equalize
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 141
compensating a transmission line transmission systems
employ self commutated inverters as synchronous
voltage sources .the power electronic based voltage
sources can internally generate and absorb reactive
power without the use of capacitors and inductors
.they can facilitate both real and reactive power
compensation and can independently control real and
reactive power flow.
Fig.3.
v1s to produce the effective sending end
voltage .as r1 is varied over 360 range the locus
moves along a circle with its centre at end of v1s.
3. MODELLING OF IPFC
A SSSC is VSC based FACTS controller for
series power injection and IPFC is a combination
of two SSSCs. Coupled with common DC link
for two identical transmission lines. So here a
VSC based FACTS controller SSSC which is
apart of IPFC with a transmission line is
modeled. The power control and Receiving end
voltage varies with the variation of firing angle is
analyzed. A transmission line is modeled as
series R,L and it is terminated with a load .the
VSC based FACTS controller is modeled and
connected to transmission line. the voltage
variations are clearly analyzed.
S1 +
S 2
+

basic two inverter interline power flow controller

V 2 D 6
+ + - -
V5 D5
- -
S
S

Consider an IPFC scheme consisting of two back to

0
0

1 00 0V d c V7

back inverters each compensating a transmission line +

S4
+ D8 +
S 3
+
D 7

by series voltage injection. the arrangement is shown

V4 - - V 3 - -
S

in FIG.3where two synchronous voltage sources V1pq 0 0

0

&V2pq,in series with transmission lines 1 and

-
+
E 1

2represent to back to back inverters .the common dc

R2 L2 L4

-
+
1 2 1 2 1 2 E
3 0m H
.0 0 1 30 m H

link is represented by directional link for real power 1

R 5

exchange between voltage sources. the sending and

42
2

receiving voltages are assumed to be

V A M P L = 1 1 00 0 V 6
FR EQ = 50 L3
1 00 m H

equal.V1s=V2s=V1r=V2r=1.0p.u. with fixed angles 2

resulting in identical transmission lines with fixed 0

angles δ1= δ2=30.for two systems.[2]
The System 1is selected to be prime system for which
controllability is real power and reactive power is
stipulated. the reason for stipulation is free
controllability of system 1imposes on power control of
system 2.[2]
fig5. a transmission line model with SSSC(a part
of IPFC)A transmission line shows improved
receiving end voltage and power handling
capability is increased.
4..SIMULATION RESULTS
The interline power flow controller two
identical transmission lines(impedance, torque
angle, voltage).upper line operating at
11Kv(overloaded) and lower line under loaded
10kv.when it is uncompensated IPFC is disabled
and it is enabled when two transmission lines are
connected diode bridge and VSC based converter
.coupled with DC link and connected with
current controllers and voltage controllers.

.fig 4 phasor diagram of system1

. fig4 is phasor diagram defining relationship
between V1s,Vx1and inserted phasor V1pq.the
inserted voltage is added to fixed end voltage phasor

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 142
 Fig 1 0KV
R 3 L1 L5
1 2 1 2 1 2
.0 0 1 30 m H 3 0m H
H 1 2

+ -
H R 1
10
1

1
V 1
V O FF = 0 L6

FR E Q = 50 10 0m H

V A M P L = 11 00 0
2
0V
0

S 2
S 1
+ +
+ + V 2 - -
V 5 - -
S
D 1 D 3 S

1 0
0
C 1
2 50 m

S 4 S 3 -1 0KV
D 2 D 4 V 4
+ +
- - V 3
+ +
- - 2 . 9 0 2 s . 9 1 2s . 9 2 2s . 9 3 2 s . 9 4 2s . 9 5 2s . 9 6 2s . 9 7 2 s . 9 8 2s . 9 3 9 . s 0 0 s
S
V ( V 6 : +V ,( 0L )4 : 2 , 0 )
0 0 Ti me

fig6b.receiving end voltages with

0
IPFCenabled delayed by 90 degrees
-
+

E 1
-+

E
R 2 L2 L4
1 2 1 2 1 2
.0 0 1 30m H
3 0m H Influence of the Compensation voltage
depends on two factors (i) Magnitude of DC
1

R 5

link voltage, (ii) Vector position of the

10
2

compensation voltage with respect to the line

1
V 6
V O FF = 0 L3
V A M P L = 1 00 00
FR E Q = 50 1 00m H
current.
2
2 0 K V
0

.6.two compensated lines i.e. with IPFC enabled

20KV

0 V

0V

- 2 0 K V
2 . 9 02 s. 9 12 s. 9 22 s. 9 32 s. 9 42 s. 9 52 s. 9 62 s. 9 72 s. 9 82 s. 93 9. s0 0 s
-20KV
2 . 9 0 s2 . 9 1 s2 . 9 2 s2 . 9 3 s2 . 9 4 s2 . 9 5 s2 . 9 6 s2 . 9 7 s2 . 9 8 s2 . 9 39 .s 0 0 s V ( R 2 : V2 (, L0 2) : 1 V, (E 1L :2 4: )1 , 0 )
V ( V 1 : + V, (0 L) 5 : 2 , 0 ) T i m e
Time

Fig6c.lower end sending end voltage

Fig.6.receiving end voltages with IPFC disabled
Under uncompensated IPFC disabled condition
for the two lines upper and lower sending end
voltage, receiving end voltage, load power
across resistor and inductor recorded. It is
observed that the lower line delivers lower
power to the load. To correct the under loaded
condition power is tapped from the upper line
to enable lower line to deliver normal power
to
compensation voltage and resultant voltage
For easy simulation vector position of injected
compensation voltage is referred with respect to
the sending end voltage. Four cases
considered. (i) -90° (ii) -180° (iii) -270° (iv)
0°Cases ..so, in this paper the firing angles are
varied from 0 to 360° and it was observed that
variation of firing angles from 0° to -180° on
load line-2 (under loaded)P2 2(under loaded)P2 and
Q2 increases. Attains a maximum value between
-270° and 0°line -2 power transfer capability
increases due to IPFC dc link. both real and
reactive power increases and voltage levels of
line-2 increases.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 143
 40MW

TABLE.1. results for various firing angles.

comp V1s V2s V1r V2r P1 P2
20MW

-90° 11 10 8.5 8.5 1.1 0.9

-180° 11 10 8.5 6.5 1.1 0.6 0W

-270° 11 10 8.5 9 1.1 0.9

0 11 10 8.5 9 1.0 1.2 - 20MW

5. SIMULATION OF CLOSED LOOP IPFC - 40MW

0s 0.5s 1 . 0s 1.5 s 2 .0 s

SYSTEM
W(L 8)
T i me

Fig7b.voltage across switch

In the control circuit the ac voltages are rectified using
diode bridge rectifiers. The outputs of rectifiers are Real powers in lines 1&2 are shown in
attenuated using potential dividers .The outputs of Figures7c&7d.The reactive power through lines
lines 1&2 are applied to the 1&2 are shown inFigures 7e & 7f respectively.
From the above Figures, Itcan be observed that the
R 12 L 4 R 1 3 L5
real power increases when theIPFC is enabled
1 2 1 2
2 .5 1 1 .5 m 2 .5 1 1 .5 m
F2
D 13 D 15
F 4 .0 MW

R 14
M U R 150 M U R 15 0
10
V 3
V O F F = 0
3 .0 MW
V A M P L = 10 000 2
F R E Q = 5 0
L 9
D 14 D 16
15 m
2 .0 MW

M U R 1 5 0M U R 1 5 0
S 6
V 1 1 0 C 2
+ +
V O FF = 0 - -
V A M P L = 2 000 1 .0 MW
4 000 u
FR E Q = 5 0 S R 19
V O F F = 0 .0 VR 1
TD = 1 V O N = 2
R 2 50 . 0 9 k 9 9 .1 k
1 000 k 0W
0.814 s 0. 85 0s 0.9 00 s 0. 95 0s 1.000 s 1. 050s 1.1 00s 1. 15 0s 1. 191s
W (R14)
Ti me
30 000
U 2
0 R 2 1 2k
0 - Fig7c.real power of the 1st line
E 6
O U T R 2 3
+
+ 149.7MW
R 26
-
- +
1 k 1 k
R 2 4
H 6 E O P A M P
R 17 L 6 R 1 6 L 7 0 0 30 k
+-

1 2 H 1 2
0
1 1 .5 m 1 1 .5 m
D 1 7 D 18
100.0MW
2 .5 2 .5 R 15
10 M U R 150 M U R 15 0

2
V O F F = V0 4 D 1 9 D 20
V A M P L = 10 000 L 8
F R E Q = 5 0
15 m M U R 150 M U R 15 0 50 .0M W

C 3
1 0
400 0u
R 20 R 2 1

0 .1 k 9 9 .9 k 0W
0.8 496 s 0.8 800 s 0 .9 200 s 0 .96 00s 1 .00 00s 1. 040 0s 1.0 80 0s 1 .1 20 0s

0
.
W( R1 5)

--
T ime

Fig7a.closed loop IPFC system. fig7d.real power of the 2nd line

differential amplifier. IPFC is enabled when the voltages
are different .The circuit model of closed loop system is
shown in fig 7a .The voltage across the switch S is shown
in fig 7b.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 144
 1.0MW
presented..It is observed that the real and reactive
powers are increased by the presence of IPFC.

0.5MW
References
[1].L.Gyugyi, “Application Characteristics of
0W Converter-Based FACTS Controllers”, International
Conference on PowerCon 2000, Vol.1, pp.391~396

[2] L.Gyugyi, K.K.Sen, C.D.Schauder, “The Interline

Power Flow Controller Concept: A New Approach to
- 0.5 MW

Power Flow Management in Transmission Systems”,

IEEE/PES Summer Meeting, Paper No. PE-316-
- 1.0 MW PWRD-0-07-1998, San Diego, July 1998
0.861s 0.900s 0.950s 1. 000 s 1.050s 1.100s 1.150s 1. 20 0s
W( L9 )
Time
[3] L.Gyugyi, K.K.Sen, C.D.Schauder, “The Interline
Fig7e.reactive power of line1 Power Flow Controller Concept: A New Approach to
Power Flow Management in Transmission Systems”,
39. 7M W

IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 14, No. 3,

pp.1115~1123, July 1999.
20. 0M W

[4] I.Papic, P.Zunko, D.Povh, M.Weinhold, “Basic

Control of Unified Power Flow Controller”, IEEE
0W
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 12, No. 4,
pp.1734~1739, Nove
[5]Jianhong Chen, Tjing T.Lie.D.M.Vilathgamua.
-2 0.0M W

“Basic Control Interline Power Flow Controller:, IEEE

Trans, 2002.
-4 0.0M W
0 .9 0s
W (L 8 )
0. 9 5s 1. 00 s 1.05s 1.1 0s 1. 15s 1 .2 0 s
[6] I.Papic, P.Zunko, D.Povh, M.Weinhold, “Basic
Control of Unified Power Flow Controller”, IEEE
Time

fig7e.reactive power of line 2 Transactions on ower Systems, Vol. 12, No. 4,

pp.1734~1739, November 1997.
VI.CONCLUSION
[7] I.J.Nagrath and D.P.Kothari, “Modern Power
System Analysis”, Second Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
The FACTS controller IPFC to be located at the Publishing Company Limited, NewDelhi.
sub-station for a transmission system with more than
one line can corrects the imbalance on account of line [8] G.K.Dubey, S.R.Doradla, A.Joshi and
over-loading and under-loading to enable transmission R.M.K.Sinha,” Thyristor Power Controllers”, New
lines to be operated up to its thermal limits without Age International(P) Limited, Publishers, New Delhi-
compromising the stability Circuit model with various 110002.
firing angles and various voltages were simulated to
study the real and reactive power flows. The circuit [9] Jianhong Chen, Tjing T.Lie.D.M.Vilathgamua.
model for open loop and closed loop systems are “Basic Control Interline Power Flow Controller:, IEEE
Trans, 2002.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 145
 3. ANALYSIS OF CHOPPER FED D.C. DRIVE WITH PWM &
HYSTERESIS CURRENT CONTROL SCHEME
* MAULIK. R. DHANDHARA ** SABHA RAJ ARYA *** Mrs. V.A. SHAH

ABSTRACT- The work presented in this

paper deals with the analysis of chopper
Elementary Chopper circuit
controlled DC drive. Performance of DC
drive with open loop (conventional and
PWM) and closed loop has been done. After
analysis, it is found that using chopper
circuit in open loop does not give accurate
result as compared to theoretical value as
well as in terms of quality. To avoid this
draw-back, closed loop control system is
taken for drive control. Using Hysteresis
current control, it is observed that
performance has been improved and
output characteristics are satisfactory.
Key word: chopper, PWM, Hysteresis current
control
INTRODUCTION In DC shunt motor the speed is
approximately a constant speed. The speed drop
from no load to full load is generally less than 5 to
6%. called as constant speed motor. In a
separately excited dc motor the field winding is
separately connected to an external source. This
motor are almost exclusively used for variable
speed drive as it can be easily adopted to the
load requirement. Different type of control for
speed are used i.e. field control armature voltage Fig 1( a & b)-chopper circuit & output parameter
control etc. But armature voltage control method
are generally used. The speed regulation
depends on the armature circuit resistance which chopped load voltage as shown in figure(1) is obtained from
is practically very less. The speed torque a constant D.C supply of magnitude VS. During the period
characteristics of this motor is a straight line i.e. Ton, the chopper is on and Vo= VS . During the interval Toff,
the speed decreases with increasing in load. This chopper is off, load current flows through the free wheeling
type of motor are used where good speed diode and Vo is zero, a chopped d.c voltage is produce at
regulation and adjustable speed is required. It Ton
has wide range of speed control. the load terminal in continuous. V0 = .V s
Ton +Toff
----------------------------------------------------------- = α . Vs , V0 = f . Ton . V s
*MAULIK.R.DHANDHARA (M.Tech.student),
**SABHARAJ ARYA (Lecturer), where α is called duty cycle, f = chopping
*** Mrs. V.A. SHAH(Asst. Professor) SVNIT – frequency.
SURAT-395001

CONTROL STRATEGIES
Output voltage Vo can be controlled through α by opening
and closing the semiconductor switch periodically.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 146
 (a) Const frequency System :Ton is varied
but chopping frequency f is kept constant.
adjustment of Pulse width as such this
scheme is also called Pulse – width –
modulation scheme or time ratio control
(TRC) scheme,.
(b) Variable frequency Scheme The
f
chopping frequency ‘ ’ is varied and either
Ton of Toff is kept Const. this method of
controlling ‘α ’ is also called frequency
modulation Scheme High efficiency of 70%
to 95% are typically obtained using
switched-mode, or chopper, circuits. Pulse-
.
width modulation (PWM) allows control and
regulation of the total output voltage. A Fig(2) PWM CONTROLLING SCHEME
basic dc-dc converter circuit known as the
The output voltage is sensed and is compared with a reference
buck converter is illustrated in Fig.1. An
SPDT switch is connected to the dc input voltage Vr . The resulting error signal is compensated to derive
voltage V g as shown. The switch network analog voltage Vc (t ) . The pulse-width modulator produces a
changes the dc component of the voltage. switched voltage waveform that controls the gate of the power
Since 0≤ D ≤ 1, the dc component of V s is switch Q1. If this control system is designed such that duty cycleis
automatically adjusted and v follows the reference voltage Vr
less than or equal to V g . In addition to dc
independent of variations in V g or load current.
voltage component V s , V s (t ) contains
CHOPPER CONTROL DC DRIVE
undesired harmonics of the switching
frequency. A low-pass filter is employed for this the constant-voltage d.c supply input allows improved
purpose converter of Fig. contains a single- power factor and wave form of A.C side. Also the relatively high
section L-C low-pass filter. The filter has corner chopping frequency employed permits reduced ripple current,
1 which ensures better motor performance as well as reduced time
frequency f 0 = . lay in the system response due to the lower value of filter
2π LC
inductance required. However energy is lost at each commutation
the conversion ratio M(D) is defined as the
and the efficiency of the chopper decreases as the chopping
ratio of the dc output voltage V to the dc input frequency is increased.

voltage Vg under stead-state condition: In CLC ,α is varied in directly by controlling the motor
current between certain specified maximum and minimum values.
In effect, this type of control is a variable frequency control,
V
M ( D) = For the buck converter, M(D) is variable on-time and off-time. The diagram of a chopper fed to a
Vg motor load is shown in below.
given by M(D) = D Chopper control of separately excited dc moto:
When δ (t) is high (for 0< t < DTs), then A chopper controlled separately excited dc motor drive is
MOSFET Q1 conducts with negligible drain-to- shown in Fig.(3)
source voltage. Hence, Vs(t) is approximately Raia + La dia/dt+ E=V, 0 ≤ t ≤ ton
equal to Vg , and the diode is reverse-biased. The
positive inductor current i1(t) flows through the In this interval, armature current increases from ia1to ia2.
MSOFET. Since motor is connected to the source during this interval.
control system: control system can be constructed. Which is called duty interval.
that varies the duty cycle to cause the output voltage to
follow a given reference Vr Figure(2) shown below
illustrates the block diagram of a simple converter
feedback system

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 147
 The permanent magnet DC motor may be represented by small
L/R ratio.
Average motor current is a function of the electrical time constant
of the motor,τ a, where. τ a = L/R For a PWM waveform with a
period T the ratio of pulse width to switching period is denoted by
δ . The average pulse current will depend upon the ratio of the
current pulse width, δ T, to the motor electrical time constant, τ a.

Va b) Va

Vdc Vdc

ia ia

Figure(3): - Chopper Control of Separately

T
Excited DC Motor dT

Raia + La dia/dt+ E=0, ton ≤ t ≤ T

Motor current decreases from ia2 to ia1 during this Fig(5) instantaneous motor current waveforms
interval.
1 t on
Figure5 (a) High inductance motor & Figure 5(b) Low inductance
From Fig. (3) Va =
T ∫
0
Vdt =δ V
motor .

Now we have
Ia = (δ V- E) / Ra , ωm = δ V/ K – RaT/K2 Motor which has high armature inductance will require a lower
PWM drive frequency in order to establish the required current
levels, and hence develop the necessary torque. A low inductance
motor allows the use of a high switching drive frequency thus
resulting in an overall faster system response, the printed circuit

Banking motor
Va is one of the lowest inductance DC motors available with

Motoring electrical time constants in the order of 100 us, allow these motors
to be used with switching rates as high as 100kHz, with typical

Regenerative drive circuits being operated at 10kHz.Motor current control, and

δ increasing
fig(4)The nature of speed torque characteristics
CONTROL SCHEME AND COMPONENTS
Principle of the PWM DC motor drive
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com
hence torque control, is achieved by varying the width of the
applied pulsed waveforms. This is done in open look as well as in
ω
closed loop situation. . Open loop situations are situations in which
duty ration is fixed but closed loop situations are those in which the
duty ratio not necessarily is fixed but may depend on the state of
converter. For the close loop case amounts to computation that
148
are numerically far less involved than the computations
The current drawn from the supply will consequently be less than
in averaging. The computations can easily be perform
that drawn at start-up due to the effect of the motor back emf term,
also including higher harmonics. Ea. For a given PWM duty cycle ratio, δ , the motor reaches a
PWM Motor control: The current in the motor quiescent speed governed by the load torque and damping friction.
winding rises exponentially at a rate governed Maximum motor torque is required at start-up in order to accelerate
mainly by average supply voltage and motor the motor and load inertias to the desired speed. The current
inductance. If the pulse width is close to the time required at start-up is therefore also a maximum. At the end of the
constant of the motor then the current at the end starting ramp the controller duty cycle is reduced because less
of the first pulse will reach nearly 60% of its current is then needed to maintain the motor speed at its steady
maximum value, lmax = Vdc/Ra . This is Sown as l1 in state value.
fig.4. For the remainder of the PWM cycle switch
S1 is off and motor current decays through the
diode at a rate dependant upon the external
circuit constants and internal motor leakage
currents, according to the equation:

ia = I1e −( t −δt ) / τ a
The motor current at the end of the period, T,
Fig (7) MOTOR CURRENT WAVEFORM, τ a << T
remains at a level l2, which is then the starting current
For a low inductance motor where the electrical time constant is
for the next cycle, as shown in Fig.(6)
much less than the duty cycle then the motor current waveform will
va
closely follow the applied voltage waveform, as shown in
Fig.above. An approximate expression for the average motor
t
current is given by:
Ia
Vdc − E a
I ave = δ
Ra
t In summary, the principle control variable in the
PWM motor control system is ‘duty cycle’, δ Motor torque
Fig. (6) Motor current waveforms at start-up and velocity can be tightly
As the switching sequence repeats, sufficient current
controlled by controlling the PWM duty cycle and motor
begins to flow to give an accelerating torque and thus
current.
cause armature rotation. As soon as rotation begins,
BASIC HYSTERESIS CONTROLLER
back emf is generated which subtracts from the supply
Basic self oscillating controllers is based on hysteresis
voltage. controller. The hysteresis controller can be made with either
The motor equation then becomes: a current or a voltage loop.
La. di a / dt + Ra. ia = Vα - Ea The benefits of hysteresis controllers are primarily the linear
modulation caused by the saw-tooth shaped carrier with ideally

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 149
straight slopes, and by the infinite power supply
∗
rejection ratio PSRR, if the supply variation can be ia ≤ ia - ∆ i , Set Va =Vs
considered by very slow compare by the switching ∗
ia ≥ ia + ∆ I , Reset Va = o
frequency. Power supply variation at higher frequencies
are not suppressed totally, and will result in sum and
difference products of the reference signal and the
power supply variation, but these steel meets high
suppression for use in audio amplifier applications the
hysteresis controller is very desirable due to the high
linearity and simple design. However hysteresis
controller suffers from a switching frequency dependent
on the modulation index, M, of the amplifier. All other
types of self oscillating modulator suffers this
phenomena too.
The basic operation of the current mode hysteresis
operation is : The out put inductor integrates the Fig(8): HYSTERESIS –CONTROLLER OPERATION
differential voltage between the out put voltage of the
power stage and the out put voltage of the amplifier.The
If disadvantages of this controller is higher Switching loss due to
the out put voltage of the amplifier can be considered
the high switching frequency. Hysteresis control is inherently
constant within one switching period the integration
Robust, Since the Switchs Operate to enforce a desired O/P,
results in a saw-tooth shaped inductor current, whichirrespective
is of time scale or line or load values. There are still
subtracted from the reference current programming fundamental limitations but (a low voltage i/p bus can force only a
voltage, and fed into a hysteresis window to control limited
the current slew rate on inductor for instance), but hysteresis
switching frequency by controlling the time delay can help keep a converter near any feasible operating condition.
through the controller loop. In hysteresis control, The
the loop gain function is
power converter O/P is monitored an active switch (1 + ST M )
ia ( s )
operates as the O/P crosses the threshold. The =K
ia * ( s ) (1 + ST1 )(1 + ST 2 ) + H C * K (1 + STr )
simplest technique is to compare the O/P to a reference
wave form, Switching on when the O/P is too low and
Where K=Kc*Kr*Ki ,TM= mechanical time constant
when it is too high.
,Tr=converter time delay
The current is controlled with in a narrows band
Speed feed back filter is used in the control system. The
of excursion from its desired value in the hysteresis
parameter of filter which are in the MATLAB simulation
controller. The hysteresis window determines the
programme are the combination parameter of tachno
allowable or present deviation of current
generater & filter. The transfer function of speed feed back
Commanded current and actual current are shown in
filter is Gω(s)=Hω / (1+STω) =0.065/(1+0.01s)
the fig. with the hysteresis windows. The voltage
RESULTS:
applied to the load is determined by the following logic.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 150
SIMULATION OF CHOPPER FED DC DRIVE WITH
PWM CONTROL

The simulation results such that the out put of the DC

drive with PWM control (Armature speed, Armature
(d) Current variation when full load (4.54 Nm) is applied
Current & Out put electro magnetic torque ) are shown
suddenly
in figure. Both steady state and ripple present in the
Fig(9) Drive behavior in PWM control under sudden load
speed current and torque at no load condition also
application.
shown in the result figure(9).
SIMULATION FOR CHOPPER FED DC DRIVE WITH
HYSTERESIS CURRENT CONTROL

A simple chopper dc drive with hysteresis control is designed

and simulated in MATLAB . result are shown in fig (10) at
different load

(a)Speed variation of PWM control dc motor started

with no load

(a) Speed variation of dc motor started with no load

(b)Current variation of PWM control dc motor started

with no load (b) Speed variation when full load (4.54 Nm) is applied
suddenly

(c) Speed variation when full load (4.54 Nm) is

applied suddenly (c) Current variation when full load (4.54 Nm) is applied
suddenly
Fig.. (10) Drive behavior in Hysteresis current control under
sudden load application.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 151
 The simulation results such that the out put of In this work separately excited d.c motor drive with the
the DC drive with Hysteresis control (Armature speed,
control strategies are simulated using SIMULINK tool box of
Armature Current & Out put electro magnetic torque
MATLAB
) Software Package. This control can also be applied to a
are shown in figure. Both steady state and ripple
real drive by using Hardware.
present in the speed current and torque at no load
condition also shown in the result fig.(10). REFERENCES:
Comparison: the comparison table between theoretical
1 . B.H. KHAN, G.K.DUBEY & SESHAGINI R. DORADLA, “AN ECONOMICAL

value are shown in table (1) FOUR-QUADRANT GTO CONVERTER AND ITS APPLICATION TO DC DRIVE”, IEEE
Speed & No load Half load Full load TRAN. ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 8, NO. 1 JAN 1993.
current 2. JOACHIM HOLTZ & BERND BEYER, “FAST CURRENT TRAJECTORY TRACKING
Theoretical 175.4 - 166 rad/sec CONTROL BASED ON SYNCHRONOUS OPTIMAL PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION”,
value rad/sec IEEE INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS SOCIETY ANNUAL MEETING, DENVER, 1994.
0.69 amp. - 5.1 amp. 3. AKIRA NABAE, SATOSHI OGASAWARA & HIROFURNI AKAGI, “ A NOVEL
PWM 175.20 167.16 161.235
CONTROL SCHEME FOR CURRENT — CONTROLLER PWM INVERTER”,
control rad/sec rad/sec rad/sec
IEEE TRAN. ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS VOL. IA-22, NO. 4,
0.68 amp. 2.6 amp. 5.1 amp.
Hysteresis 174 174.95 174.93 JULY/AUGUST 1986.
current rad/sec rad/sec rad/sec 4. LUIGI MALESANI, PAOLO MATTAVELLI AND PAOLO TOMASIN, “IMPROVED
control 0.61 amp. 2.45 amp. 5.1 amp. CONSTANT
FREQUENCY HYSTERESIS CURRENT CONTROL OF VSI INVERTERS WITH.
Table (1) : CONCLUSION AND SCOPE FOR
SIMPLE FEEDJÖRWARD
FUTURE WORK:
BAN WIDTH PREDICTION”, IEEE TRAN. ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS,
The simulation work of gate pulse, PWM and hysteresis
VOL. 33, NO. 5,
current control of chopper fed separately excited d.c
SEP/OCT 1997.
motor drive, demonstrates that the hysteresis control is
5. PROF. STVAN NAGY & ZOLTAN SUTO, “ NON-LINEAR PHENOMENON IN
more accurate control among the three scheme and is
CURRENT CONTROL ()FIFLDUCTIOFL MOTOR”, IEEE PRESS, PP 328-
able to over come the disadvantages of gate pulse and
33 1.
PWM control of d.c motor drive. This improve
6. JOCOVE W. VANDER WOUDE, WILLEM L. DE KONING & YUSUF FUAD, “ ON
performance is possible due to the current control in the
THE PERIODIC BEHAVIOR OFPWM DC- DC CONVERTERS”, IEEE TRAN. ON
hysteresis band i.e. the out put of motor compares with
POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 17, NO. 4, JULY 2002.
a reference waveform and the chopper switch is on
7. SOREN POULSEN AND MICHAEL A. E. ANDERSEN, “HYSTERESIS CONTROLLER
when the output is low or off when the output is high.
WITH CONSTANT SWITCHING FREQUENCY”.
The deviation in speed incase of hysteresis current
8. ROBERT W. ERICKSON DRAGAN MAKSIMOVIC, FUNDAMENTALS OFPOWER
control as compare to the ideal case is very less. In
ELECTRONIC 2ND EDITION 2001, PAGE 657-659.
hysteresis current control output characteristics is
9. N. MOHAN, T. UNDELAND, W. ROBBINS, POWER ELECTRONICS. CONVERTERS,
uniformed but in case of pulse , it is non uniform and in
APPLICATIONS, DESIGN, 3’ EDITION, NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS 2003.
PWM it is intermediate. This hysteresis control is
10 . R. KRISHNAN ELECTRIC MOTOR DRIVES MODELING ANALYSIS AND CONTROL
possible only in buck converter.
1 ST EDITION

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 152
2003.
11. PROF DR. M. MARARI, DR. F.J. KRAUS, “C’ONTROI OF

SEPARATELY EXCITED D.C. MOTOR”,AUTOMATION CONTROL

LABORATORY, SUMMER TERM 2005.

12. VEDARN SUBRAHMANYAM , ELECTRIC DRIVE , CONCEPT &
APPLICATION , TATA MCGRAW- HILL PUBLISHING COMPANY LTD. 9T1
EDITION 2002

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 153
APPENDIX
Data considered for simulation(PWM)
For 1 H.P. DC motor (From the machine
calculation)
Armature resistance = Ra=3Ω
Armature inductance = La=56mH
Field resistance= Rf = 570 Ω
Field inductance = Lf =13.5H
Mutual inductance = 2.75 H
2
Moment of inertia J= 0.1kg-m
Frictional constant = Bt = 0.03 N.m / (rad/ sec)
Motor field voltage = Vf = 220volt
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com
For step function :
Initial step = 0.3638 (From PWM calculation)
Final step = 0.3638
For repeating sequence : Frequency = Fc =
1KHz
FOR HYSTERESIS CURRENT CONTROL:
Magnitude of Amplitude = 2
Gain of speed controller Ks= 373.529
For current controller Hc = 1.135294
Speed reference ωref = 157 rad / sec
For filter numerated part 0.065 & denominated
part (1+0.01s)
154
4. Harmonic Reduction in a Single-Switch, Three-Phase Boost Rectifier
with High Order Harmonic Injected PWM
V. Krishna Murthy, Roll. No. 010611-204 ,M.E (IDC) PTPG – V Semester
College Of Engineering, Osmania University.

Abstract
 A Traditional three -phase controlled
rectifiers draw non- sinusoidal currents from
the source, the power quality of the
distribution network is greatly deteriorated,
resulting in low efficiency of utilities.
 Switching mode rectifiers have gained greater
attention as a good solution, since they draw
perfect sinusoidal currents from the power
distribution network.
 Among switching mode rectifiers, a single-
switch three phase boost rectifier is an
attractive topology because of its simplicity,
low cost and high efficiency. Fig 1- A Single –Switch Three -Phase Boost Rectifier

 In this project, a single–switch three phase 1) Variable switching frequency,

boost rectifier is studied and simulated.
 A single-switch three- phase boost rectifier
cannot be pushed to high power levels due to
high total harmonic distortion (THD).
 An approach employing high order harmonic
injected PWM is proposed to meet the IEC
555-2(A) standard for 5-10KW power
application.
2) Constant switching frequency.
In Variable switching frequency the switch is turned on immediately
when the rectifier dc-side current falls to zero.However, this control
scheme suffers from a serious defect that the fs is load dependent.At
lighter load, the increase of fs results in high switching losses and the
large variable fs range complicates inductor design, device selection, and
EMI filter design.In this paper, a single-switch rectifier using constant fs
with harmonic injected PWM (Fig. 2) is presented.

 In this approach, the sixth order Harmonic is

generated and injected to eliminate dominant
5th order Harmonic and also to decrease the
THD.
I. INTRODUCTION:
Basically, two topologies are most popular among
Boost rectifier topologies.
1. A Six-Switch full bridge boost rectifier.
2. A Single-switch boost rectifier.
The Single-Switch boost rectifier is shown in fig 1.It
uses six diodes and only one switch to control the
input current and output power.
The phase currents for this rectifier are non-
linear functions of their phase voltages, yielding Fig 2- Single-Switch Three-Phase Boost Rectifier With Harmonic Injected PWM
several low frequency harmonics.The phase currents II. HARMONIC REDUCTION WITH
for this rectifier are non-linear functions of their phase HARMONIC INJECTED PWM
voltages, yielding several low frequency Under balanced and undistorted input phase voltages are:
harmonics.There are two types of switching PWM for
rectifier Va = Vm sin(ωt)

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 155
 Vb = Vm sin(ωt - 2π/3) The proposed constant fs with harmonic injected PWM scheme
(1) uses sixth order harmonic to modify the duty cycle D:
Vc = Vm sin(ωt - 4π/3) d(t) = D[1 + m sin(6ωt + 3π/2)] (3)
The average input current over the (0, π/2) interval in a Therefore, that the THD can be reduced to meet the requirement and
single-switch rectifier with constant fs PWM is given the harmonic contents can be optimized to meet the IEC standard,
by [3, 6] where m(0<m<1) is modulation index.
ia = Vo T2on sin(ωt) Since the fifth order harmonic is the dominant harmonic with
(0 ≤ωt constant fs PWM, the three phase currents in Eq. (2) can be
≤π/6)
approximately expressed as
2LTsw √ 3M-3 sin(ωt)
ia= I1 sin ωt + I5 sin (5ωt + π)
2
ib = Vo T on M sin(ωt) + ½ sin(2ωt - 2π/3)
ib= I1 sin (ωt – 2π/3) + I5 sin (5ωt - π/3) (4)
2LTsw [√ 3M-3 sin(ωt + 2π/3)][M - sin(ωt + π/6)] ic= I1 sin (ωt – 4π/3) + I5 sin (5ωt + π/3)
(π/6≤ ωt ≤
π/3) Where the initial phases of the fifth order harmonics are obtained by
ic = 2
Vo T on M sin(ωt) + sin(2ωt + /3) using Fourier analysis. Substituting D in Eq. (4) with the variable
duty cycle defined in Eq. (3), and ignoring the presence of m2
2LTsw [√ 3M + 3 sin(ωt + 2π/3)][M - sin(ωt + π/6)] (m2<<1) terms and high-order harmonics (n>7), Eq. (4) becomes:
(π/3≤ ωt ≤ π/2)
(2) ia= I1 sin ωt + (I5 - mI1 ) sin(5ωt + π) - mI1 sin 7ωt

Where, Ton = DTsw, D is the duty cycle, Tsw is the ib= I1 sin(ωt – 2π/3) + (I5 - mI1 ) sin(5ωt – π/3) - mI1sin(7ωt - 2π/3)
switching period, L is the input inductor and M is the ic= I1 sin(ωt – 4π/3) + (I5 - mI1 ) sin(5ωt + π/3) –
rectifier voltage gain, which is defined as: M = Vo/Vlp ,
m I1sin(7ωt - 4π/3) (5)
where Vo is rectifier output voltage and Vlp is input
line peak voltage.From above equation, the THD and It can be seen that for each phase, the fifth order harmonic is
harmonic contents for different power levels can be suppressed by sixth order harmonic in the duty cycle.Even though
calculated by Fourier analysis.The lower the M, the the seventh order harmonic is increased by the same amplitude at the
higher the current distortion. same time, the THD is improved. Obviously, the following inequality
is satisfied:
In Fig. 4(a), the THD is plotted with respect to M.
√(I5 - mI1 )2 +(mI1 )2
It can be seen that in order to meet the THD<10%
requirement, M should be at least 1.7, or the output THD = < I5 / I1 I1
voltage should be larger than 900V with 3X220V (6)
input.

If 0 < m < I5 / I1, where I5 / I1 is the THD of the currents in Eq.

(4).Then to minimize THD in Eq. (6), we can let
∂ THD/∂ m = 0 (7)
and solve Eq. (7), we get the modulation index m
m = 0.5 I5 / I1 (8)
So if m is selected as Eq. (8), then the THD in Eq. (6) is
minimized.So by injecting the 6th order harmonic and selecting m as
m= 0.5 I5 / I1.

Fig 3- Harmonic Contents With Constant fs PWM @ 3X220V

input/800V output

The plot between THDs and rectifier voltage gain ‘M’ is shown in
fig. 4

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 Fig 5- Harmonic Contents With Harmonic Injected PWM @ 3X220
input/800V output

Expected waveforms

] Fig 6- Current Wave Form Without Harmonic Injection (m=0)

Fig 4- THD As A Function Of M (a). C.F: With Constant fs

PWM (b). H.I: With Harmonic Injection PWM Modulation index From The IEE Paper
m=0 m=4.6%
Compared to the result with constant fs PWM, the THD 12.7% 9.5%
THDs are improved. 5th 1.15 0.71
Now the rectifier voltage gain M can be designed
down to 1.45 in order to meet THD<10%
requirement, or the output voltage can be designed as 7th 0.07 0.41
780V with 3X220V input. 11th
0.06 0.20
So select “m” to meet the following equation 13th
0.03 0.15
I5 – mI1 = 1.14
Table 1. Harmonic Currents [rms,A] In Experiment
mI1 0.77 (9a)
or to meet:
m = 0.4 I5 (9b)
I1
Where 1.14 and 0.77 are the fifth and seventh order
harmonics limited by IEC555-2 (A) standard. The
harmonic contents with these m values are plotted in
Fig.5
It is shown that the rectifier now can be pushed up to
around 10kW power level at the designed condition:
3X200V input/800V output.
Fig 7- Current Wave Form With Harmonic Injection(m=4.6%)

Fig 8- Frequency Spectra Of The Currents Without Harmonic Injection

(m=0)

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Fig 9- Frequency Spectra Of The Currents With Harmonic
Injection (m=4.6%)
III.CONCLUSIONS
The proposed approach, sixth order harmonic injected
PWM, simply realizes the injection concept at the
control circuit so that the cost of the power stage is
reduced.By using harmonic injected PWM, the THD
in a single-switch rectifier is improved, especially for
lower M values.To meet THD<10% requirement, the
rectifier voltage gain can be designed down to 1.45.So
an application with 3x220v input/800v output becomes
practical.To meet the IEC555-2 standard (class A), the
output power can be pushed up to around 10kW level
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for the rectifier with a 3X220V input/800V output;Indeed the
single switch three phase rectifier is a high efficiency rectifier.
REFERENCES
1) Qihong Huang and Fred C. Lee, “Harmonic Reduction In A
Single-Switch Three-Phase Boost Rectifier With High Order
Harmonic Injected PWM”, Conference Record IEEE 1996, pp. 1266-
1271.
2) Prasad, P. D. Ziogas, and S. Manias, “An Actives Power
Factor Correction Technique For Three Phase Diode Rectifiers”,
Conference Record IEEE PESC 1989, pp. 58-65.
3) L. Simonetti, J. Sebastain and J. Uceda. “Single-Switch
Three-Phase Power Factor Preregulator Under Variable Switching
Frequency And Discontinuous Input Current”, Conference Record
IEEE PESC 1993, pp. 657-662.
4) Kolar, H. Ertl, and F. C. Zach, “Space Vector-Based
Analysis Of The Input Current Distortion Of A Three-Phase
Discontinuous-Mode Boost Rectifier System”, Conference Record
IEEE PESC 1993, pp. 696-703.
5) Gataric, D. Boroyevich, and F. C. Lee, “Soft-Switched
Single-Switch Three-Phase Rectifier With Power Factor Correction”,
Conference Record IEEE APEC 1994, pp. 738-744.
158
 5. Sensorless Speed Control of Induction Motor Using
Adaptive Technique
Pothana Santhosh1, D.R.Patil2
1
P.G Student, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli (M.S) – 416415
2
Head of Elec. Dept, Walchand College of Engg, Sangli (M.S) – 416415
Abstract
This paper describes a Model Reference
Adaptive System (MRAS) for speed control of the
Induction Motor drive (IM) without a speed sensor. In
this scheme an Adaptive Pseudoreduced-order Flux
Observer (APFO) is used instead of the Adaptive Full-
order Flux Observer (AFFO), an APFO is used for
estimate the IM rotor speed and stator resistance, and
these are used as feedback signals for the Field
Oriented Control (FOC), which is a widely used
control method for Induction Motor drive (IM).
Simulation results show that the proposed scheme can
estimate the motor speed under various adaptive PI
gains and estimated speed can replace to measured
speed in sensorless induction motor drives, this
scheme is more efficient at very low speed, and also
observed line currents, torque and speed under no-
load and load conditions.
Keywords - Adaptive speed estimation, Induction
Motor, Model reference adaptive control.
1. Introduction
Indirect field-oriented control (IFOC) method is
widely used for IM drives. Within this scheme, a
rotational transducer such as a tachogenerator, an
encoder, was often mounted on the IM shaft. However,
a speed sensor cannot be mounted in some cases, such
as motor drives in a hostile environment. Also such
sensors lower the system reliability and require special
attention to noise. Therefore, sensorless induction
motor (IM) drives are widely used in industry for their
reliability and flexibility, particularly in hostile
environment [5].
Various sensorless field-oriented control (FOC)
methods for induction motor (IM) drives have been
proposed using software instead of hardware speed
sensor [1-4, 7]. Adaptive full-order flux observers
(AFFO) for estimating the speed of IM were
developed using Popov’s and Lyapunov’s stability
criteria [1, 3, 7]. While these schemes are not
computationally intensive, an AFFO with a non-zero
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gain matrix may become unstable. However,
large speed errors may occur under heavy loads
and steady-state disturbances affecting light
loads. An adaptive pseudoreduced- order flux
observer (APFO) for sensorless FOC was
proposed in using the Lyapunov’s method [2].
The performance of the estimator using APFO
was shown to be superior compared to that using
AFFO scheme only at medium speed.
In the MRAS-based technique for sensorless
induction motor drives the rotor speed is
estimated with an APFO and is used as the
feedback signal for the FOC. The rotor flux is
estimated through a closed-loop observer, thus
eliminating the need for auxiliary variables
related to the flux and need for the pure
integration for flux calculations. As a result, the
drive has a wider adjustable speed range and can
be operated at zero and very low speeds.
2. Model Reference Adaptive System
The model reference adaptive system
(MRAS) is one of the major approaches for
adaptive control [6]. Among various types of
adaptive system configuration, MRAS is
important since it leads to relatively easy to
implement systems with high speed of adaptation
for a wide range of applications. The basic
scheme of the MRAS given in Fig. 1 is called a
parallel configuration (output error method)
MRAS in order to differentiate it from other
MRAS configurations where the relative
placement of the reference model and of the
adjustable system is not the same. The MRAS
scheme presented above are characterized by the
fact that the reference model was disposed in
parallel with the adjustable system.
The use of parallel MRAS is determined by
its excellent noise-rejection properties that allow
obtaining unbiased parameter estimates, and in
this scheme an error vector is derived using the
difference between the outputs of two dynamic
models, i.e. the reference and adjustable models,
where only one of the models includes the
159
estimated parameter as a system parameter, i.e.
speed/resistance, and the inputs of two models are the
same. The error vector, e, is driven to zero through an
adaptive law. As a result, the estimated parameter
will converge to its true value X [5, 6]. One of the
most noted advantages of this type of adaptive system
is its high speed of adaptation. The block ‘‘adjustable
model’’ has the same structure as the reference one,
but with adjustable parameters instead of the unknown
ones.
Fig 1 Basic configuration of a parallel model
reference adaptive system
The main drawback of this algorithm is its sensitivity
to inaccuracies in the reference model, and difficulties
of designing the adaptation mechanism block in
MRAS. Selection of adaptive mechanism gains is a
compromise between achieving a high speed of
response and high robustness to noise and disturbances
affecting the system. With the large PI gains for rotor
speed identification in adaptive mechanism,
the convergence speed for speed estimation is fast;
however, high order harmonic components and noises
are present in the estimated speed.
3. Adaptive Flux Observer
For an induction motor, if the stator current and
rotor flux are selected as the state variables, the
state equations can be expressed as eq.(1) in the
stationary reference frame [1].
Where
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Where R1, R2, and L1, L2 are stator and rotor
resistances and self-inductances, respectively, Lm
is mutual inductance, is the rotor time constant
is electrical motor angular speed.
The APFO flux observer can be written as
follows
Where is and vs are measured values of stator
current vector and stator voltage vector,
respectively, G is the reduced-order observer
gain matrix which is also determined to make eq.
(3) stable and ^ denotes the estimated values.
The observer is a closed-loop system, which is
obtained by driving the estimated model of the
induction motor by the residual of the current
measurement ( .
The estimation of stator currents is conducted
by a closed-loop observer with a
feedback gain matrix G, as in eq. (3), whereas
the estimation of rotor fluxes is carried out by an
open-loop observer of eq.(4) without the flux
error. Therefore, the real and estimated rotor
fluxes are assumed the same.
The observer gain matrix is chosen as:
Where the observer gain matrix G is
calculated based on the pole placement
technique.
Let us choose,
Where g1 is proportional to the IM
parameters, g2 is an arbitrary gain, k is an
160
arbitrary positive constant value, and kp is an arbitrary
value (kp -1).
4. Adaptive scheme for speed estimation
The error equation of state variables can be driven
from eq. (1) and eq. (3) as follows:
Where W is the nonlinear block and is defined as:
The error matrices are
represented by:
Where is the estimated speed error,
and is the estimated error of stator
resistance, using eq. (7), a MRAS
representation of the system is shown in
Fig. 2, are the identifying
mechanisms for the motor speed and stator
resistance estimators [5], respectively. The
system is hyper stable, if the forward path
transfer matrix is strictly positive real and
the input and output of the nonlinear
feedback block satisfies Popov’s integrality
of eq. (9) [6].
Fig 2 MRAS representation for identifying the
speed and stator resistance
This section describes the case where
the primary resistance and rotor speed are
set incorrectly. In such a case, the Popov’s
integral inequality as follows:
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Where is a finite positive
constant, which is independent of
It is verified that the Popov’s inequality of eq.
(9) is satisfied if the estimate of the resistance is
chosen to be a linear function of an inner product
of the current estimate and the estimation error.
The estimate of the rotor speed is chosen to be a
linear function of an inner product of the flux
estimate and the stator current estimation error.
Stating in the form of a theorem we get:
Theorem: If the estimate of the stator
resistance and the estimate of the speed
satisfy:
Then Popov’s criterion of eq. (9) will be
satisfied. KP2, Ki2, KP3 and Ki3 are the stator
resistance and motor speed identification gains,
respectively.
5. Simulation Results
The basic configuration of speed estimation
of sensorless induction motor drive is shown in
Fig. 3. All reference or command preset values
are superscripted with a ‘‘*’’ in the diagram. IM
speed will be estimated by eq. (11) and will be
compared with the set point in order to create
speed error. The error between the estimated and
command values of speed drives the speed PI
controller which in turn generates the required
command value for the torque current component
( ).
161
 other at 0.4 s the estimated flux also converge to
real flux at the same time.

Fig 3 Block diagram of sensorless IM drive

The current controlled voltage source inverter with

field orientation control provides a fast time response Fig 4 Behaviour of speed estimation at Kp3=4,
and a smoother inverter current output. Although Ki3=150
many current control algorithms have been proposed
in recent years, hysteresis band current control is still a In these simulations the real speed is using as
preferred method. This algorithm is especially suitable the feedback signal for the PI controller, and then
for implementing the field orientation control. As a the speed estimator starts at some time after the
result, this control algorithm offers a higher quality real speed is at steady-state condition. In
dynamical torque control. Estimated rotor speed simulation there is no noise component in the
and estimated rotor flux angle are achieved by the real currents and voltages. Therefore the
MRAS-based pseudoreduced- order flux observer. estimated speed does not have high order
And are the magnetizing and torque components of harmonic components and noises in larger PI
the stator current, respectively. These components are gains of speed identifier. In all above simulations
the equivalent dc values in the synchronously rotating the estimation process of speed starts after 0.15 s.
reference frame. By the application of inverse Clarke
and Park transformations in ‘‘Vector Rotator’’ block,
the command values and can be obtained.
These real time values will be compared with the
measured or sensed currents to generate
proper pulsing sequence in order to fire the IGBT
switching devices of the inverter.
Figs. 4–6 show the behavior of IM speed
estimation under various values of adaptive scheme PI
gains. These figures show that with the large PI gains
for the adaptive scheme, Kp3 and Ki3, the convergence
for the speed estimation is fast; however, a lot of high
order harmonics are present in the estimated speed. In
Fig. 4 where the IM rotates at a constant speed (200
rpm) under no load condition and initial value of the
estimated speed is zero, the estimated speed reaches
the real one in less than 0.5 s. With larger PI gains the
convergence time reduces to 0.2s as in Fig. 5. By
increasing the PI gains for adaptive scheme this
converging time reduces (to less than 0.15 s), however, Fig 5 Behaviour of speed estimation at kp3=5,
the estimated speed shows high overshoots as shown ki3=250
in Fig. 6. Fig. 7 shows the real, command and
estimated rotor flux. When two speeds converge each
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 Fig 8 Speed estimation under loading condition

Case 1: Under No-load condition (Reference

Fig 6 Behaviour of speed estimation at kp3=8, speed = 100 rad/sec)
ki3=350

For investigating of the MRAS’s behavior under

loading condition a load of 0.5 pu is applied to the IM
at time 0.5 s. Fig. 8 shows that after a small speed drop
both estimated and real speeds converge very well.
Meanwhile this simulation indicates that both speeds
follow reference one with negligible error. This
Simulation results gives better performance in both the
cases i.e. under no-load and load condition, which are
shown below.

Fig 9 Actual Speed and Estimated speed Using

MRAS in rad/sec

Fig 7 Behaviour of speed estimation at kp3=5,

ki3=250

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Fig 10 (a) Line currents in Amps (b) Speed in
rad/sec (c) Torque in N-m on no load
Case 2: Step Change in Load
(Reference speed = 100 rad/sec; Load torque of 15 N-
m is applied at t = 0.25 sec.)
Fig 11 (a) Line currents in Amps (b) Speed in
rad/sec (c) Torque in N-m on step change in
load
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Case 3: Speed Reversal Command
(Reference speed = 100 rad/sec; speed reversal
command is applied at t = 0.5 sec.)
Fig 12 (a) Line currents in Amps (b) Speed in
rad/sec (c) Torque in N-m on no load, speed
reversal
Fig 9 Shows that the actual speed of
induction motor and estimated speed using
MRAS are same, Fig 10 Shows the no load line
currents, speed and torque wave forms, it can be
seen that at starting the values of currents and
torque will be high. The motor reaches to its
final steady state position within 0.2 sec. Hence
it has fast dynamic response; Fig.11 shows the
line currents, speed and torque wave forms under
load condition. First the motor is started under no
load and at t = 0.25 sec a load of 15 N-m is
applied. It can see that at 0.25 sec, the values of
currents & torque will increase to meet the load
demand and at the same time speed of motor is
slightly falls.
The motor is started under no load condition
and speed reversal command is applied at t = 0.5
sec. At 0.5 sec the motor speed decays from 100
rad/sec and within 0.1 sec it reached its final
steady state in the opposite direction. At 0.5 sec
torque will increase negatively and reaches to
steady state position corresponds to steady state
speed value.
6. Conclusion
This paper presents a MRAS-based APFO
sensorless induction motor drive. This method
has been applied to a direct field-oriented
induction motor control with and without speed
164
sensors. The simulation results demonstrated that, with [8]. I.D. Landau, “Elimination of the real
larger PI gains for the adaptive PI regulators, the positivity condition in the design of parallel
convergence for the speed estimation is fast, however, MRAS “, IEEE Trans. Automat Contr. 23 (6)
higher order harmonics and noises are included in the (1978) 1015–1020
estimated speed. The validity of the MRAS-based
pseudoreduced-order flux observer has been verified
by simulation.

7. REFERENCES

[1]. H. Kubota, K. Matsuse, and T. Nakano, “Dsp-

Based Speed Adaptive Flux Observer of Induction
motor”, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 29 (1993) 344–348.

[2] Y.N. Lin, and C.L. Chen, “Adaptive

pseudoreduced-order flux observer for speed
sensorless field oriented control of IM”, IEEE Trans.
Ind. Electron. 46 (5) (1999) 1042–1045.

[3]. G. Yang, and T.H. Chin, “Adaptive-speed

identification scheme for a vector-controlled speed
sensorless inverter-induction motor drive”, IEEE
Trans. Ind. Appl. 29 (4) (1993) 820–825. Fig 12
Sensorless IM drive, (a) measured speed, (b) estimated
speed. H.M. Kojabadi /Simulation Modelling Practice
and Theory 13 (2005) 451–464 463

[4] C. Schauder, “Adaptive speed identification for

vector control of induction motors without Rotational
Transducers”, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 28 (5) (1992)
1054–1061.

[5] H.M. Kojabadi, L. Chang, “Model reference

adaptive system pseudoreduced-order flux observer for
very low speed and zero speed estimation in sensorless
induction motor drives”, in: IEEE Annual Power
Electronics Specialists Conference, Australia, vol. 1,
2002, pp.

[6] Y.D. Landau, Adaptive Control -“The Model

Reference Approach”, Marcel Dekker, New York,
1979.

7]. J. Maes, J.A. Melkebeek, “Speed-sensorless direct

torque control of induction motor using an adaptive
flux observer “, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 36 (3) (2000)
778–785.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 165
 6. Modeling and Simulation of High Efficiency DC–DC Converter for an
Auxiliary Power Unit
GVSSNS Sarma, Assistant Professor, Centre for Energy Research, EEE Dept., Aurora’s Engineering
College, Bhongir, A.P.
E-mail : music_sarma@yahoo.com

Abstract the solar cells / fuel cells.This boosting can also be

The simulation study of high efficiency DC-
DC boost converter for an auxiliary converter
is presented in this paper. The main advantage
of this converter is based on the energy
recovery system. The proposed converter
does not consider the leakage inductance of
the transformer as a parasite and uses it for
energy transfer, thus avoiding problems of
low efficiency and waveform distortions and
also voltage instability caused by leakage
inductance. Apart from these advantages the
proposed converter has another few features
like elimination of separate filter inductor and
production of soft starting by using the power
electronic switches.
done by using an ordinary boost converters which
suffers from lowered efficiency due to high duty
ratio maintained for obtained high dc voltage as an
output. As per the experimental data the average
efficiency of these converters will be approximately
40% to 50% only.
Then, even one can go for push pull or full bridge
converters configurations to overcome this
problems but again the large turns ratio maintained
in the booster transformers offers very high leakage
reactance. This leakage reactance effect again
produces low efficiency due to reactive power
consumption and also waveform distortion and
finally voltage instability even though good
controllers are used.

Index Terms Fig. 1. Typical layout of APU.

APU, DC-DC converter, fuel cell, solar
cell.

I. INTRODUCTION

This high DC – DC boost converter is

proposed to use in an Auxiliary Power Unit
(APU). The block diagram of APU is shown
in figure 1. The Auxiliary Power Unit acts as
a back up for the utility under the absence of
mains supply. The main functional
components of this APU is a solar panel/fuel
cell, DC-DC converter and an inverter with
230V and 50Hz output.In order to get an
output of 230V from the inverter, we require Fig. 2. Topology of the proposed dc–dc converter.
at least 350 volts DC supply. This high DC
source can not be sourced in the remoteso to overcome the problems highlighted in all
applications. So it needs a booster forthe above said converters, the new DC-DC
boosting a voltage of (20-30)V obtained fromconverter is proposed. This converter can yield
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an overall efficiency of about 90% and
cost will be reduced as some of the filter
components can be eliminated. The
transformer is operated at high frequency
so the cost as well as size of the
transformer can be reduced. So all
together the proposed converter has high
efficiency, economical and compatible.
II. PROPOSED DC–DC CONVERTER
A. Topology
Fig. 2 shows the topology of the proposed
converter, where FC is the low voltage
fuel cell, S1-S6 are active switches, D1-
D6 are body diodes of switches S1-S6,
respectively, D7 and D8 are power
diodes, C is the filter capacitor, T is the
transformer, and R is the load of the dc-
dc converter.
Fig.3. Transformer primary side referred equivalent
circuits of the converter during different time periods
in the first half cycle: (a) t0–t1, (b) t1–t2, (c) t2-t3, and
(d) t3-t4.
B. Operation
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The transformer primary side referred equivalent
circuits of the converter are shown in Fig. 3 and are
used to explain the operation of the converter. The
magnetizing inductance of the transformer is ignored
and only the leakage inductance is considered in the
derivation of the equivalent circuits. The waveforms
of key components of the converter in one complete
cycle are shown in Fig. 4.
In Figs. 3 and 4, VI, Vor, Vp, Vsr, VL, and IL stand
for the input voltage of the converter, output voltage
of the converter (primary side referred), primary side
voltage of the transformer, secondary side voltage of
the transformer (primary side referred), voltage
across the leakage inductance of the transformer
(primary side referred), and primary side current of
the transformer, respectively.
In Fig. 4, G1-G6 represent the gating signals to
switches S1-S6, respectively, and the time period
from t0–t8 represents a complete operating cycle of
the converter. As shown in Fig. 4, the operation of
the converter in the second half cycle, from t4-t8, is
similar to that in the first half cycle, from t0-t4,
except being in the opposite direction. Therefore,
only the operation of the converter in the first half
cycle, from t0-t4, is detailed and illustrated in Fig.
3(a)-(d).
The operation of the converter during different time
periods in the first half cycle is explained as
follows.
[t0-t1]: Switches S2, S3, and S5 are gated. A closed
current path is created as shown in Fig. 3(a). One
can easily derive that Vp = Vi, Vsr = 0 and
VL = (Vp - VSr) = (Vi - 0) = Vi
167

Fig. 4. Waveforms of key components of the converter in one complete cycle. t4. It should be noted that S3 is
Using VL = Vi and VL = L(dlL/dt), where
L is the leakage inductance of the
transformer, one can derive
Vi
I L = t. Eqn.(1)
L
It should be noted that S2, S3, and S5 are
turned on at zero current condition
[t1-t2]: Switches S2 and S3 are kept on
while switch S5 is turned off. D7 conducts half of the switching time period (T/2), with a 180°
to carry the inductor current as a result of
the turn-off of S5. A closed current path is
created as shown in Fig. 3(b). One can
derive that Vp = Vi, Vsr= Vor and VL = Vp
- Vsr = Vi — Vor. Similar to Eqn. (1), one
can have
Vi − Vor
I L = IT 2 = t + IT1 Eqn.(2)
L through a proportional-integral (PI) controller to
where IT1 is the current through the
tansformer at time instant t1, and can be
calculated using (1). As a result, the current in
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com
the transformer continues to rise
linearly, but now at a slower rate, as
is shown in Fig. (4).
[t2-t3]: Switch S2 is turned off while
S3 is kept on. D4 conducts to carry
the inductor current as a result of the
turn-off of S2. The inductor current
flows as shown in Fig 3(c) and is
given as
Vor Eqn.
I L = IT 2 − t
L
(3)
where IT2 is the current through the
transformer at time instant t2, and
can be calculated using Eqn.(2).
[t3-t4]: No current or energy flow in
the converter. S3 is turned off at t =
turned off at zero current condition.
The proposed converter is operated at
a fixed switching frequency. As can
be seen from the description of the working of the
converter, time periods T1 and T2 control the
current through the transformer and hence the power
of the converter. It can also be seen that switches S5
and S6 are turned on for time period T1, with a 180°
phase difference. Switches S1 and S2 are turned on
for a time period equal to T1 + T2, with a 180° phase
difference. And switches S3 and S4 are turned on for
phase difference.
C. Control
The control strategy of the proposed converter is
shown in Fig. 5. The output voltage of the converter
is sensed and compared to the reference voltage
(VOref). The voltage error thus obtained is passed
obtain the reference output current (IOref). The
output current Io is sensed and compared to the
Ioref. The current error thus obtained is passed
through two different PI circuits. The signals thus
obtained are compared to a high frequency (equal to
switching frequency) saw tooth signal to generate
pulse-width modulated (PWM) control signals with
168
pulse widths T1 and T1+ T2. A constanttransformer continues to rise, but at a very slow rate
value signal is also compared to the same(because of small difference between Vp and Vs ).
saw tooth signal to generate PWM controlDuring time period T3, switch S2 is switched off and
signal with pulse width T/2. These threeonly switch S3 is on. Now Vs is positive and Vp = 0.
PWM control signals of pulse width T1, T1 +The transformer current starts to fall and falls until it
T2, and T/2 are individually phase delayedreaches zero. During time period T4, all three
by 180° to obtain three more PWM controlswitches are off, Vp and Vs both are zero, and there
signals. is no current through the transformer. Thus, by
comparing Fig. 6 to Fig. 4, it is seen that the sim-
Thus a total of six PWM control signals areulated results match the designed waveforms, and
obtained which are used to control the sixthus the proposed converter working is verified by
active switches of the proposed converter, assimulation.
indicated in Fig. 5.
Closed Loop Control:
III. SIMULATION RESULTS
The closed-loop performance of the proposed
Performance of the proposed converter isconverter is also investigated by simulation and the
simulated on a open loop for a fixedresults are shown in Figs 7,8,9,10. Before t = 0.3s,
operating point of 20Volts input voltage andthe converter is in a stable state with the output
an output voltage 250Volts DC. voltage at 350 V and the output current equals to 1
Amps. The fuel cell voltage is 20 V and the fuel cell
The simulation results are shown in Fig. 6current is 34Amps Avg.
where from top to bottom is primary side
voltage(Vp), secondary side voltage (Vs),At time instant t = 0.5s the input voltage is stepped
transformer primary current (IL) and outputup to 25Volts from 20Volts initial condition. It can
voltage Vdc. As shown in Fig. 6, during timebe seen that the output voltage is maintained at 350
period T1, all switches S2, S3, and S5 are on,V constantly and the load current also settled at
Vp is positive and Vs = 0. Thus, the current1Amps.The fuel cell average current is increased
through the transformer rises linearly. from 34Amps to 52Amps as duty ratio is reduced to
maintain the
output
voltage
constantly.

At time
instant t =
0.9s, the
output
During time period T2, S5 is turned off andcurrent is stepped up to 1.35A, and it is seen that the
S2 and S3 are kept on. Both Vp and Vsr areoutput voltage again maintains at 350 V only, after a
positive, but Vp > Vsr, where VSr is thesmall dip. It is therefore verified by simulation that
secondary side voltage referred to the primarythe proposed converter can maintain designed output
side. Therefore, the current through thevoltage when the input voltage changes within the
specified limits as well for the load change.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 169
 Fig.5: Closed loop block diagram

Fig.6:

Fig 8: Output load current on closed.

loop configuration

Primary voltage, Secondary voltage,

Transformer primary current and output DC
voltage

Fig 9:Transformer primary voltage,

current and Secondary voltage on closed
loop configuration.

Fig 7:Output DC voltage on closed loop

configuration.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 170

Fig 10: Fuel cell voltage and current on
closed loop configuration.
CONCLUSION
A new dc–dc converter for APU application
is proposed. The leakage inductance of the
transformer is used for energy conversion.
This not only mitigates the low efficiency and
difficulty in a control problem resulting from
the leakage inductance but also eliminates the
need for a separate filter inductor. Soft
switching is achieved to reduce the stress on
the load and to reduce the switching losses.
As a result, the achieved low cost and high
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com
efficiency make the proposed converter
suitable for APU application.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Shaffer and J. Garback, Solid Oxide Fuel
Cell System Development for Auxiliary power
[2] C.DeMinco, S.Mukerjee, J. Grieve, M. Faville,
J. Noetzel, M. Perry, A. Horvath, D. Prediger, M.
Pastula, R. Boersma, and D. Ghosh, “De-
velopment of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
Automotive Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) fueled
by gasoline,” in Proc. 10th Canadian Hydrogen
Conf., May 2000, pp. 356-358.
[3] M. Farooque and H. C. Maru, “Fuel cells-the
clean and efficient power generators,” Proc.
IEEE, vol. 89, no. 12, pp. 1819-1829, Dec. 2001.
GVSSNS Sarma received the B.E. degree in
electrical and electronics engineering from
Andhra University and M.Tech. Degree in IT in
Power Engineering from JNTU, Hyderabad in
2000 and 2003 (January) respectively. He is
currently working as Assistant Professor in
Aurora’s Engineering College.
J Kathir Velan received the B. E. degree in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering from
Madras University and currently pursuing M.Tech
in Power Electronics Engineering in Aurora’s
Engineering College (JNTU Hyderabad).
171
 7. Reduction of Conducted EMI in SMPS using EMI Filter
Ramalingam.J, Dr. Udaya Kumar.K, ramalingam_hve@yahoo.co.in, DEEE, College of
engineering, Anna University, Chennai-25
Abstract— Almost every electronic device requires some
level of power conversion in which the required
operational voltages are generated from the input power.
Using switched mode power supply (SMPS) for this
purpose generates higher level of conducted EMI in the
high frequency range and it negatively affects the
performance of other near by electronics. So prediction
of conducted EMI is necessary. Time domain simulation
plus Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a good method to
predict the conducted EMI. In this paper the Boost PFC
circuit is modeled considering parasitic parameters for
all the components. This circuit is simulated using
PSPICE and the conducted EMI is predicted. The EMI
filter is one of the techniques to reduce the conducted
EMI. The combined CM and DM mode filter
configuration is discussed. For different filter component
values the circuit is simulated using PSPICE. A better
configuration is suggested from the simulated models.
Index Terms—Common mode (CM), differential mode
(DM), electromagnetic interference (EMI), PFC
converter
INTRODUCTION
An electromagnetic disturbance is any electromagnetic
phenomenon which may degrade the performance of a
device or equipment or a system. The electromagnetic
disturbance can be in nature of the electromagnetic
noise, or an unwanted signal, or a change in the
propagation medium itself. Electromagnetic
interference is the degradation in the performance of a
device or equipment or a system caused by an
electromagnetic disturbance. So improve the
performance of a device or equipment or a system the
EMI has to be reduced.
In [1] the conducted EMI of the CCM PFC circuit is
predicted using a simulation circuit also DM and CM
loop models of the PFC EMI are
proposed for describing the noise generation and
propagation mechanisms. It also describes the effects
of PFC inductor and the parasitic capacitances at the
MOSFET drain node.
The EMI spectrum of a discontinuous conduction
mode PFC converter is predicted using a simulation
circuit in saber in [2]. It also gives the design guide
lines on circuit layout and packaging for EMI noise
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com
minimization. In [3] the frequency domain
analysis of the boost PFC is explained. In that
paper the noise sources and all other circuit
components are expressed as functions in the
frequency domain and the predicted EMI
spectrum is calculated by solving the matrixes
formed by these functions.
The common mode and differential mode
switching noise together with the input filter
design and lot of design considerations such as
printed circuit board layout, the effect of gate
snubber, the shield inserted between the device
and the heat sink and also the heat sink
grounding connections are described in [4]. It
also reports the conducted EMI measurements
for different filter capacitor values and
placements, for different power switch drive
circuits which turned out to be decisive factors in
the reduction of the generated EMI.
In [5] PFC noise source characteristics and its
effect on EMI noise, impedance mismatch and
filter parasitic parameters are discussed. PFC
DM and CM noise source models and their
characteristics are analyzed. A filter is built and
the analysis is verified.
The basics of conducted EMI measurement,
suppression techniques and discussed in [6].it
also explains how to design filter theoretically
and making modifications using practical
approach to get a fast and accurate filter solution.
In [7] a very practical EMI filter design
according to military standard MIL-STD 461 is
discussed. In [8] design procedure for ac line
EMI filters are discussed. This procedure is
based on the analysis of conducted EMI
problems and the use of EMI diagnostic tool,
noise separator.
EMC design aspects for high power ac/dc
rectifier and some design guide lines are
discussed in [9].other papers in this subject
includes[10],[11],[12] and so on.
An overview of boost PFC circuit, parasitic
model of boost PFC components are described in
section II. Prediction of conducted EMI using
172
simulation circuit is explained in section III. Section The simulated output wave form is
IV explains CM and DM filter arrangement and shown in fig 2.
different filter configurations. Section V concludes the The output is about 475V dc. Thus the converter
work. boosts the input 220V ac to 475V dc with 2.15
percent of Boost factor.
II. PARASITIC MODEL OF BOOST CONVERTER
COMPONENTS Figure 3 shows the circuit diagram of
CCM PFC converter. Some stray inductance is
Fig 1 shows the simulation circuit in PSPICE for associated with the layout and the parasitic
Boost PFC. Diodes used here are MUR140; the input capacitance at the device drain node is also
is ac 220V, 50 Hz. The MOSFET used here is depicted.
IRPF450.The gate driving circuit is 100 KHz, square L 1 p a r a s i t i Dc 5 p a r a s it ic
pulse generator. In the On-state, i.e., MOSFET is 1 2 1 2 1 2

turned ON, resulting in an increase in the inductor D 1 D 3

current; thereby energy is stored in the inductor.In the M 1
p a r a s it ic

Off-state, i.e., MOSFET is turned OFF, and the only R 1

3
V 1 2 0 C 1

path offered to the inductor current is fly back diode 2

1
D5, the capacitor C1 and the load R1. This result in p a r a s i t i c

transferring the energy accumulated during the On- D 2 D 4

r a1 s
state into the capacitor. The Boost PFC can be 1
p a
2
i t ic
1
p a r a
2
s i t i c

operated in two modes. One is continuous conduction

mode and another one is discontinuous conduction Fig 3. Schematic of the PFC with parasitic
mode.

L 1 D 1 1
1 2
3 2 0 u
V+
M U R 1 4 0
D 6 D 7
M U MR U1 4R 0 1 4 0

C 1 The hardware implementation of the

V O F V F 1 = 0 M 3
converter
1 6 0 u is far more complex than its schematic.
V+ For the purpose of conducted EMI modeling the
V A M P L = 2 2 0 V 1 =V 21 0
F R E Q = 5 0 V 2 = 0 I R F P 4 5 0 circuit diagram must be converted into a far more
T D = 0
T R = 0 . 0 1 u complex and detailed simulation circuit that can
V-
T F = 0 . 0 1 u cover the essential EMI characteristics of the real
P W = 5 u
P E R = 1 0 u hardware up to 30MHz. (F.C.Lee, W.G.Odendaal
D 8 D 9
-2004)
M U MR U1 4R 0 1 4 0

The inductor in this 100 KHz PFC

0 circuit
V-
(F.C.Lee, W.G.Odendaal -2004) uses
77083A core from Magnetics Corporation with
Fig 1. Boost PFC circuit for simulation
the two cores stacked together. The 49 turn
winding employs AWG16 wire. Using an
impedance analyzer Agilent 4294A, the
impedance magnitude and phase can be
measured in the frequency range up to 110 MHz.

A second order model of the inductor is

developed first. But to represent the impedance
characteristics of the PFC inductor up to 30
MHZ, a more complex, higher order model is
developed.
This higher order model is shown in the
Fig 2. Output of the Boost PFC
fig 4.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 173
 Fig 4 Higher order inductor model
Fig 5 shows the equivalent circuit of the
capacitor. This simple network equivalent circuit will
provide a good approximation of the impedance
characteristics up to 30 MHz for the capacitors.
Fig 5. Equivalent circuit of capacitor
This model includes equivalent series inductance
(ESL) and the Equivalent series resistance (ESR) of
the capacitor.The capacitance, ESR, ESL are 125.9nF,
26.2 milli ohms, 7.0nH respectively as shown in fig 6.
In the real hardware another ceramic capacitor is
paralled with the output capacitor (F.C.Lee,
W.G.Odendaal -2004).
Fi
g 7. LISN model
III PREDICTION OF CONDUCTED EMI IN
BOOST PFC CIRCUIT
Figure 8 shows the detailed simulation circuit,
considering all the parasitic parameters.
Input is 220V ac supply with a frequency of 50
Hz. The diodes used in the simulation are
MUR140.The inductor and the capacitor is
considered with parasitic models.
The MOSFET circuit used in the simulation is
IRPF450.the gate drain parasitic parameters also
modeled. The gate drive circuit used here is a
square pulse generator with a frequency of 100
KHz R 3
R 2

6 . 8k
67 . 5 k L 5
L R1 L2 1 L 8 L 6 L D 7 5 1 2
12 12 12 12 12
6 5 n
3 .8 u R 6
3 07 .05u 4 1 4 9 1 .5 9 n n1 M 4 .1 U n R 1 4 0
D D 3 1 L 12
L 1 7 C1 2 2 R 11 57 0 m
12 M M U U R R 1 1 40 4 0
9p 1 .2 u
R 1 1 1 30 L 5 1 m 0
5 0 u
C C1 2 1 21 C 15 R 8 RV 2 + 1 0
3 L 1 4 0 . 6n
1 0u 0 .1 u L 1 1 M 4 1 2 6 .2 1 m 5 0
1 1 .1 8 p
R R1 4 1 41 12 R R 8 8 1 9. 9 6 n
M 3 L 32 2 V -
5 5 0 4 7 .6 n
C IR 1 F C1 P 1 2 1 0 3 6 4 0 .2 50 5 m C m 1 4
L1 5 72n
2 2 2. . 7 7p p 2 7 9 u
VV 1 2 = 1 2 1IR 0F P 45 L 0 L 3 3 1 C 8
V 2 = 0 0 0
26 n 7 9 n . 2 96 0. n 9 2 n
T D = R0 1 2
V 1 T R = 0 0
. 1 u C 9 2
V O 0 F F = 0 T F = 0 9 . 0 1u
V A M P L = P 2 W 2 0 = 5 u 2 2 1 2 5. 9 n
Fig 6. Capacitor model F R E Q D = D 5 4 P 2 0 E R = L 10 13 u C C 9 9 1
12
R R1 5 1 M M 51 U U R R 1 1 40 4 0 1 0 2 . 5 92 .9 n n
LISN presents defined standard impedance to the EUT 3 9. 5 n
5 5 0
power input terminals at high frequency
Any incoming unwanted conducted EMI on the mains 1
C L 1 C1 8 3 1 31
power supply is filtered out by the LISN and a clean 12 L 9
1 0u 0 .1 u
input power supply is provided to the EUTFigure 7 5 0 u
R 9 8 5. n
shows a LISN circuit used in this simulation model. R L 1 16 3 L 1 4 L 1 9
1 2 1 21 0 0 0 k 12
2
0 . 9 1 .9 n 2 .7 0 n 1 0 .9 n

Fig 8.Detailed simulation circuit

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 174
 Fig 10. Filter configuration 1

Fig 9. FFT of EMI spectra in log scale

From the simulation output, the maximum
frequency at which the maximum conducted EMI is
predicted as 10 KHZ and the maximum voltage is
about 11.093 mV. But this is not matches exactly with
the measured results (F.C.Lee, W.G.Odendaal -2004), Fig 11. FFT of the EMI spectra
because of the variation in the MOSFET model.
The conducted EMI is reduced using EMI Fig 11 shows FFT of the EMI Spectra.
filters. The following chapter explains power line filter From the simulation output, the maximum
configuration and this filter configuration with various frequency at which the maximum conducted
values of filter components are simulated. EMI is predicted as 10 KHZ and the maximum
voltage is about 9.6310 mV.
IV REDUCTION OF CONDUCTED EMI USING
EMI FILTERS (ii) FILTER CONFIGURATION 2
The filter configuration is shown
EMI filter is connected in between the LISN and the in the figure 12.The filter components are
diode bridge rectifier of the Boost PFC. EMI filter specified as follows
configuration is simulated for various values of filter
• Cx=0.47 µF
components. Five such filter configurations are
simulated in this section. For the clear depiction of the • Cy=470 pF
filters only the simulation circuit of the filters is shown • LCM=1.9 mH
in all cases. The detailed simulation circuit of the • LDM=5 µH
Boost PFC and LISN is not shown in all cases.

(i) FILTER CONFIGURATION 1

The filter configuration is shown in the
figure 10.
The filter components are specified as follows
• Cx=0.47 µF
• Cy=1 nF
• LCM=1.9 mH Fig 12. Filter configuration 2
• LDM=5 µH

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 175
 Fig 15. FFT of the EMI spectra

Fig 15 shows FFT of the EMI Spectra.

From the simulation output, the maximum
frequency at which the maximum conducted
EMI is predicted as 10 KHz and the maximum
voltage is about 1.4035 mV.

(iv) FILTER CONFIGURATION 4

The filter configuration is shown
Fig 13. FFT of the EMI spectra in the figure 16.The filter components are
specified as follows
Fig 13 shows FFT of the EMI Spectra. From • Cx=0.33 µF
the simulation output, the maximum frequency at • Cy=2.2 nF
which the maximum conducted EMI is predicted as • LCM=2 mH
1.3 MHz and the maximum voltage is about 2.3479 • LDM=20 µH
mV. But at 10 KHz the EMI is 726.422 µV.

(iii) FILTER CONFIGURATION 3

The filter configuration is shown in the
figure 14.The filter components are specified as
follows
• Cx=0.15 µF
• Cy=3.3 nF
• LCM=32 mH
• LDM=477 µH

Fig 16. filter configuration 4

Fig 14. Filter configuration 3

Fig 17 FFT of the EMI spectra

Fig 17 shows FFT of the EMI Spectra.

From the simulation output, the maximum
frequency at which the maximum conducted
EMI is predicted as 1.3 MHz and the maximum
voltage is about 2.2070 mV. But at 10 KHz the
EMI is 656.755 µV.

(v) FILTER CONFIGURATION 5

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 176
 The filter configuration is shown in the
figure 18.The filter components are specified as Table I comparison of predicted EMI
follows Con Wit Filte Filt Filt Filt Filt
• Cx=0.3 µF figu hout r er2 er3 er4 er5
• Cy=2.0 nF ratio filte 1
• LCM=13 mH n r mV mV mV mV
• LDM=400 µH mV mV
At 11.0 9.63 0.7 1.4 0.6 3.0
10 9 1 26 03 56 74
KH
z
freq
uen
cy
Max 2.3 2.2
imu 47 07
m
freq
Fig 18. Filter configuration 5 uen
cy
1.3
MH
z
• From the table the maximum
predicted EMI is 11.093 mV at 10 KHz
for Boost PFC without filter. But while
selecting a particular filter from above
configuration maximum conducted EMI
has to be considered.
• Even though the conducted
EMI for the filter configurations 2 and 4
gives the total conducted EMI in micro
volts at frequency of 10 KHz, the
Fig 19. FFT of the EMI spectra maximum EMI produced them are 2.3479
mV and 2.2070 mV. It may be due to the
Fig 19 shows FFT of the EMI Spectra. From poor capacitor selection.
the simulation output, the maximum frequency at • The configuration which gives
which the maximum conducted EMI is predicted as 10 the least total conducted EMI is filter 3
KHz and the maximum voltage is about 3.0745 mV and the value is 1.4035 mV at 10 KHz. So
this can be selected to install in the real
V CONCLUSION time application.
Table I shows the comparison of the
predicted EMI without EMI filter and with EMI filter REFERENCES
for the five configurations simulated in the previous
sections. 1. Liyu Yang, Bing Lu, Wei Dong, Zhiguo
Lu, Ming xu, F.C. Lee and W.G.
Odendaal (2004),” Modeling and
Characterization of a 1KW CCM PFC
converter for conducted EMI prediction
”,IEEE transactions on Power
Electronics.

2. W. Zhang, M.T. Zhang, F.C. Lee, J.

Roudet andE.Clavel (1997),”Conducted
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 177
 EMI analysis of a boost pfc circuit ”, Applied
Power Electronics Conference
3. J.C.Crebier, M.Brunello and J.P.Ferrieux,
(1999)” A new method for EMI study in
boost derived pfc rectifiers” IEEE
transactions on Power Electronics.
4. L. Rossetto, S. Buso and G. Spiazzi, (2000),
“Conducted EMI issues in 600-W single
phase boost PFC design” IEEE transactions
on Industry Applications.
7. I.Cadirci, B. Saka and Y.Eristiren
(2005),”Practical EMI Filter design
procedure for high-power high-frequency
SMPS according to MIL-STD 461”, IEEE
proceedings
8. Fu-Yuan shih, Chen, D.Y. (1996), “A
procedure for designing EMI FILTERS for ac
line applications”, IEEE transactions on
Power electronics.
9. Qing Chen (1998),”Electromagnetic
interference design considerations for a high
power ac/dc converter”, Power electronics
specialists’ conference.
10. Y.F.Zhang, L.Wang and C.Q.Lee
(1995)”Optimal design of integrated EMI
filter” Applied electronics conference and
exposition.
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5. Shou Wang, F.C.Lee and
W.G.Odendaal (2003)”Improving the
performance of Boost PFC EMI filters”
Conference publication, IEEE Applied
Power Electronics Conference
6. Sulekh Chand and Nurul Hasan
(2002)”A practical approach to
conducted noise compliance” ITEM
update
11. Crebier J.C, Jourdan L et al., (2000)
“Common mode disturbance reduction
of PFC full bridge rectifiers”. Power
electronics specialists’ conference.
12. Mohit Kumar and vivek Agarwal
(2006),” Power Line Filter Design for
conducted electromagnetic interference
using Time-Domain Measurements”
IEEE transactions on electromagnetic
compatibility.
13. A book by V.Prasasd Kodali(2001)
Describes “Engineering electromagnetic
compatibility principles,
Measurments,technologies and
computer models” Second
edition,2001,IEEE PRESS.
178
8. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL BASED BRUSH LESS DC
DRIVES WITH REDUCED TORQUE RIPPLE
S.Bharath Babu1, G.Venu Madhav 2 and Guruswamy Revana3
Persuing M.Tech from P.R.R.M Engineering College, Shabad, R.R.Dist.,Andhra Pradesh, India.
2&
Assistant Professors,Padmasri Dr. B. V. Raju Institute of Technology, Narsapur, Medak Dist., A.P
e-mail : guru_revana@yahoo.com

Abstract—This paper describes its application motors often employ concentrated

to brushless dc drives, and highlights the
essential differences in its
implementation, as regards torque
estimation and the representation of the
inverter voltage space vectors. Simulated
and experimental results are presented,
and it is shown that, compared with
conventional current control, DTC results
in reduced torque ripple and a faster
dynamic response. The application of
direct torque control (DTC) to brushless ac
drives has been investigated extensively.
Index Terms—Brushless dc (BLDC) drives,
direct torque control (DTC), permanent-
magnet motor.
I. INTRODUCTION
The permanent magnet brushless ac
(BLAC) and brushless dc (BLDC) drives [2],
[3] are used extensively for many
applications, ranging from servos to
traction drives. They differ primarily in their
current and back-electromotive-force (EMF)
waveforms. In a BLAC drive, the phase
current is controlled by a pulse width-
modulation (PWM) inverter to have a
sinusoidal waveform and vector control is
often employed, while in a BLDC drive, the
PWM phase current has an essentially
rectangular waveform. In theory, a
permanent magnet brushless motor with
any back-EMF waveform can be operated in
either BLAC or BLDC mode, although, in
practice, it is desirable for a BLAC motor to
have a sinusoidal back-EMF waveform and
BLDC motor to have a trapezoidal back-EMF
waveform in order to minimize the torque
ripple and maximize the efficiency and
torque capability. A sinusoidal back-EMF
waveform can be obtained by skewing the
stator slots and/or rotor magnets,
employing a distributed stator winding,
shaping the magnets, or employing a
sinusoidal magnetization distribution. BLDC
windings [3], since these results in
shorter end windings, which is
conducive to a high efficiency and
torque density. Further, while BLAC
drives require a precision rotor position
sensor, such as encoder, BLDC drives
only require discrete position sensors,
such as Hall devices [2], [3]. Therefore,
in general, BLDC drives are relatively
low cost. This paper focuses on the
control of such BLDC drives.
Generally, BLDC drives employ current
control, which essentially assumes that the
torque is proportional to the phase current.
Since, in practice, the relationship is
nonlinear, various current control strategies
have been adopted to minimize torque
pulsations, by employing pre-optimized
waveforms for the reference current, for
example. Such an optimal current excitation
scheme was proposed in [4], which resulted
in minimal copper loss and ripple-free
torque from a BLDC drive. However, it was
based on the d–q axes transformation, and
could not respond to rapid torque changes. A
current controller, which estimated the
electromagnetic torque from the rate of
change of co-energy was described in [5].
However, in its implementation to a BLDC
drive, the estimated torque was obtained
from a lookup table, and the control
algorithm did not directly involve flux
control. An instantaneous torque controller
based on variable structure control in the d–
q reference frame was proposed in [6]–[8].
However, although experimental results
showed that it was effective in reducing
torque ripple, it was only applicable to three-
phase BLDC operating in the 180°
conduction mode, and not to the more usual
120° conduction mode. In [9],
electromagnetic torque pulsations were
reduced with a torque controller in which the
torque was estimated from the product of the

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 179
 instantaneous back-EMF and current. However,
the winding resistance was neglected and the
inverter output voltage had to be calculated, which
assumed that the back-EMF waveform was
known. The real-time estimation of the back EMF,
using the model reference adaptive method, was
reported in [10], which also employed a variable-
structure torque controller with space-vector
PWM.
Direct torque control (DTC) was originally
developed for induction machine drives [11], [12],
and directly controls the flux linkage and
electromagnetic torque. A relationship is
established between the torque, the flux and the
optimal inverter switching so as to achieve a fast
torque response. DTC has been applied, more
recently, to BLAC machines [13], [14].
This paper considers the application of direct
torque control, to a three-phase BLDC drive
operating in the 120° conduction mode (i.e. two
phases conducting) to achieve instantaneous
torque control and reduced torque ripple. As will
be shown, the essential differences between the
DTC of BLDC and BLAC drives are in the torque
calculation and the representation of the voltage
space vectors. Simulated and experimental results
are presented to illustrate the application of DTC
to a BLDC drive.
II. DTC OF BLAC AND BLDC DRIVES
In general, neglecting the influence of mutual coupling
between the direct and quadrature axes, the
electromagnetic torque of a permanent-magnet
brushless machine in the synchronously rotating d–q
reference frame can be expressed as [10], [15], [16]
( BLDC
1)
where
(
2)
( or, in the stationary α -β reference frame, as
3)
and θ e is the rotor electrical angle, p is the
number of poles, isd and isq are the d- and q-
axes currents, Ld and Lq are the d – and q-
axes inductances, respectively, and ψ rd,
ψ rq , ψ sd , and ψ sq are the d- and q -axes
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rotor and stator flux linkages,
respectively.
After a d–q transformation, a fundamental
component of flux linkage is transformed into a
dc component, while 5th and 7th harmonics
transform into 6th harmonics, 11th and 13th
harmonics transform into 12th harmonics, 17th
and 19th harmonics transform into 18th
harmonics, and so on. Thus, for a machine
having a sinusoidal permanent-magnet flux, ψ rd
= constant and ψ rq= 0. However, ψ rd for
nonsinusoidal flux, is composed of a dc
component and 6th, 12th, 18th harmonics, etc.,
while ψ rq consists of 6th, 12th, 18th harmonics,
etc.
Torque pulsations are
associated mainly with the flux
harmonics, the influence of higher
order harmonics in the stator winding
inductance usually being negligible
[17]. Therefore, for machines equipped
with a surface-mounted magnet rotor
(i.e., nonsalient), it can be assumed
that Ld and Lq are constant, i.e., Ld=
Ld0 , Lq= Lq0 , and the electromagnetic
torque can be expressed as
----------- (4)
At this stage, it is worth considering
the following cases. 1) When the stator
flux linkage due to the permanent
magnets varies sinusoidally, ψ rd is
constant and ψ rq= 0, dψ rd/dθ e= 0, and
dψ rq/dθ e= 0 . The electromagnetic
torque equation, for both BLAC and
operation, with either a
nonsalient- or salient-pole rotor, can
then be
simplified as
(5)
(6)
where isα , isβ , ψ sα , and ψ sβ are the α - and β -
axes stator currents and flux linkages,
respectively, viz.
180

(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
However, if the stator flux-linkage variation
is nonsinusoidal, which is generally the
case for BLDC machines, the general
torque equation (1) must be employed,
since dψ rd/dθ e≠ 0, dψ rq/dθ e≠ 0.
2) For nonsalient-pole brushless machines
with a nonsinusoidal stator flux linkage,
since Ld0 = Lq0 = Ls , theelectromagnetic
torque, for both BLAC and BLDC operation,
can be simplified as
((11)
In the rotating d–q -axes reference frame,
or as
(12)
In the stationary α –β reference frame,
where ψ rα and ψ rβ
are the α - and β -axes rotor flux linkages,
respectively, viz.
((13)
1(14)
However, for a nonsalient BLAC motor with
a sinusoidal flux linkage, ψ rd = ψ m and ψ rq
= 0, and the torque equation can be further
simplified as
((15)
Or, in the stationary reference frame as
((16)
Which is the same as (6).
Equation (16) is a particular case of (12) when the
back-EMF waveform is sinusoidal, or represents
the fundamental component of electromagnetic
torque when the back-EMF waveform is
nonsinusoidal. In general, (12) should be used to
calculate the torque when the back-EMF
waveform is nonsinusoidal.
As with the application of DTC to
BLAC drives [13], its implementation to
BLDC drives is based on flux-linkage
observers. The stator flux-linkage vector
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can be obtained from the measured
stator voltages and currents and as
(17)
(18)
where R is the stator winding resistance. The
magnitude and angular position of the stator
flux-linkage vector is obtained as
(19)
(20)
The rotor flux linkages can be deduced from
the stator flux linkages. For example, for a
surface-mounted permanent-magnet rotor,
they are given by
(21)
(22)
while the torque can be calculated
from (12). To simplify the calculation,
however, the differential terms in (12)
can be pre-determined from the back-
EMF waveform assuming that the EMF
is proportional to the rotor speed.
Six nonzero-voltage space vectors are
defined for a BLDC drive as shown in Fig.
1(a), the sectors of the circular voltage
vector which enable the voltage vector to be
selected in terms of the stator flux-linkage
vector being shown in Fig. 1(b). For
comparison, the six nonzero-voltage space
vectors and the sectors of the circular
voltage vector for a BLAC drive are shown
in Fig. 2(a) and (b), respectively. Figs. 1(c)
and 2(c) show the idealized phase current
waveforms for BLDC and BLAC operation,
and their relationship with the voltage space-
vector sectors and switching states.From
the foregoing, the main differences
between the representation of the
voltage space vector in BLAC and
BLDC drives are as follows.
1) In a BLAC drive, all three phases are
conducting at any
181
instant and the voltage space vectors can be
represented by three digits [Fig. 2(a)] which fully
represent all the states of the inverter switches, since
only one digit is required for each switching leg, as the
upper and lower switches operate in tandem mode. In
a BLDC drive, however, only two phases are
conducting in the 120° conduction mode, except during
commutation periods when all three phases conduct,
the unexcited phase
Fig. 1. Nonzero-voltage space vectors for BLDC
drive.
conducting via a freewheeling diode. Since the upper
and lower switches in the same phase leg may both be
simultaneously off in BLDC drive, irrespective of the
state of the associated freewheel diodes [Fig. 1(a)] six
digits are required to represent the states of the
inverter switches, one digit for each switch.
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Thus, the voltage space vectors are
represented as switching signals (100
001), (001 001), (011 000), (010 010),
(000 110), (100 100), respectively,
where, from left to right, the logical values
express the states of the upper and lower
switching signals for phases A, B, and C,
respectively. The zero-voltage space
vector is defined as (000 000).
.
Fig. 2. Nonzero-voltage space vectors for
BLAC drive.
2) The voltage space vectors in the α
-β reference frame for a BLDC drive
have a 30° phase difference relative to
those for a BLAC drive, as will be seen
by comparing Figs. 1(b) and 2(b). Two
182
nonzero-voltage space vectors now bound each sector controlled in a BLDC drive, as indicated
of the vector circle, as will be seen
in Table I.
in Fig. 1(b), while in a BLAC drive each
sector is centered on a nonzero-voltage
space vector

Fig. 3. Schematic of DTC BLDC drive. In addition, when the actual flux linkage is
smaller than the commanded value, the non zero-
Fig. 3 shows a schematic of a DTC BLDC voltage space vector is used to increase the flux
drive, which is essentially the same as that linkage, while when the actual flux linkage is
for a DTC BLAC drive, except for the greater than the commanded value; the non zero-
switching table and torque estimation. voltage space vector is used to decrease the stator
Sampling the stator phase currents and flux linkage.
voltages and employing a stationary III. SIMULATED AND EXPERIMENTAL
reference transformation can obtain the RESULTS
stator flux linkage in the stationary The utility of the foregoing application
reference frame. The rotor flux linkage in of DTC to a BLDC drive has been validated by
the stationary reference frame can be simulations and measurements on two surface-
calculated from (21) and (22), while the mounted magnet brushless motors, whose
magnitude of the stator flux linkage and parameters are given in Table II, the motors
the electromagnetic torque can be having significantly different back-EMF
obtained from (19) and (12), respectively. waveforms (Fig. 4). Motor 1 has three stator
The speed feedback derived from rotor slots, a concentrated winding, and a two-pole
position sensors is compared to the speed diametrically magnetized rotor, a motor
command to form the torque command topology, which is often employed for BLDC
from the proportional– integral (PI) speed drives due to its simplicity [3]. Thus,
regulator. The stator flux-linkage and
torque commands are obtained from
hysteresis controllers by comparing the
estimated electromagnetic torque and
stator flux linkage with their demanded
values. As can be seen from Table I, the
switching pattern of the inverter can be
determined according to the stator flux-
linkage and torque status from the outputs
of two regulators shown in Fig. 3, and the
sector in which the stator flux linkage is
located at that instant of time. In each
sector, if the actual stator flux linkage is
the same as the commanded stator flux
linkage, only one non zero-voltage space .
vector and a zero-voltage vector are used
to control the increase or decrease of the
torque, since during any 60° electrical
period only two phases are excited and

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 183
Fig. 4. Back-EMF waveforms. (a) Motor 1. (b)
Motor 2.
its air-gap field distribution and back-EMF
waveform are inherently sinusoidal. It was
selected for investigation since its torque can be
estimated from (16), which has the same form as
that for a BLAC motor, while conventional PWM
current control (constant current demand over
120° electrical) results in a significant low-
frequency torque ripple, as shown in the simulated
results (Fig. 5) which were obtained by employing
a hysteresis controller. Motor 2 also has a
concentrated winding and fractional slot and pole
number combination, viz. ten poles, 12 slots (its
design parameters being given in [18]). However,
since its back-EMF waveform is essentially
trapezoidal, the torque should be estimated from
(12).
Fig. 5. Current and torque waveforms with
A Matlab/Simulink based simulation conventional PWM current control. (a)
model has also been used to predict the Motor 1 (1500 r/min). (b) Motor 2 (400
performance of both motors. By way of r/min).
example, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 shows the
simulated phase to ground voltage, and the Further, it will be seen that the
phase voltage and current, the locus of the phase current waveform inherently
stator flux linkage, and the estimated follows the inverse of the back-EMF
electromagnetic torque for both motors. waveform within each 60° electrical
These simulated are compared with the sector of the 120° electrical conduction
measured values, which are not shown. periods so as to maintain the
electromagnetic torque constant. In
addition, it should be noted that whilst
in a BLAC motor the ideal locus of the
stator flux linkage is circular, in a BLDC

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 184
motor it is noncircular due to the
incremental rotation of the stator flux
during communication events, which occur
every 60° elec. in a 120° electrical
conduction BLDC drive. Thus, the flux-
linkage locus tends to be hexagonal in
shape, as for a six-step drive, the sides
being curved due to the influence of the
back EMF of the unexcited phase while
discrete changes in amplitude occur every
60° electrical due to the action of the
freewheeling diodes. Further, it will be
noted that, while a high-frequency torque
ripple exists in both the simulated and
experimental results as a consequence of
the low winding inductances and PWM
events, the low-frequency torque ripple
which would have resulted with
conventional vector control have been
eliminated by optimizing the phase current
waveform in accordance with the back-EMF
waveform.

Fig. 6. Simulated results for Motor 1 (1500

r/min). (a) Phase-to-ground voltage. (b)
Phase voltage. (c) Phase current. (d) Locus
of stator flux linkage. (e) Electromagnetic
torque.

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 185

Fig. 7. Simulated results for Motor 2 (400 r/min).
(a) Phase-to-ground voltage. (b) Phase voltage.
(c) Phase current. (d) Locus of stator flux
linkage. (e) Electromagnetic torque.
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IV. CONCLUSION
DTC has been applied to a BLDC drive, and its
utility has been validated by simulations and measurements
on two BLDC motors which have very different back-EMF
waveforms. The main difference between the implementation
of DTC to BLAC and BLDC drives is in the estimation of
torque and the representation of the inverter voltage vectors.
It has been shown that DTC is capable of instantaneous
torque control and, thereby, of reducing torque
pulsations.
REFERENCES
[1] J. R. Hendershort Jr and T. J. E.
Miller, Design of Brushless Permanent-
Magnet Motors. Oxford, U.K.: Magana
Physics/Clarendon, 1994.
[2] J. R. Hendershort Jr and T. J. E.
Miller, Design of Brushless Permanent-
Magnet Motors. Oxford, U.K.: Magana
Physics/Clarendon, 1994.
[3] T. Kenjo and S. Nagamori,
Permanent-Magnet and Brushless DC
Motors. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1985.
[4] P. J. Sung,W. P. Han, L. H. Man, and
F. Harashima, “A new approach for
minimum-torque-ripple maximum-
efficiency control of BLDC motor,”IEEE
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 47, no. 1, pp.
109–114, Feb. 2000.
[5] C. French and P. Acarnley, “Direct
torque control of permanent magnet
drives,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 32,
no. 5, pp. 1080–1088, Sep./Oct. 1996.
[6] T. S. Low, K. J. Tseng, K. S. Lock,
and K.W. Lim, “Instantaneous torque
control,” in Proc. Fourth Int. Conf.
Electrical Machines and Drives, Sep.
13–15, 1989, pp. 100–105.
[7] T. S. Low, K. J. Tseng, T. H. Lee, K.
W. Lim, and K. S. Lock, “Strategy for
the instantaneous torque control of
permanent-magnet brushless DC
drives,” in Proc. IEE—Elect. Power
Appl., vol. 137, Nov. 1990, pp. 355–
363.
[8] T. S. Low, T. H. Lee, K. J. Tseng, and
K. S. Lock, “Servo performance of a
BLDC drive with instantaneous torque
control,” IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., vol. 28,
no. 2, pp. 455–462, Mar./Apr. 1992.
[9] S. J. Kang and S. K. Sul, “Direct
torque control of brushless DC motor
with nonideal trapezoidal back-emf,”
IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 10,
no. 6, pp. 796–802, Nov. 1995.
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[10] S. K. Chung, H. S. Kim, C. G. Kim, and
M. J. Youn, “A new instantaneous torque
control of PM synchronous motor for high-
performance direct-drive applications,”
IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 13, no. 3,
pp. 388–400, May 1998.
[11] M. Depenbrock, “Direct self-control of
inverter-fed induction machine,”IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 420–429,
Oct. 1988.
[12] I. Takahashi and T. Noguchi, “A
newquick-response and high-efficiency
control strategies of an induction motor,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 22, no. 5, pp.
820–827, Sep./Oct. 1986.
[13] L. Zhong, M. F. Rahman, W. Y. Hu, and
K. W. Lim, “Analysis of direct torque control
in permanent magnet synchronous motor
drives,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol.
12, no. 3, pp. 528–536, May 1997.
[14] I. Boldea and S. A. Nasar, “Torque
vector control—a class of fast and robust
torque-speed and position digital
controllers for electric drives,” Elect. Mach.
Power Syst., vol. 15, pp. 135–147, 1988.
[15] P. C. Krause, Analysis of Electric
Machinery. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
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[16] V. Gourishankar,
Electromechanical Energy
Conversion.Scranton,PA:International
Textbook, 1965.
[17] B. H. Ng, M. F. Rahman, and T. S.
Low, “An investigation into the effects
of machine parameters on torque
pulsation in a brushless dc drive,” in
Proc. IEEE IECON’88, 1988, pp. 749–
754.
[18] D. Ishak, Z. Q. Zhu, and D. Howe,
“Permanent magnet brushless
machines with unequal tooth widths
and similar slot and pole numbers,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 41, no. 2,
pp. 584–590, Mar./Apr. 2005.
[19] F. G. Capponi, G. De Donato, L.
Del Ferraro, O. Honorati, M. C. Harke,
and R. D. Lorenz, “AC brushless drive
with low resolution hall-effect sensors
for an axial flux PM machine,” in Conf.
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[20] Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives
by B.K. BOSE
187
 9. A New Approach to Reducing Output Ripple In
Switched-Capacitor-Based Step-Down DC–DC
Converters
APPARAO.VANKARA.
M.Tech. (Power Electronics)
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL SCIENCES
VELLORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
VELLORE. 632014.

Abstract:
Rapidly dropping power supply voltages and tight
voltage regulation requirements for integrated circuits
challenges power supply designers. A novel
interleaved discharging (ID) approach is presented to
reduce the output ripple in step-down Switched -
capacitor (SC) dc–dc converters. Simulation and
experimental results of a four-stage SC dc–dc
converter show that the ID approach can reduce the
output ripple by a factor of three. The proposed
approach also improves the converter efficiency by
7%. The ID method provides flexibility in the design
optimization of Step - down SC dc–dc converters.

Basic Conventional Interleaving Technique Block

Diagram

Output Ripple Voltage:

Efficiency:
Conventional Step-Down SC DC–DC Converter

Proposed Step-Down SC DC–DC Converter

With Interleaved Discharging:

Estimated Output Waveforms:

www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 188
Estimated output Waveforms:

MATLAB Simulation Circuit:

Output Ripple Voltage:

Efficiency:

Observed Waveforms in MATLAB:

• Switch waveforms & Output Voltages

MATLAB SIMULATION RESULTS of C1, C2, C3 and C:

Experimental Circuit Diagram for Conventional Step-

Down SC DC–DC Converter
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 189
 MATLAB Simulation Circuit:

Experimental Circuit Diagram for Proposed Step-

Down SC DC–DC Converter
With ID Technique:

Observed Waveforms in MATLAB:

• Switch Waveforms & Output

Waveforms of Voltage across C1, C2, C3
and C:
www.engineeringpapers.blogspot.com 190

Observed Notes:
• In the conventional Method All Capacitors
are charging and discharging at a time. So,
the output capacitor (C) across the load also
charging and discharging after starting the
discharging of (C1, C2 and C3) for one time
for cycle.
• In the Proposed ID method the Capacitors C1,
C2 and C3 are charging sequentially one
after the other. So, The Capacitor C was
charging and discharging four times.
• So, when comparing the conventional
method, proposed Id method increasing the
frequency in the voltage across the load.
• The output ripple of the load is inversely
proportional to the frequency of the load
voltage. So, automatically output ripple was
reduced in Id method of approach.
Conclusion:
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• ID approach was proposed to reduce the
output ripple in switched-capacitor-based
step-down dc–dc converters.
• Simulation and experimental results of
a four-stage SC dc–dc converter show that
the ID approach can reduce the output ripple
by a factor of three.
• The proposed ID approach also improves the
converter efficiency by 7%.
• The proposed ID approach not only provides
the possibility to reduce the output ripple,
but also provides some flexibility in
optimizing the design of step-down SC dc–
dc converters.
REFERENCES
[1] International Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors, 2002 Update [Online].
Available:
http://public.itrs.net/Files/2002Update/Home.p
df
[2] I. D. Jitaru, “Future embedded computer
systems will face power supply design
challenges,” in Proc. PCIM’00 Conf., Jul.
2000, pp. 102–104.
[3] R. Malik, “Future embedded computer
systems will require a new power bus
architecture,” in Proc. PCIM’00 Conf., Jul.
2000, pp. 84–89.
[4] DC–DC Converter Design Guidelines. VRM
9.1 [Online]. Available:
http://www.intel.com/design/Xeon/guides/298
64601.pdf
[5] S. V. Cheong, H. Chung, and A. Ioinovici,
“Inductor less DC-to-DC converter with high
power density,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 208–215, Apr. 1994.
[6] W. S. Harris and K. D. T. Ngo, “Power
switched-capacitor DC–DC converter:
Analysis and design,” IEEE Trans. Aerosp.
Electron. Syst., vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 386–395,
Apr. 1997.
191
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