ADVANTAGES OF DBMS

The DBMS (Database Management System) is preferred ever the conventional file processing system due to the following advantages:

1. Controlling Data Redundancy - In the conventional file processing system, every user group maintains its own files for handling
its data files. This may lead to

• Duplication of same data in different files.

• Wastage of storage space, since duplicated data is stored.
• Errors may be generated due to updation of the same data in different files.
• Time in entering data again and again is wasted.
• Computer Resources are needlessly used.
• It is very difficult to combine information.

2. Elimination of Inconsistency - In the file processing system information is duplicated through¬out the system. So changes made
in one file may be necessary be carried over to another file. This may lead to inconsistent data. So we need to remove this
duplication of data in multiple file to eliminate inconsistency.

For example: - Let us consider an example of student's result system. Suppose that in STU¬DENT file it is indicated that Roll no= 10
has opted for 'Computer'course but in RESULT file it is indicated that 'Roll No. =l 0' has opted for 'Accounts' course. Thus, in this case
the two entries for z particular student don't agree with each other. Thus, database is said to be in an inconsistent state. Sc to
eliminate this conflicting information we need to centralize the database. On centralizing the data base the duplication will be
controlled and hence inconsistency will be removed.

Data inconsistency are often encountered in every day life Consider an another example, w have all come across situations when a
new address is communicated to an organization that we deal it (Eg - Telecom, Gas Company, Bank). We find that some of the
communications from that organization are received at a new address while other continued to be mailed to the old address. So
combining all the data in database would involve reduction in redundancy as well as inconsistency so it is likely to reduce the costs
for collection storage and updating of Data.

Let us again consider the example of Result system. Suppose that a student having Roll no -201 changes his course from 'Computer'
to 'Arts'. The change is made in the SUBJECT file but not in RESULT'S file. This may lead to inconsistency of the data. So we need to
centralize the database so that changes once made are reflected to all the tables where a particulars field is stored. Thus the
update is brought automatically and is known as propagating updates.

3. Better service to the users - A DBMS is often used to provide better services to the users. In conventional system, availability of
information is often poor, since it normally difficult to obtain information that the existing systems were not designed for. Once
several conventional systems are combined to form one centralized database, the availability of information and its updateness is
likely to improve since the data can now be shared and DBMS makes it easy to respond to anticipated information requests.

Centralizing the data in the database also means that user can obtain new and combined information easily that would have been
impossible to obtain otherwise. Also use of DBMS should allow users that don't know programming to interact with the data more
easily, unlike file processing system where the programmer may need to write new programs to meet every new demand.

4. Flexibility of the System is Improved - Since changes are often necessary to the contents of the data stored in any system, these
changes are made more easily in a centralized database than in a conventional system. Applications programs need not to be
changed on changing the data in the database.

5. Integrity can be improved - Since data of the organization using database approach is centralized and would be used by a
number of users at a time. It is essential to enforce integrity-constraints.

In the conventional systems because the data is duplicated in multiple files so updating or changes may sometimes lead to entry of
incorrect data in some files where it exists.

For example: - The example of result system that we have already discussed. Since multiple files are to maintained, as sometimes
you may enter a value for course which may not exist. Suppose course can have values (Computer, Accounts, Economics, and Arts)
but we enter a value 'Hindi' for it, so this may lead to an inconsistent data, so lack of Integrity.

Even if we centralized the database it may still contain incorrect data. For example: -

• Salary of full time employ may be entered as Rs. 500 rather than Rs. 5000.
• A student may be shown to have borrowed books but has no enrollment.
• A list of employee numbers for a given department may include a number of non existent employees.

These problems can be avoided by defining the validation procedures whenever any update operation is attempted.

6. Standards can be enforced - Since all access to the database must be through DBMS, so standards are easier to enforce.
Standards may relate to the naming of data, format of data, structure of the data etc. Standardizing stored data formats is usually
desirable for the purpose of data inter¬change or migration between systems.

7. Security can be improved - In conventional systems, applications are developed in an adhoc/temporary manner. Often different
system of an organization would access different components of the operational data, in such an environment enforcing security can
be quiet difficult. Setting up of a data¬base makes it easier to enforce security restrictions since data is now centralized. It is easier
to control who has access to what parts of the database. Different checks can be established for each type of access (retrieve,
modify, delete etc.) to each piece of information in the database.

Consider an Example of banking in which the employee at different levels may be given access to different types of data in the
database. A clerk may be given the authority to know only the names of all the customers who have a loan in bank but not the
details of each loan the customer may have. It can be accomplished by giving the privileges to each employee.

8. Organization's requirement can be identified - All organizations have sections and de¬partments and each of these units often
consider the work of their unit as the most important and therefore consider their need as the most important. Once a database has
been setup with centralized control, it will be necessary to identify organization's requirement and to balance the needs of the
competating units. So it may become necessary to ignore some requests for information if they conflict with higher priority need of
the organization.

It is the responsibility of the DBA (Database Administrator) to structure the database system to provide the overall service that is
best for an organization.

For example: - A DBA must choose best file Structure and access method to give fast response for the high critical applications as
compared to less critical applications.

9. Overall cost of developing and maintaining systems is lower - It is much easier to re¬spond to unanticipated requests when data
is centralized in a database than when it is stored in a conventional file system. Although the initial cost of setting up of a database
can be large, one normal expects the overall cost of setting up of a database, developing and maintaining application programs to
be far lower than for similar service using conventional systems, Since the productivity of program¬mers can be higher in using non-
procedural languages that have been developed with DBMS than using procedural languages.

10. Data Model must be developed - Perhaps the most important advantage of setting up of database system is the requirement
that an overall data model for an organization be build. In conven¬tional systems, it is more likely that files will be designed as per
need of particular applications demand. The overall view is often not considered. Building an overall view of an organization's data
is usual cost effective in the long terms.

11. Provides backup and Recovery - Centralizing a database provides the schemes such as recovery and backups from the failures
including disk crash, power failures, software errors which may help the database to recover from the inconsistent state to the state
that existed prior to the occurrence of the failure, though methods are very complex.

Database Administrator (DBA)

The DBA is a person or a group of persons who is responsible for the management of the database. The DBA is responsible
for authorizing access to the database by grant and revoke permissions to the users, for coordinating and monitoring its use,
managing backups and repairing damage due to hardware and/or software failures and for acquiring hardware and software
resources as needed. In case of small organization the role of DBA is performed by a single person and in case of large organizations
there is a group of DBA's who share responsibilities.

Database Designers

They are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the database and for choosing appropriate structure to
represent and store the data. It is the responsibility of database designers to communicate with all prospective of the database
users in order to understand their requirements so that they can create a design that meets their requirements.

End Users

End Users are the people who interact with the database through applications or utilities. The various categories of end
users are:

• Casual End Users - These Users occasionally access the database but may need different information each time. They use
sophisticated database Query language to specify their requests. For example: High level Managers who access the data weekly or
biweekly.
 • Native End Users - These users frequently query and update the database using standard types of Queries. The operations
that can be performed by this class of users are very limited and effect precise portion of the database.

For example: - Reservation clerks for airlines/hotels check availability for given request and make reservations. Also, persons using
Automated Teller Machines (ATM's) fall under this category as he has access to limited portion of the database.

• Standalone end Users/On-line End Users - Those end Users who interact with the database directly via on-line terminal
or indirectly through Menu or graphics based Interfaces.

For example: - User of a text package, library management software that store variety of library data such as issue and return of
books for fine purposes.

Application Programmers

Application Programmers are responsible for writing application programs that use the database. These programs could be
written in General Purpose Programming languages such as Visual Basic, Developer, C, FORTRAN, COBOL etc. to manipulate the
database. These application programs operate on the data to perform various operations such as retaining information, creating new
information, deleting or changing existing information.

Filed under Application Programmers, Database Administrator, Database Designers, End Users having 1 comments

Entity - Relationship Model

ENTITY - RELATIONSHIP MODEL

The Entity - Relationship Model (E-R Model) is a high-level conceptual data model developed by Chen in 1976 to facilitate
database design. Conceptual Modeling is an important phase in designing a successful database. A conceptual data model is a set of
concepts that describe the structure of a database and associated retrieval and updation transactions on the database. A high level
model is chosen so that all the technical aspects are also covered.

The E-R data model grew out of the exercise of using commercially available DBMS's to model the database. The E-R model
is the generalization of the earlier available commercial models like the Hierarchical and the Network Model. It also allows the
representation of the various constraints as well as their relationships.

So to sum up, the Entity-Relationship (E-R) Model is based on a view of a real world that consists of set of objects called
entities and relationships among entity sets which are basically a group of similar objects. The relationships between entity sets is
represented by a named E-R relationship and is of 1:1, 1: N or M: N type which tells the mapping from one entity set to another.

The E-R model is shown diagrammatically using Entity-Relationship (E-R) diagrams which represent the elements of the
conceptual model that show the meanings and the relationships between those elements independent of any particular DBMS and
implementation details.

Features of the E-R Model:

1. The E-R diagram used for representing E-R Model can be easily converted into Relations (tables) in Relational Model.

2. The E-R Model is used for the purpose of good database design by the database developer so to use that data model in various
DBMS.

3. It is helpful as a problem decomposition tool as it shows the entities and the relationship between those entities.

4. It is inherently an iterative process. On later modifications, the entities can be inserted into this model.

5. It is very simple and easy to understand by various types of users and designers because specific standards are used for their
representation.

DBMSCONCEPTS
1.Database

A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning, representing some aspect of real world and which
is designed, built and populated with data for a specific purpose
2.DBMS
It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In
other words it is general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes
of defining, constructing and manipulating the database for various applications.

3. Database system
The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.
4. Advantages of DBMS?

Ø Redundancy is controlled.
Ø Unauthorized access is restricted.
Ø providing multiple user interfaces.
Ø Enforcing integrity constraints.
Ø Providing backup and recovery.

5. Disadvantage in File Processing System

Ø Data redundancy & inconsistency.

Ø Difficult in accessing data.
Ø Data isolation.
Ø Data integrity.
Ø Concurrent access is not possible.
Ø Security Problems.

6.The three levels of data abstraction

Ø Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
Ø Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored
in database and what relationship among those data.
Ø View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.
11. Data Independence

Data independence means that “the application is independent of the storage

structure and access strategy of data”. In other words, The ability to modify the
schema definition in one level should not affect the schema definition in the next
higher level.

Two types of Data Independence:

Ø Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the
logical level.
Ø Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view
level.
NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more difficult to achieve

12.Vi ew & How is it related to data independence?

A view may be thought of as a virtual table, that is, a table that does not really exist
in its own right but is instead derived from one or more underlying base table. In
other words, there is no stored file that direct represents the view instead a
definition of view is stored in data dictionary.
Growth and restructuring of base tables is not reflected in views. Thus the view can
insulate users from the effects of restructuring and growth in the database. Hence
accounts for logical data independence.
13 Data Model
A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics
and constraints.

14. E-R model

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities
and of relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a
set of attributes.

15. Object oriented model

this model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in
instance variables within the object. An object also contains bodies of code that
operate on the object. These bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain
same types of values and the same methods are grouped together into classes.

16E ntity
It is a 'thing' in the real world with an independent existence.

17. Entity type

It is a collection (set) of entities that have same attributes

18. Entity set

It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.

19. Extension of entity type

The collections of entities of a particular entity type are grouped together into an
entity set.

20.Weak Entity set

An entity set may not have sufficient attributes to form a primary key, and its
primary key compromises of its partial key and primary key of its parent entity, then
it is said to be Weak Entity set.

21.Attribute
It is a particular property, which describes the entity.
22 Relation Schema & Relation

A relation Schema denoted by R(A1, A2, …, An) is made up of the relation name R and the list of attributes Ai that it contains. A
relation is defined as a set of tuples. Let r be the relation which contains set tuples (t1, t2, t3, ..., tn). Each tuple is an ordered list
of n-values t=(v1,v2, ..., vn).

23. Degree of a Relation

It is the number of attribute of its relation schema.
24.Re lations hip
It is an association among two or more entities.
25 Relationship set
The collection (or set) of similar relationships.

26. Relationship type

Relationship type defines a set of associations or a relationship set among a given set
of entity types.
27. Degree of Relationship type
It is the number of entity type participating.

25. DDL (Data Definition Language)

A data base schema is specifies by a set of definitions expressed by a special
language called DDL.

26. VDL (View Definition Language)

It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema

29. DML (Data Manipulation Language)

This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organised by
appropriate data model.
Ø Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed
and how to get those data.
Ø Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a user to specify what data are
needed without specifying how to get those data

30 Relational Algebra
It is procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or
two relations as input and produce a new relation.

37. Relational Calculus

It is an applied predicate calculus specifically tailored for relational databases
proposed by E.F. Codd.
E.g. of languages based on it are DSL ALPHA, QUEL.

38. Difference between Tuple-oriented relational calculus & domain-oriented

relational calculus

The tuple-oriented calculus uses a tuple variables i.e., variable whose only permitted
values are tuples of that relation. E.g. QUEL
The domain-oriented calculus has domain variables i.e., variables that range over the
underlying domains instead of over relation. E.g. ILL, DEDUCE.

39.Normalization
It is a process of analysing the given relation schemas based on their Functional
Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
Ø Minimizing redundancy
Ø Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.

40. Functional Dependency

A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of attributes X and Y
that are subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuple that can form a
relation state r of R. The constraint is for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r if t1[X] =
t2[X] then they have t1[Y] = t2[Y]. This means the value of X component of a tuple
uniquely determines the value of component Y.

41. When is a functional dependency F said to be minimal?

Ø Every dependency in F has a single attribute for its right hand side.
Ø We cannot replace any dependency X A in F with a dependency Y A where Y is a
proper subset of X and still have a set of dependency that is equivalent to F.
Ø We cannot remove any dependency from F and still have set of dependency that is
equivalent to F.

42. Multivalued dependency

Multivalued dependency denoted by X Y specified on relation schema R, where X and

Y are both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation r of R: if
two tuples t1 and t2 exist in r such that t1[X] = t2[X] then t3 and t4 should also
exist in r with the following properties
Ø t3[x] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]
Ø t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2[Y]
Ø t3[Z] = t2[Z] and t4[Z] = t1[Z]
where [Z = (R-(X U Y)) ]

42 Lossless join property

It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to
relation schemas after decomposition.

44. 1 NF (Normal Form)

The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.

45. Fully Functional dependency

It is based on concept of full functional dependency. A functional dependency X Y is
full functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the
dependency does not hold any more.

46.2NF
A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is
fully functionally dependent on primary key.

47.3NF

A relation schema R is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for every FD X A either of the

following is true
Ø X is a Super-key of R.
Ø A is a prime attribute of R.
In other words, if every non prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on primary

key.

48. BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)

A relation schema R is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and satisfies an additional constraint
that for every FD X A, X must be a candidate key.

49.4NF
A relation schema R is said to be in 4NF if for every Multivalued dependency X Y that
holds over R, one of following is true
Ø X is subset or equal to (or) XY = R.
Ø X is a super key.
50.5NF
A Relation schema R is said to be 5NF if for every join dependency {R1, R2, ..., Rn}
that holds R, one the following is true
Ø Ri = R for some i.
Ø The join dependency is implied by the set of FD, over R in which the left side is key of R

51. Atomicity and Aggregation

Atomicity:

Either all actions are carried out or none are. Users should not have to worry about the effect of incomplete transactions.DBMS
ensures this by undoing the actions of incomplete transactions.

Aggregation:
A concept which is used to model a relationship between a collection of entities and
Relationships. It is used when we need to express a relationship among relationships