Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531

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Agricultural Water Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agwat

An approach for precision farming under pivot irrigation system

using remote sensing and GIS techniques
A.H. El Nahry a,∗ , R.R. Ali b , A.A. El Baroudy c
a
National Authority for remote Sensing and Space Science, 23 Joseph Tito Street, El-Nozha El-Gedida, Cairo, Egypt
b
Soils and Water use Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
c
Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The current work is aimed to realizing land and water use efficiency and determining the profitability
Received 25 April 2010 of precision farming economically and environmentally. The studied area is represented by an experi-
Accepted 19 September 2010 mental pivot irrigation field cultivated with maize in Ismailia province, Egypt. Two field practices were
Available online 11 November 2010
carried out during the successive summer growing seasons (2008 and 2009) to study the response of
maize plants single hybrid 10 (S.H.10) to traditional and precision farming practices. Traditional farming
Keywords:
(TF) as handled by the farm workers were observed and noted carefully. On the other hand precision
Precision farming
farming (PF) practices included field scouting, grid soil sampling, variable rate technology and its appli-
SEBAL
Cropwat
cations. After applying PF a dramatic change in management zones was noticed and three management
Management zone zones (of total four) were merged to be more homogenous representing 84.3% of the pivot irrigation
Remote sensing and GIS field.
Under PF Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System techniques have played a vital role in
the variable rate applications that were defined due to management zones requirements. Fertilizers were
added in variable rates, so that rationalization of fertilizers saved 23.566 tonnes/experimental pivot area.
Natural drainage system was improved by designing vertical holes to break down massive soil layers
and to leach excessive salts. Crop water requirements were determined in variable rate according to the
actual plant requirements using SEBAL model with the aid of FAO Cropwat model. Irrigation schedule of
maize was adopted considering soil water retention, depletion, gross and net irrigation saving an amount
of water equal to 93,718 m3 in the pivot irrigation field (153.79 acre). However costs of applying PF were
much higher than TF, the economic profitability (returns-costs) achieved remarkable increase of 29.89%
as a result of crop yield increment by 1000, 2100, 800 and 200 kg/acre in the management zones 1, 2, 3 and
4, respectively. Finally applying adequate amounts of fertilizers beside water control the environmental
hazards was reduced to the acceptable limits.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Agricultural production has experienced dramatic changes dur-
ing the past few decades. Traditionally, farming practices have
assumed that fields are homogeneous in nature, and management
practices seek to determine input application rates based on what
is best for the field as a whole (Isik and Khanna, 2003). Under tradi-
tional farming (TF), the physical and chemical properties of the soil
determined from manual soil sampling are often used as a base to
recommend fertilizer for crops. Normally a large number of sam-
ples, and hence large expense in cost and time, is needed to achieve
statistical significance among samples in determining management
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +20 2 26251299; fax: +20 2 26225800.
E-mail address: sinahry@hotmail.com (A.H.E. Nahry).
zones (Franzen et al., 2002). Till now only a small percentage of
farmers actively seek out new technologies and apply them. These
technologies presented what is called Precision Farming (PF). It
is a management strategy that uses information technologies to
derive data from multiple sources to bear on decisions associated
with crop production (National Research Council, 1997). It involves
studying and managing variations within fields that can affect crop
yield. It also involves the sampling, mapping, analysis, and man-
agement of specific areas within fields in recognition of spatial
and temporal variability with respect to soil fertility, pest popula-
tion, and crop characteristics (Weiss, 1996; Nemenyi et al., 2003).
PF is concerned with the ability to vary rates of application and
precisely apply inputs based on actual crop needs (Zhang et al.,
2010). Developing a management zone map under PF is essen-
tial for effective variable rate applications. To develop a zone map,
normally three factors should be considered i.e. information to be

0378-3774/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2010.09.012
518 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531
used as a basis for creating zones, procedure to be used to pro-
cess the information, and the optimal number of zones that a field
should be divided into (Fridgen et al., 2004). Efficient and easy-to-
use tools that address all these factors are required to provide a
technology delivery mechanism (Zhang et al., 2002). Fleming et al.
(2000) evaluated farmer-developed management zone maps and
concluded that soil color from aerial photographs, topography, as
well as the farmer’s past management experience are effective in
developing variable rate application maps. Remote sensing is very
important in PF where its usage is based on the relationships of
surface spectral reflectance with various soil properties and crop
characteristics (Moran et al., 1997). Multi-temporal images within
a growing season of some field crops have also been used to study
within-field variability (Beı̌gueı̌ et al., 2008). Spectral reflectance
of the soil or crops that were measured in the laboratory (Daniel
et al., 2004), from field spectrometer (Read et al., 2002), from air
and space born imagery (Fleming et al., 2000; Seelan et al., 2003;
Sullivan et al., 2005) have been widely used in developing vari-
able rate application maps. Spatial imagery in agriculture has been
used for crop management since 1929 when aerial photography
was used to map soil resources (Seelan et al., 2003). Despite these
theoretical advances and successful applications, access to and use
of remote sensing data by end users require considerable tech-
nical knowledge about computing and remote sensing is still a
challenge (Moreenthaler et al., 2003). An unsupervised classifi-
cation algorithm has been shown to be effective in delineating a
field into management zones for a variety of applications (Lark
and Stafford, 1997). Determining the most appropriate number of
zones is difficult in the interpretation of unsupervised classifica-
tion, so normalized differences vegetation index (NDVI) was used
in the current work. Spatial variability in yields has been considered
as another useful indicator in determining variable rate nutrient
management (Johnson et al., 2003). The yield variation not only
reflects variation of potential soil productivity but also provides
an indication of the nutrient level for the following season if crop
residues are left to decay (Brock et al., 2005). Finally it is worthy
to say PF could be considered as an integrated crop management
system that attempts to match the kind and amount of inputs with
the actual crop needs for small areas within a farm field. It pro-
vides tools for tailoring production inputs to specific zones within
a field, thus to achieve PF, constraints that preclude its application
should be identified and adequate management practices on the
management zone level should be adopted.
The current work aimed to realize land and water use efficiency
and to determine the profitability of precision farming economi-
cally and environmentally.
Fig. 1. Location of the study area.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
The studied area was represented by an experimental pivot
irrigation field at the Sixth of October Company for agricul-
tural projects, El-Salhia area, which is located to the south west
of Ismailia governorate, Egypt. It is bounded by 30◦ 24 02 and
30◦ 32 16 latitudes and 31◦ 57 36 and 32◦ 03 06 longitudes as
shown in Fig. 1.
2.2. Remote sensing works
A total of seven cloud free landsat enhanced thematic map-
per (ETM+) satellite images were used, one used at the high peak
of growing season (July 2008) to identify the management zones
through deriving NDVI and six others acquired on May 28, June 13,
June 29, July 15, July 31 and August 16, 2009 were used to generate
ETc maps for summer maize single hybrid 10 (S.H.10) in the 2009
growing season.
Digital image processing for Landsat ETM+ satellite images
with spatial resolutions of 28.50 m acquired years 2008 and
2009 was executed using ENVI 4.7 software (ITT, 2009). Digital
image processing included gap-filling of ETM+ SLC-off images in
which all missing image pixels in the original SLC-off image have
been replaced with estimated values based on histogram-matched
scenes. Data were calibrated to radiance using the inputs of image
type, acquisition date and time. Images were stretched using linear
2%, smoothly filtered, and their histograms were matched accord-
ing to Lillesand and Kiefer (2007).
Images were atmospherically corrected using FLAASH module
(ITT, 2009). Satellite images were rectified (radiometrically and
geometrically). Reflectance bands (red and near infrared) and radi-
ance ones (thermal infrared) of ETM+ images were used to derive
different surface parameters such as NDVI, surface albedo, surface
emissivity and surface temperature. The bands and sensor charac-
teristics of Landsat 7 ETM+ are presented in Table 1.
2.3. Field practices
Two field practices were carried out at the experimental pivot
irrigation field during successive summer growing seasons (2008
and 2009) to study the response of maize plants single hybrid 10
(S.H.10) to TF (year 2008) and PF (year 2009).
TF practices that were applied by the farm producers (year 2008)
consisted of the following:
 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531
Table 1
Characteristics of visible and infrared bands of Landsat 7 ETM+.
Sensor type Band No. Spectral resolution
Landsat 7 ETM+ 3 R (0.630–0.690)
4 NIR(0.7500.900)
6.1 TIR(10.400–12.50)
In summer 2008, soil of the investigated area was ploughed after
wheat. Nitrogen was added at 160 kg N/acre as urea, phosphorous
was added at 60 kg P2 O5 /acre as single super phosphate, and potas-
sium was added at 60 kg K2 O/acre as potassium sulphate. Fertilizers
were applied under pivot irrigation system at the same quantity
across the field, before sowing. Row spacing was 0.50 m. Maize was
sown on 15 May. Plants were harvested on 16 August. During this
period, the plant growth and field conditions were observed accu-
rately day by day for recognizing the effect of traditional farming
on maize growth and yield.
PF practices were applied during 2009 under full control of the
investigators is as follows.
2.3.1. Crop scouting
Crop scouting encompassed periodic ground-level inspection of
the crop development. Basic field scouting equipment included: a
clipboard with field scouting forms, field maps, a shovel, a pocket
knife, plastic and paper bags for collecting samples, a 10× hand lens
and a sampling frame, satellite images, a high resolution camera,
labels for identification, HCl and a GPS hand held unit to mark the
locations.
2.3.2. Grid soil sampling
A detailed survey was conducted to establish the field condition.
Samples were collected using a soil auger and spade with properly
labeled bags. Collection of soil samples was carried out based on a
systematic grid layout across a farmed field. The field was sampled
on a 2 × 2 second grid (30.5 m × 30.5 m) with a total of 68 sampling
location points. Sampling depth was 0–0.30 m. A sampling grid was
obtained from an ARC map module (ESRI, 2008). Four to 18 sub
samples were taken from the top 0.30 m of soil to create a composite
sample.
2.3.3. Global positioning system (GPS)
A GPS hand held unit for field scouting was used to determine
precise location (latitude and longitude in UTM units) based on
radio signals from 4 or more of the 24 satellites in the GPS system.
2.4. Laboratory work
Soil samples obtained from the field were used for the determi-
nation of electric conductivity (EC dS/m), soil pH (1:2.5 abstract),
organic matter %, CaCO3 %, and macro and micro nutrients (mg/kg)
according to Bandyopadhyay (2007).
2.5. Spatial variability of soil characteristics
An interpolation method was used to visually identify the spatial
variability and mapping soil characteristics. Interpolation between
sampling locations was made as ordinary kriging interpolation
method performed using the geostatistical analyst extension avail-
able in ESRI©ArcMapTM v9.3 (ESRI, 2008).
2.6. Variable rate technology and variable rate application
Variable rate technology (VRT) and variable rate application
(VRA) that were considered as the backbone of PF were applied, so
that the practice of whole-field application of chemicals has been
519
Spatial resolution Temporary resolution Radiometric resolution
28.5 16 days 8 bit
28.5 16 days 8 bit
57 16 days –
replaced by site-specific treatments, sprayers that were capable of
variable rate applications were essential. These machines were pro-
grammed to deliver precisely the right amount of fertilizers to the
pivot irrigated field. Variable rate technology was essentially used
to allow variable rates of fertilizer application, irrigation schedul-
ing and tillage throughout the pivot irrigation field. The rate was
changed due to a preset map or through information gathered by
satellite sensors. VRT was used in conjunction with mapping infor-
mation (map based VRT) such as yield maps and soil characteristics
maps. Components of variable rate technology that were used in the
studied pivot irrigation field were: 1, computer and controller (inte-
grated into one product); 2, DGPS (Differential GPS); 3, hydraulic
valve and motor and 4, metering device. All these components were
attached to the tractor and combine harvester.
2.6.1. VRA of fertilizers
The fertilizers information was interpreted by computer. A con-
troller was used to increase or decrease the amount of input due to
the application maps. The obtained information was combined with
regular field survey, accurate identification, diagnosis of problems
and a record of those observations for a successful crop manage-
ment program. The information obtained from field scouting was
used to determine if any immediate actions should be taken as
well as future reference to avoid problems in subsequent years.
Every location in the field was evaluated to its specific characteris-
tics and assigned an optimal input application rate unique to that
location.
2.6.2. VRA of compacted saline field spots
Affected spots that were identified by field scouting; remote
sensing and GPS were treated as follows:
Subsurface ploughing was executed to break the subsurface
shale hard pans (40 cm depth) as well as the massive layers of shale.
After breaking the patches of hard pans, vertical drainage holes
were excavated with diameter of 1.0 m and 2.4 m depth to encour-
age natural drainage by gravity. The distance between the adjacent
drainage holes was 15 m. These vertical drainage holes were subdi-
vided into 4 layers (a, b, c and d) and managed from bottom to top
as follows: Hole bed was filled with stones (diameters 0.08 m) to a
height of 0.60 m, the middle layer was filled with gravel (diameters
0.05 m) to a height of 0.60 m, the subsurface layer was filled with
finer gravels (diameter 0.03 m) to a height of 0.60 m and finally the
surface layer was covered by the original soils. All layers were sep-
arated from each other by straw layers with height of 0.2 m to keep
porosity and acting as filters.
2.6.3. VRA of water consumption use
2.6.3.1. SEBAL model (based on satellite imagery). The surface
energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) model with the aid of
Penman–Monteith model and remote sensing was used for esti-
mating crop evapotranspiration (ETc ) on the experimental pivot
irrigation field scale under local climatic conditions of Ismailia gov-
ernorate. All processes have been executed through raster band
math module, ENVI 4.7, ITT (2009) as follows.
2.6.3.1.1. Retrieving land surface temperature (LST). Six
enhanced landsat thematic mapper (ETM+) were used (ther-
mal band 6.1) for retrieving land surface temperature (LST).
Sensors acquired temperature data and stored this information as
520 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531
a digital number (DN) with a range between 0 and 255. DNs were
converted to degrees Celsius using two steps.
- The first step was to convert the DNs to radiance values in
mW/(m2 .sr.0.01 m) using the bias and gain values obtained from
image header file.
CVR = G(CVDN ) + B (1)
where CVR is the cell value as radiance, CVDN is the cell value
digital number, G is the gain and B is the bias (or offset), (NASA,
2002).
- The second step was to convert the radiance data to degrees in
Kelvin as follows:
K2
T= (2)
ln(K1 /CVR + 1)
where T is degrees Kelvin, CVR is the cell value as radiance, K1 is
666.09 and K2 is 1282.71 (NASA, 2002).
2.6.3.1.2. SEBAL and evapotranspiration. The pre-processing
parameters required for surface energy balance algorithm for land
(SEBAL) that were derived from digital image processing included
the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), emissivity,
broadband surface albedo, and surface temperature. The NDVI was
calculated from bands 3 and 4 of ETM+ image, and the broadband
albedo was calculated using weighing factors of all visible, near
infrared and short wave infrared bands (Liang et al., 1999). Sur-
face emissivity of the sensor was calculated from the derived NDVI.
Surface temperature was calculated from thermal band 6.1. Calcu-
lation of the net incoming radiation and the soil heat flux were done
after Bastiaanssen (1995), while the later development of Tasumi
et al. (2000) were incorporated to determine the sensible heat flux.
Temperature difference between air and soil for the “hot” pixel (i.e.,
where the latent heat flux is assumed null) was calculated. Air den-
sity was obtained by generalizing meteorological data of relative
humidity and maximum air temperature from Ismailia meteorolog-
ical station at the time of satellite overpass. The ET was calculated in
SEBAL (Hafeez, 2003) from the instantaneous evaporative fraction
() and the daily averaged net radiation (Rn24 ).
−1
ET24 = [Rn24 × ((2.501 − 0.002361 × LST) × 106)] mm × day
(3)
where ET24 = daily ET actual (mm × day−1 ); Rn24 = average daily net
radiation (W/m2 ); and LST = land surface temperature (◦ C). The
instantaneous evaporative fraction expresses the ratio of the actual
to the crop evaporative demand when the atmospheric moisture
conditions are in equilibrium with the soil moisture conditions. The
evaporative fraction tends to be constant during daytime hours. 
is computed from the instantaneous surface energy balance at the
moment of satellite overpass for each pixel.
E E
= = (4)
Rn − G0 E + H0
where E = latent heat flux (the energy allocated for water evap-
oration; it describes the amount of energy consumed to maintain
a certain crop evaporation rate).  can be interpreted in irrigated
areas as the ratio of actual evaporation to crop potential evapora-
tion. It depends upon the atmospheric and soil moisture conditions
equilibrium. Rn = net radiation absorbed or emitted from the earth’s
surface (radiative heat in W/m2 ); G0 = soil heat flux (conduction
in W/m2 ) and H0 = sensible heat flux (convection in W/m2 ). The
evaporative fraction tends to be constant during daytime hours;
the H0 and E fluxes, on the contrary, vary considerably. The dif-
ference between the  at the moment of satellite overpass and the
 derived from the 24-h integrated energy balance is marginal,
and may be neglected (Brutsaert and Sugita, 1992; Crago, 1996;
Farah, 2001). For time scales of 1 day or longer, G0 can be ignored
and net available energy (Rn − G0 ) reduces to net radiation (Rn ).
By solving the abovementioned equations integrated with some
weather conditions and water availability in the field, ET24 could
be obtained. The ET24 calculation through remote sensing on spe-
cific dates displayed reasonable results of its spatial distribution in
the pivot irrigation system. However, this information could not
be used directly, as ET24 mainly depends upon weather conditions
and water availability in the field, which varies by the hour. It was
therefore necessary to simulate daily values to get an accurate esti-
mation of seasonal ET. A larger sample of timely ET observations
is necessary to obtain an accurate result and to adjust the daily
fluctuation of ET24 for integration of seasonal ET24 . As proposed
by Tasumi et al. (2000). Evapotranspiration of maize crop could be
calculated as follows:
ETc
Kc = (5)
ETo
where Kc = the single crop coefficient; ETc = actual crop evapotran-
spiration; ETo = the reference evapotranspiration, (Bastiaanssen et
al., 2000)
ETc = Kc × ET24 (mm × day−1 ) (6)
where ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm day−1 ),
Kc = crop coeffi-
cient (dimensionless) and ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration
(mm day−1 ).
2.6.3.2. Cropwat model (based on FAO Penman–Monteith approach).
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows is a computer program designed to cal-
culate crop water requirements and irrigation scheme based on soil,
climate and crop data (Smith, 1992). CROPWAT for Windows uses
the FAO (1992) Penman–Monteith method for calculations.
The FAO Penman–Monteith method through Cropwat model
was used to estimate ETo and ETc through the following equations:
0.408(Rn − G) + (900/T + 273)U2 (es − ea )
ETo = (7)
 + (1 + 0.34U2 )
ETc = ETo × Kc (8)
where ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm day−1 ], Rn net radi-
ation at the crop surface [MJ m−2 day−1 ], G soil heat flux density
[MJ m−2 day−1 ], T mean daily air temperature at 2 m height [◦ C],
U2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s−1 ], es saturation vapor pres-
sure [kPa], ea actual vapor pressure [kPa], es − ea saturation vapour
pressure deficit [kPa],  slope vapor pressure curve [kPa ◦ C−1 ],
 psychrometric constant [kPa ◦ C−1 ],ETc crop evapotranspiration
[mm day−1 ] and Kc crop coefficient.
2.6.3.3. Climatic, crop and soil data for cropwat. The daily climatic
data of the year 2009 were obtained from Ismailia meteorological
station longitude 32◦ .25 latitude 30◦ .60 and altitude 13.0, including
maximum and minimum air temperature, relative humidity, wind
speed, sunshine duration and rainfall. The Crop data input included
the following compulsory parameters: Planting date, Crop coeffi-
cient (Kc ), stages, rooting depth, critical depletion fraction (p) and
yield response factor (Ky ).Soil data included total available water
(TAW), maximum infiltration rate, maximum rooting depth and
initial soil moisture depletion.
2.7. Yield mapping
Yield mapping system was used to measure and record the
amount of grain being harvested at any point in the field with the
position of the combine harvester. To produce such yield map, the
harvester was equipped with a GPS receiver. Yield data were sent to
 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531 521

the onboard computer where measured yield was matched with its Table 2
Characteristic of the investigated soils.
appropriate field position and NDVI obtained from satellite images.
Soil characteristics Zone 1. Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
2.8. Fertilizers application recommendation CaCO3 % 1.11–2.75 1.5–6.32 1.56–6.63 1.87–10.23
Salinity EC dS/m 1.23–2.63 1.14–3.21 1.21–3.15 9.23–10.56
Fertilizers recommendations were calculated by using the soil pH 1:2.5 extract 7.88–8.17 7.89–8.22 7.89–8.23 7.98–8.42
O.M.% 1.12–1.21 0.61–0.79 0.43–0.58 0.12–0.19
test fertilizer recommendation program developed by Mc Vay
(2005). Macro nutrients mg/kg
N 35.78–88.87 16.98–40.0 3.89–33.76 8.00–34.34
P 12.67–17.29 7.67–12.45 6.67–11.45 2.0–9.45
3. Results and discussions K 130.20–140.52 18.99–401.52 101.52–320 48.52–132.54

Micro nutrients mg/kg

Two field trials were carried out in two successive seasons, Fe 7.83–9.98 3.5–9.09 3.1–4.56 1.0–10.0
(2008–2009) as follows: Mn 2.43–3.86 2.71–6.45 0.71–3.0 0.86–4.71
Zn 3.56–5.92 0.43–2.45 1.44–4.83 0.06–2.06
3.1. First season practices of TF (2008) Cu 0.75–1.31 0.33–0.99 0.44–1.79 0.11–1.68

3.1.1. Management zones

ing this magnitude of variation prompted to ask how the problem
Regions of similarity or management zones were defined with
could be solved, so using new attitudes was urgent.
the aid of NDVI derived from satellite image. Four management
zones (1, 2, 3 and 4) were identified with areas of 3.87, 82.78, 62.31
3.1.3. Soil characteristics
and 5.83 acre respectively. Fig. 2 shows these management zones.
Soils of the study area were mostly sandy with some gravel on
the surface, having a minimal content of clay and a low nutrient
3.1.2. Analyzing the traditional/common practices
retention capacity. The surface was almost flat to undulating. There
The survey began year 2008 with the recording of vital field
were some patches of shale in the subsurface layer (0.30 m depth)
information on soil fertility and crop inputs. As mentioned before,
consisting of very fine clay cemented by gypsum, CaCO3 and iron
the pivot irrigation field was divided into four zones depending
oxide. Soil structure was single grains. Stratified layers (Aeolian
upon NDVI that is highly correlated with plant growth/health,
deposits) were noticed when inspecting and describing soil profiles
biomass and yield as well. Field survey showed the best crop growth
reflecting the action of the winds as an important soil formation
at zone 1. This area represented the relatively low leveled soils,
agent. Characteristic of the investigated soils in 2008 are illustrated
where enough water and excessive fertilizers were accumulated.
in Table 2. It is noticed that, soil characteristics were correlated with
The relatively elevated soils (zone 2) had fairly healthy vegetation.
the results of crop yield, where zone 1 had relatively adequate soil
The high elevated soils (zone 3) where topsoil was depleted by wind
characteristics represented by low CaCO3 and EC values, fair O.M
erosion, showing moisture and nutrients stress. This stress was
& pH values and adequate nutrients level. In zone 4, there was a
reflected negatively on vegetation health and yield accordingly. The
clear deficiency in both macro and micro nutrients. On the other
plant growth in zone 4, which was affected by moisture shortage
hand, there was a shortage in organic matter content and salinity
and nutrients depletion, was severely damaged. Those plants were
was high in most samples.
located on the pivot perimeter, or on soils that were suffering from
subsurface hardpan (shale). Yield was estimated roughly by 2.2, 1.9,
3.2. Second season practices of PF (2009)
1.6 and 0.8 tonnes/acre for zones 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Observ-
3.2.1. PF field scouting
At the end of growing season 2008, after a field survey which
helped in getting vital information, field scouting depending on
interpretation of Landsat ETM+ satellite images, was done as
regular examination of the study area to accurately identify yield-
limiting factors during the growing season, a field scouting record
form was prepared as shown in Table 3. It was necessary to design
this field scouting record form to assist in determining all produc-
tion inputs and evaluating the current and potential stages of crop
production. Investigating the abovementioned form, it was noticed
that, some practices like selecting maize type, seeding rates, seed-
ing date, some tillage practices and water quality were accepted
and followed in the successive season 2009. On the other hand
average of soil fertility status, water quantity, texture and drainage
management, fertilizers application rate and obtained yield were
not convinced and there was an urgent need to develop productiv-
ity through the procedures of precision farming.

3.2.2. Grid soil sampling

Fig. 2. Pivot management zones.
Grid soil sampling provides an initial base of information for
developing variable rate applications plans. This technique uses a
systematic method to reveal fertility patterns and hard pans. After
the maize harvest 2008, soil samples were collected in systematic
grid (32 in zone 2, 32 in zone 3, 2 in zone 1 and 2 in zone 4) providing
location information that allowed the data to be mapped as shown
in Fig. 3. Grid soil sampling aimed mainly at identifying the cur-
522 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531

Table 3
Field record form (Zea maize single hybrid 10(S.H.10) cultivated 2008).

Zone number Zone 1. Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4

Total area (154.79 acre) 3.87 82.78 62.31 5.83

Soil taxonomy Typic Torripsamments (USDA, 2006)

Weighted average of soil fertility status mg/kg

N 51.05 34.31 17.23 10.97
P 14.43 10.84 7.79 3.67
K 175.01 179.5 188.4 91.8
Fe 8.92 5.46 3.69 2.19
Mn 3.04 4.04 2.02 1.61
Zn 4.51 3.18 1.38 0.87
Cu 0.98 0.91 0.50 0.28

O.M.% 1.17 0.74 0.51 0.15

pH 1:2.5 extract 7.96 8.06 8.11 8.15
Average salinity dS/m 1.67 1.71 2.14 4.91
Average of CaCO3 % 2.03 3.04 3.41 5.50

Tillage Fall Mulch Tillage. The chisel plow has been the most widely adopted fall mulch tillage tool in El-Salhia area
with tandem and offset discs also being used. Disking often resulted in more favorable soil conditions and
higher maize yields than chisel plowing.
Variety/Hybrid Single hybrid 10(S.H.10)
Seeding rate kg/acre 8.57
Seeding date 15 May 2008
Row spacing 0.50 m
Fertilizers rate kg/acre & timing 160 urea (46%) 15 days after planting,60 calcium super phosphate (37.5%) when preparing soil to planting,60
potassium sulfate (48%) 21 days after planting.
Manure application 20 m3 compost/acre

Pivot irrigation system

Water quantity m3 /pivot 405,696
Water Salinity (mg/l) 450

Yield
Harvest date 16 August 2008
Moisture 30%

Grain weight tonnes/acre 2.200 1.900 1.600 0.800

Notes Soil texture is sandy except for some subsoil patches of shale. Drainage system not available.

rent status of nutrients and producing maps of potential nutrient

requirements.

3.2.3. Soil mapping based on VRT

Soil mapping based on VRT allowed the project producers to
make decisions based on the detailed maps and knowledge of the
studied pivot irrigation field in advance. It gave them precise con-
trol over how much of a given input is applied to specific areas.
However, it involved collecting and processing certain amounts of
data, greater amounts of data that were collected over longer peri-
ods of time created more accurate maps. Application maps of soil
nutrients and soil salinity are shown in Fig. 4a–i. These maps which
considered as ‘ground-truth’ were produced through GIS system
(geostatistical analysis- Kriging interpolation technique) to give
specific details of required inputs for defined management zone
map. In recent studies, soil mapping based on VRT could serve as an
effective and easy-to-use tool for those who practice variable rate
applications within-field variability (Fleming et al., 2000; Beı̌gueı̌
et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2009).

3.2.4. Variable rate technology/application (VRT/VRA)

Fig. 3. Grid system and soil sampling locations.
In the current work variable rate technology was applied on
fertilizers application, irrigation schedule based on water con-
sumption use and drainage system based on soil salinity and/or
soil compaction. Differential GPS attached with laptop was used
to locate the zones boundary and initial soil samples based upon
grid system telling the tractor where specific locations (site spe-
cific) within the field were. The GIS system (geostatistical analysis
 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531 523

Fig. 4. Spatial variability of soil characteristics.

module) used this positional information from the GPS to access of fertilizers to be distributed, executed the irrigation scheme
data about the field at specific location. Information then was and identified the shale patches to deal with throughout the
sent to the operator about the field conditions. Using predeter- different field zones. VRA could be discussed in the following
mined calculations, the operator then allowed the required amount lines:
524 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531

Table 4
Amounts and costs of nitrogen application under PF.

Zone no. Zone area (acre) Available N in soil Required N (kg/acre) Price L.E./acre Price L.E./zone

mg/kg kg/acre Unit Fertilizer (urea)

1 3.87 51.05 91.89 32.4 70.43 119.74 463.39

2 82.78 34.31 61.76 93.6 203.48 345.91 28634.43
3 62.31 17.23 31.01 154.8 336.52 572.09 35646.93
4 5.83 10.97 19.75 176.4 383.48 651.91 3800.64

Total 154.79 113.56 204.41 457.2 993.91 1689.65 68545.39

Notes: The data represents the upper 0.30 m. of the soil profile. Nitrogen in kg/acre = soil depth (0.3 m) × area × soil bulk density × nitrogen%. Soil bulk density = 1500 kg/m3 .
1 kg urea cost 1.7 L.E. Traditional application 160 kg N/acre i.e. 348 kg urea (costs 591 L.E./acre = 91573.76 L.E. for the pivot irrigation field). Total costs with PF application
68545.39 L.E. (Egyptian pound).

Table 5
Amounts and costs of phosphorus application under PF.

Zone no. Zone area (acre) Available P in soil Required P (kg/acre) Price L.E./acre Price L.E./zone

mg/kg kg/acre Unit Fertilizer (Super phosphate)

1 3.87 14.43 25.97 25.2 168 201.60 780.19

2 82.78 10.84 19.51 40.5 270 324.00 26820.72
3 62.31 7.79 14.02 54 360 432.00 26917.92
4 5.83 3.67 6.61 72 480 576.00 3358.08

Total 154.79 36.73 66.11 191.7 1278 1533.60 57876.91

Notes: The data represents the upper 0.30 m. of the soil profile. Phosphorus in kg/acre = soil depth (0.3 m) × area (1 acre) × soil bulk density × phosphorus %. Soil bulk
density = 1500 kg/m3 . 1 kg super phosphate cost 1.2 L.E. Total price = price L.E./acre × zone area (acre). Traditional application 60 kg P/acre i.e. 400 kg super phosphate (costs
480 L.E./acre = 74299.2 L.E. for the pivot irrigation field). Total costs with PF application 57876.91 L.E.

3.2.4.1. VRA of fertilizers. In the past years (under TF) fertilizer

applications were added haphazardly to the pivot irrigation field
as a whole with same amounts. In PF, project producers wanted to
optimize fertilizers (input) due to the real requirement of specific
zones, so zone map based VRT (Fig. 4a–g) were produced to decide
the varying amounts of inputs and locations of zones that require
management practices. In the current work, on the basis of preci-
sion farming, the use of fertilizers was limited to areas of known
deficiency, and only the deficient nutrient was applied. Thus, four
different application rates across the field were recognized coincid-
ing with management zones. Fertilizer applications were governed
by the yield potential of individual zone.
Regarding the data obtained from the field scouting form, it was
Fig. 5. Nitrogen applications in both precision and traditional farming.
noticed that, applying the same amount of fertilizers to the field as
a whole (TF) led to excessive nutrients especially at zones 1, 2 and 3,
while applications were unsatisfactory at zone 4. Applying exces- the variation in NPK recommendations, associated with their costs,
sive fertilizers in TF led to environmental hazards and economic for the pivot irrigation field. Figs. 5–7 show the NPK applications
stress. In PF, fertilizer recommendations were widely different from precision and traditional farming.
one zone to another due to precisely requirements, where recom- In a comparison between TF and PF, under precision farming,
mendations for nitrogen were 32.4, 93.6, 154.8 and 176.4 kg N/acre nitrogen application was reduced by 0.494, 5.496, 15.122 tonnes in
for zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. The recommendations for phos- zones 1, 2 and 3 respectively. On the other hand zone 4 required an
phorous were 25.2, 40.5, 54, and 72 kg P/acre for zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 excessive amount of nitrogen determined by 0.096 tonnes. Phos-
successively, meanwhile 59.5, 57.6, 52.2 and 92.6 kg K/acre were phorous application was reduced by 0.135, 1.614, 0.374 tonnes in
added to zones 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. Tables 4–6 illustrate zones 1, 2 and 3 successively. On the other hand zone 4 required

Table 6
Amounts and costs of potassium application under PF.

Zone no. Zone area (acre) Available K in soil Required K (kg/acre) Price L.E./acre Price L.E./zone

mg/kg kg/acre Unit Fertilizer (potassium sulphate)

1 3.87 175.0 315.02 59.5 123.96 557.81 2158.72

2 82.78 179.5 323.10 57.6 120.00 540.00 44701.20
3 62.31 188.4 339.10 52.2 108.75 489.38 30493.27
4 5.83 91.8 165.24 92.7 193.13 869.06 5066.62

Total 154.79 634.7 1142.46 262.0 545.84 2456.25 82419.81

Notes: The data represents the upper 0.30 m. of the soil profile. Potassium in kg/acre = soil depth (0.3 m) × area (1acre) × soil bulk density × potassium %. Soil bulk den-
sity = 1500 kg/m3 . 1 kg potassium sulphate cost 4.5 L.E. Total price = price L.E./acre × zone area (acre). Traditional application 60 kg P/acre i.e. 125 kg potassium sulphate (costs
563 L.E./acre = 87069.37 L.E. for the pivot irrigation field). Total costs with PF application 82419.81L.E.
 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531
Fig. 6. Phosphorus applications in both precision and traditional farming.
Fig. 7. Potassium applications in both precision and traditional farming.
an excessive amount of phosphorous determined by 0.070 tonnes.
Finally potassium application was reduced by 0.002, 0.199, 0.486
tonnes in zones 1, 2 and 3. On the other hand zone 4 required
an excessive amount of potassium determined by 0.190 tonnes.
From the abovementioned lines, it is concluded that, variable rate
application of fertilizers saved amounts of 21.02, 2.05, 0.50 tonnes
N, P and K respectively for the experimental pivot field (154.79
acre).These results were agreed with what was found by Lan et al.
(2008) where fertilizers under VRA for maize were saved by 29 to
32%, the yield was significantly increased by 11–33% more than that
in the conventional application, and emphases the VRT of fertilizers
on the ecological benefits. Similar results were reported by Wittry
et al. (2004), and Xue et al. (2004).
The investigated soils contained sufficient levels of micronutri-
ents to meet crop demands.
Fig. 8. Vertical drainage.
525
3.2.4.2. VRA of compacted saline field spots. Remote sensing and VRT
maps with the aid of GPS led the operator to specific areas that
suffering from compaction and/or salinity. Shale deposits (very fine
massive clay) associated with salinity represented serious limiting
factors affecting root zone aeration, nutrients uptake and water
movement through and/or downward into the soil (El Nahry, 2007).
Shale deposits were found in small patches in the studied area.
Before applying fertilizers or defining the irrigation scheme to the
compacted and or/saline spots, vertical drainage was executed as
shown in Fig. 8. In the second season, the treated spots showed a
higher plant growth as a result of aeration and leaching excessive
salts compared by the first one. Although this type of drainage is
very simple and too cheap compared by tile drainage, it requires
continuous management to be maintained.
3.2.4.3. VRA of water consumption use.
3.2.4.3.1. SEBAL model (based on satellite images). The surface
energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL) model was used for esti-
mating crop evapotranspiration (ETc ) on the experimental pivot
irrigation field scale under local climatic conditions of Ismailia gov-
ernorate. SEBAL is an image processing model comprised of twenty
five sub-models for calculating evapotranspiration as a residual of
the surface energy balance. SEBAL is an emerging technology and
has the potential to become widely adopted and used by water
resources and irrigation community (Allen et al., 2002).
Applying water in adequate amounts could be considered the
cornerstone of variable rate application especially with shortage
of irrigation water in such arid regions. First of all land surface
temperature (LST) was derived (Eq. (1) and (2)) for all 16 days
instantaneous acquired ETM+ images consequently as 31.6, 34.7,
34.2, 34.3, 34.4 and 35.2 for May 28, June 13, June 29, July 15, July
31and August 16. Using the derived LST and metrological data of
relative humidity, wind speed and sunshine hours, a daily refer-
ence evapotranspiration (ET24 ) is computed by solving the surface
energy balance using Eq. (3) and (4). Based on the actual crop-
ping calendar, the weighted crop coefficient Kc for different satellite
overpass dates was calculated (Eq. (5)) as 0.38, 0.87, 1.20 and 0.75
successively within the phonological stages initial, development,
mid-season and end-season. Fig. 9 shows that with 28.5 spatial res-
olution of ETM+ image, ET24 variable rate of initial stage on May 28
has a value of 4.03 mm. At development stage on June 13, ET24 val-
ues were ranged from 5.1 to 5.8.At mid-season stage on 29 June
and July 15, ET24 values were ranged from 5.1 to 6.2 mm. At end-
season stage on July 31 and August 16, ET24 values were ranged
from 5.2 to 6.5 mm. Higher values (dark blue color with ET24 value
of 6.5 mm) appear in the centre of the studied pivot; meanwhile,
526 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531

Fig. 9. Different date’s instantaneous evapotranspiration of maize mm/day.

the outer pivot land (yellow color) shows low ET24 values of 3.15 ing point) was determined at 58.9 mm/meter, maximum rooting
to 4.03 mm. Missing values of ET24 were obtained by daily cal- depth was determined at 100 cm. Initial available soil moisture
culation of reference evapotranspiration (ETo ) using the modified was determined at 58.9 mm/meter. There is no initial soil mois-
Penman–Monteith method. ture depletion.
Solving the Eq. (6) the ET24 was converted into potential crop - Reference evapotranspiration (ETo )
evapotranspiration (ETc ) recording 1.53, 4.87, 5.31, 7.38, 7.56 and The FAO Penman–Monteith method through Cropwat window
8.53 mm/day. Spatial patterns for various classes that include the model was recommended as the sole method for determining ETo .
outer pivot land and agricultural crops in the experimental pivot This method explicitly incorporates both physiological and aero-
irrigation field and adjacent pivots were shown in Fig. 9 as well. dynamic parameters. To determine ETo in the experimental pivot
Results obtained from using SEBAL with the aid of field, daily climatic data within the growing season were used,
Penman–Monteith method throughout Cropwat model indicated meanwhile for simplicity, monthly climatic data and associated
that, accumulated water consumption use of the investigated ETo was displayed in Fig. 10. Monthly ETo values were deter-
pivot, averaged 483 mm for maize grown without water deficit. So mined as 5.84, 6.58, 6.28 and 5.78 mm for the growing season
it is worthy to say, under PF the total quantities of irrigation water (May, June, July and August 2009 successively). The reference crop
that added to maize growing in the investigated field (154.79 evapotranspiration was at peak (5.84 mm/day) at the initial stage;
acre) were determined at 311,978 m3 /growing season against
405,696 m3 /growing season under TF, saving an amount of water
equal to 93,718 m3 . The obtained results were in an agreement 70
with results obtained by Al-Kufaishi et al. (2006) who found loss of
irrigation water was higher for the uniform application than that 60
for the variable rate application (VRA).
50 Min Temp °C
To demonstrate crop water requirements and irrigation scheme
Max Temp °C
of maize, FAO Cropwat model was used.
40 Humidity %
3.2.4.3.2. Cropwat model (based on FAO Penman–Monteith
Wind m/s
approach). This approach overcomes shortcomings of the previ- 30 Sun hours
ous FAO Penman method. From the original Penman–Monteith Radiation MJ/m²/day
equation and the equations of the aerodynamic and surface resis- 20 ETo mm/day
tance, the FAO Penman–Monteith model was used to estimate ETo
as follows: 10

0
- Soil moisture May June July August
From field measurements that were matched with Cropwat
results, the total available soil moisture (field capacity – wilt- Fig. 10. Monthly climatic data and associated ETo for maize.
 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531 527

Table 7
Total ETc and irrigation requirements during the growing season of maize.

Month Decade Stage Kc coeff ETc (mm/day) ETc (mm/dec) Eff. rain (mm/dec) Irrigation required (mm/dec)

May 2 Init 0.3 1.75 10.5 0 10.5

May 3 Dev. 0.31 1.90 20.9 0 20.9
June 1 Dev. 0.64 4.08 40.8 0 40.8
June 2 Mid 1.07 7.17 71.7 0 71.7
June 3 Mid 1.2 7.84 78.4 0 78.4
July 1 Mid 1.2 7.64 76.4 0 76.4
July 2 Late 1.13 7.08 70.8 0 70.8
July 3 Late 0.87 5.34 58.7 0 58.7
August 1 Late 0.61 3.64 36.4 0 36.4
August 2 Late 0.41 2.38 14.3 0 14.3

478.9 0 478.9

slightly increased at development stage (6.58 mm/day) than at
mid season stage (6.28 mm/day), meanwhile it decreases at end-
season stage to reach 5.78 mm/day. Decreasing of ETo values may
be due to increasing of relative humidity.
3.2.4.3.3. Crop water requirement (CWR). The amount of water
required to compensate the evapotranspiration loss from the
cropped field is defined as crop water requirement. Although the
values for crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc )
and crop water requirement are identical, crop water requirement
refers to the amount of water that needs to be supplied, while
crop evapotranspiration refers to the amount of water that is lost
through evapotranspiration. Crop water requirement were illus-
trated in Table 7 and Fig. 11 as well.
As shown in Table 7 and Fig. 11, the initial stage required
10.5 mm/decade of water due to plant limited growth and some-
what climatic conditions. By the end of development stage
irrigation water requirements increased to reach 40.8 mm/decade.
The highest amount of required irrigation of 78.4 mm/decade was
recorded at the third decade of June (mid-season stage) due to
the higher plant growth. Needs to water was reduced sharply
in the third decade of July (late-season stage) till it reaches the
lowest value of 14.3 mm in the second decade of August to encour-
age the grains maturity. Generally ETc ranged between 1.75 and
7.84 mm/day during the growing season, while total ETc was
determined at 478.9 mm/growing season. Reviewing the obtained
results from the two used models, it was noticed that, insignificant
difference was found between ETc determined by SEBAL (483 mm)
and that determined by Cropwat (478.9 mm) .So it is worthy to
say using remote sensing with tighten temporal resolution (quick
site revisit i.e. daily visit) and GIS to determine ETc is essential,
especially in areas that not covered by meteorological stations like
Sahara.
3.2.4.3.4. Irrigation schedule of maize. Essentially, maize irriga-
tion schedule included calculations, producing a soil water balance
on a daily step. Irrigation schedule always rely on gross and net
irrigation. Gross irrigation (GI) represents the water depth in mm
applied to the field while net irrigation (NI) represents the water
depth in mm that is used beneficially. This allowed developing
indicative irrigation schedules to improve water management.
Table 8 shows that both gross and net irrigation were increased
at the initial stage from 23.2 and 16.2 to 56 and 39.2 mm respec-
tively on the 46th day of mid-season stage, then they decreased
to reach 51.4 and 36.2 mm successively on the 61st day of the
end-season stage. On the 86th day of the end-season, both of
GI and NI increased again reaching their maximums of 64.5 and
45.1 mm. More water supplies at end-season stage encouraged
grain weight/size. Water depletion increased gradually from ini-
tial stage to end –season stage to reach its maximum of 75% one
day before harvest. Actual evapotranspiration (ETa ) recorded 100%
at all growing stages because water stress coefficient (Ks ) was equal
to 1.0 so, ETc adj value equaled ETc . Converting the Gross irrigation
application depth into a permanent supply was called “flow” which
was estimated by 12.64 l/s/he. A remarkable difference between

Fig. 11. Crop water requirements.

528 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531

Table 8
Irrigation schedule (Gross and net irrigation).

Date Day Stage Ks fract. ETa % Depletion % Gross irrigation (mm) Net irrigation (mm) Flow (l/s/ha)

23-May 9 Init 1 100 56 23.2 16.2 0.3

2-June 19 Dev 1 100 57 33.4 23.4 0.39
9-June 26 Dev 1 100 58 40.8 28.5 0.67
14-June 31 Dev 1 100 59 46.8 32.7 1.08
19-June 36 Mid 1 100 60 51.2 35.8 1.18
24-June 41 Mid 1 100 64 55.1 38.5 1.27
29-June 46 Mid 1 100 65 56.0 39.2 1.3
4-July 51 Mid 1 100 64 54.7 38.4 1.27
9-July 56 Mid 1 100 64 54.6 38.2 1.26
14-July 61 End 1 100 60 51.4 36.2 1.19
20-July 67 End 1 100 71 60.7 42.5 1.17
28-July 75 End 1 100 71 61.0 42.7 0.88
8-August 86 End 1 100 75 64.5 45.1 0.68
16-August End End 1 0 32

Total 653.4 457.4 12.64

gross irrigation (653.4 mm) and net irrigation (457.4 mm) led to
irrigation efficiency of 70%.
3.2.4.3.5. Soil water retention. Fig. 12 shows the relationship
between soil water retention and days after planting considering
readily available moisture (RAM), total available moisture (TAM)
and water depletion. It was noticed that at initial stage within 10
after planting there was a narrow gab between RAM and TAM with
low water depletion, where soil water retention fall in the range
of 10–30 mm,this gab was enlarged to reach its maximum after
35 days from planting (end of development-season stage),then it
was stabilized for 25 days at mid-season stage realizing soil water
retention in the range of 32.5 and 60 mm and finally at the end-
season stage this gab between RAM and TAM was narrowed again to
reach soil water retention in the range of 47.5 and 60.0 mm. Water
depletion was increasing with time.
3.2.5. Correlation analysis of NDVI vs. maize yield
Remote sensing measures specific wavelengths of light that are
reflected from the leaves of plants in the field. In addition to light in
the visible spectra, light in the near infrared spectrum (NIR, which
is not visible with the naked eye and is reflected by the plant) is
measured as well (Martin, 2004). Larger plants with more leaves
will reflect more NIR light than smaller plants, just as healthy vig-
orous plants of a given size will reflect more NIR light than stressed
plants of the same size. Reflectance data were measured and used to
calculate NDVI, which has been found to be correlated to plant size,
vigor and yield of crops. In this study, at different critical periods the
correlation between NDVI and yield was derived. Though variations
could be observed between NDVI and yield, yet a positive correla-
tion was obtained representing a linear relation,where lower range
of NDVI that represented by 0.04–0.17 reflects the lower yield of
1.3 tonnes/acre, meanwhile the higher range of NDVI (0.43–0.57)
reflects the higher yield of 3.0 tonnes/acre, Figs. 13 and 14.
Regression analyses showed a positive relationship between
NDVI and grain yield (Fig. 15), where regression equation was
represented by: y = 3.9217x + 1.0071 with R2 up to 0.9743, where
x = NDVI.
3.2.6. Change detection of management zones and yield
Factors limiting the productivity of a field often arise suddenly
and must be corrected quickly to preserve the full yield potential of
the crop (OMAFRA Staff, 2008) The obtained data were transferred
to a yield map using ARC MAP software (Fig. 11). It was noticed
that, there was a dramatically change in areas of management zone
between TF&PF where under PF at least three zones were merged
to represent 84.3% of the pivot irrigation field area. On the other

Fig. 12. Relationship between soil water retention and days after planting.
 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531 529

Fig. 13. NDVI under PF.

hand, yield under TF recorded 2200, 1900, 1600 and 800 kg/acre Fig. 14. Yield map under PF.
meanwhile it recorded 2300, 3000, 2400 and 2000 kg/acre under
PF achieving a remarkable yield increase of 1000, 2100, 800 and
200 kg/acre in the management zones 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

3.3. Precision farming profitability

Precision farming profitability could be discussed through two

approaches: 1, economic profitability and 2, environmental prof-
itability.

Fig. 15. Relationship between NDVI and grain yield.

3.3.1. Economic profitability
Lambert and Lowenberg-DeBoer (2000) reviewed 108 studies
regarding precision farming profitability, reporting that 63% of the
studies indicated positive net returns for a given PF technology,
while 11% indicated negative returns. There were 27 articles indi-
cating mixed results (26%).
The economic profitability of precision farming is as variable
as the field conditions. In highly uniform fields, better knowledge
of soil and plant parameters is not as likely to result in greater
economic return as it is in fields with variable conditions. In the

Table 9
Comparison between returns/costs in both TF and PF.

Traditional farming (TF 2008) Precision farming (PF 2009)

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4

Returns (L.E.)
Yield/tones 2.200 1.900 1.600 0.800 2.300 3.000 2.400 2.000
Price (LE/tonnes) 1750 1750 1750 1750 1750 1750 1750 1750
Acreage (acre) 3.87 82.78 62.31 5.83 0.80 130.49 20.19 3.31

Total returns (L.E.) 472773 784675.5

Costs (L.E.)
Grid sampling – 2500
Chemical analyses – 6800
Remote sensing – 21000
Computer(Laptop) – 5000
Software’s – 50000
GPS – 5000
Equipped tractor – 200000
Chemical fertilizers 252942.33 208842.11

Total costs (L.E.) 252942.33 499142.11

Profit (total returns − total costs) 219830.67 285533.39

Note: LE = Egyptian pound.

530 A.H.E. Nahry et al. / Agricultural Water Management 98 (2011) 517–531
experimental pivot return and costs were compared in both TF and
PF as illustrated in Table 9. Although costs of applying PF were
much higher than TF, total returns increased from 472,773.0 at
TF to 784,675.5 LE at PF (65.97%) at PF. The economic profitabil-
ity (returns-costs) recorded 238,298.42 LE for TF and 284,133.39
LE for PF representing an increase of (29.89%).
3.3.2. Environmental profitability
Excessive fertilizers and inadequate quantities of irrigation
water applied to plants during crop maintenance may leach into the
ground water through deep percolation causing pollution. Nutri-
ent pollution has consistently ranked as one of the top causes of
degradation in waters for more than a decade. Excess nutrients
lead to significant water quality problems including harmful algal
blooms, hypoxia and declines in wildlife and wildlife habitat, espe-
cially in Egypt many people still drinking the ground water. From
the environmental point of view under PF macro nutrients applica-
tion decreased by 23.566 tonnes and irrigation water decreased by
93,718 m3 /experimental pivot area. This decrease in fertilizers use
and irrigation water limited the environmental hazards especially
pollution caused by excessive nitrate.
4. Conclusions
The study aimed to improve land and water use efficiency and to
determine the profitability of precision farming practices environ-
mentally and economically against traditional farming practices.
The conclusions drawn from this study indicate that, precision agri-
culture offers the potential to automate and simplify the collection
and analysis of information. It allows management decisions to be
made and quickly implemented on management zones within the
fields. Maize was receptive crop to PF when controlling the variable
input of fertilizers, water consumption and management practices.
NDVI has been found to be correlated significantly to the yield of
crops as at different critical periods the correlation between NDVI
and yield was highly significant. NDVI could express the biomass
so far and also could define the management zone perfectly. Soils
with much variability seemed to be more responsive to manage-
ment practices, i.e. optimum fertilizers input in each zone, water
consumption and vertical drainage in the scattered spots of sub-
surface shale layers. Economic and environmental profitability of
PF has been achieved by potentially reducing input costs, increasing
yields, and reducing environmental impacts (excessive water and
fertilizers) through better matching inputs applied to crop needs.
Remote sensing has proved that it is a promising tool for determin-
ing water consumption use especially in those areas that are not
covered by meteorological stations i.e. Sahara.
Finally it is worthy to say PF is essential economically by improv-
ing revenues or cash flow and environmentally through reducing
input losses and increasing nutrient uptake efficiency.
Recommendations
This study recommends that, the database about how to treat
different areas in a field requires years of observation and imple-
mentation through trial-and-error to get the best results to be
adopted by the land users. Today, that level of knowledge of field
conditions is difficult to maintain because of the larger farm sizes
and changes in areas farmed due to annual shifts in leasing arrange-
ments. However, we would expect that PF would be more feasible
with producers who could either spread the technology costs over
a large number of acres or could control production practices for
more than one input. Finally it is worth to say adopting advanced
technologies of precision farming using remote sensing and GIS
techniques is the key issue for maximizing the output of the farm
production system.
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