Predict Help - Environmental Parameters

Environmental Parameters

PREDICT evaluates a large number of environmental parameters to assess the corrosive severity of the
environment and to determine a corrosion rate in steels. PREDICT also assists you in determining the
viability of carbon steels through a rigorous evaluation of general corrosion susceptibility of steels
with or without inhibition in the operating environment. The system determines a steel corrosion
index, a number representing the predicted corrosion rate in the operating environment.

PREDICT uses a large number of parameters to determine the steel corrosion severity index. The
system uses a widely accepted CO2-based corrosion prediction model to obtain an initial assessment of
corrosion severity in carbon steels. This number is modified to account for the effects of other factors
such as temperature, H2S, chlorides, velocity and inhibition. Relevant parameters in steel evaluation
include,

CO2 Partial pressure of carbon-dioxide in the operating environment

pH Hydrogen ion concentration of the operating environment
H2S Partial pressure of hydrogen sulfide in the operating environment
Bicarbonates Amount of bicarbonates (HCO3) present in solution
Chlorides Dissolved chlorides in the operating environment
Temperature Operating temperature for the environment
Gas/Oil Ratio Volumetric ratio of produced gas to oil
Water/Gas Ratio Ratio of water to gas in gas dominated systems (gas wells)
Dew Point Dew point of operating environment
Water Cut Amount of water as a volumetric ratio of total fluid produced
Oil Type Type of persistence of oil films in an oil dominated condition
Oxygen Oxygen concentration in the environment
Sulfur Presence of elemental sulfur in the operating environment
Fluid Velocity Flowing Velocity of in the operating environment
Corrosion Allowance Allowable general corrosion in mils (or mm) over the lifetime of the project
Service Life Life of project in years
Flow Type Type of fluid flow
Type of Inhibition Inhibition method of delivery
Inhibition Efficiency Efficiency of application of inhibitors

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

CO2 is one of the most important parameters in determining corrosivity of a production environment.

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CO2-based corrosion has been one of the most active areas of research, with several predictive models
for carbon steel corrosion assessment. These efforts range from a predictive model that begins with
CO2 corrosion to models that focus on specific aspects of the corrosion phenomena (such as flow-
induced corrosion or erosion corrosion) to models that empirically relate corrosion rates to gas
production and water production rates.

The Predict model integrates lab data and field experience within the framework of relevant
controlling parameters that are most prominent in oil and gas production. While there have been
several studies focusing on the exact mechanism of metal dissolution in CO2 containing waters, the
efforts of De Waard and Milliams and others present a commonly accepted representation wherein
anodic dissolution of iron is a pH dependent mechanism as given by Bockris, the cathodic process is
driven by the direct reduction of undissociated carbonic acid. These reactions can be represented as,

Fe ----------> Fe++ + 2e-(Anodic reaction)

H2CO3 + e-----> HCO3- + H (Cathodic reaction)

The overall corrosion reaction can be represented as,

Fe + 2H2CO3 ---> Fe++ + 2 HCO3- + H2

The build up of the bicarbonate ion can lead to an increase in the pH of the solution till conditions
promoting precipitation of iron carbonate are reached, leading to reaction given below:

Fe + 2HCO3- ---> FeCO3+ H2O+CO2

Iron carbonate solubility, which decreases with increasing temperature, and the consequent
precipitation of iron carbonate is a significant factor in assessing corrosivity. This corrosion rate
equation is given as2,

log (Vcor) = 5.8 - 1710/T + 0.67 log (pCO2) ------ (1)

where

Vcor = corrosion rate in mm/yr

T = operating temperature in K

pCO2 = partial pressure of CO2 in bar

The corrosion rate obtained by equation (1) has typically been often seen as the maximum possible
corrosion rate without accounting for iron carbonate scaling. A nomogram representing eq. (1) is given
in Figure 1, which also includes a scale factor to account for the formation of protective carbonate

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films that lead to a reduced corrosion rate at higher temperatures.

pH (Hydrogen Ion Concentration)

pH is one of the most critical parameters in corrosivity determination. For production environments,
where it is the dissolved CO2 or H2S that contribute significantly to a lower pH, pH can be determined
as a function of acid gas partial pressures, bicarbonates and temperature, as shown in Figure 3 [23].
From a practical stand point, the contribution of H2S or HCO3 or temperature to pH determination is
another way of representing effective levels of CO2 that would have produced a given level of pH.

While it has been documented that the CO2 corrosion mechanism is dissimilar to that of strong acids
like HCl (where as CO2 corrosion is now understood to progress through direct reduction of H2CO3 to
HCO3- rather than reduction of H+ ions), and that carbonic acid corrosion is much more corrosive than
that obtained from a strong acid such as HCl at the same pH, there is also significant agreement that
lower pH levels obtained from higher acid gas presence leads to higher corrosion rates. Conversely,
higher levels of pH obtained through buffering in simulated production formation water solutions have
been shown to produce significantly lower corrosion rates even at higher levels of CO2 and/or H2S.
Data about the effects of pH from another study is shown in Figure 4. Hence, it is more meaningful to
determine the effective CO2 partial pressure from the system pH. Data in Figure 3 can be represented
as equations for straight lines in terms of pH and acid gas partial pressures for a given level of HCO3
and temperature. The Predict system incorporates a numerical computer model to compute pH for
different values of acid gas partial pressures, HCO3 and temperature.

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

Oilfield production environments, in recent years, have been characterized by increasing presence of
H2S and related corrosion considerations. Even though H2S is probably the most significant concern in
current day corrosion and cracking evaluation, the role of H2S in corrosion in steels has received much
less attention when compared to the widely studied CO2 corrosion. However, H2S related corrosion
and cracking has remained one of the biggest concerns for operators involved in production because of
the significance of H2S related damage.

The Predict model, in addition to its contribution in pH reduction, provides a three fold role for H2S:

1. At very low levels of H2S (< 0.01 psia), CO2 is the dominant corrosive species, and at
temperatures above 60 C, corrosion and any passivity is a function of FeCO3 formation related
phenomenon and the presence of H2S has no realistic significance.
2. In CO2 dominated systems, presence of even small amounts of H2S (ratio of pCO2/pH2S > 200),
can lead to the formation of an iron sulfide scale called mackinawite at temperatures below 120
C. However, this particular form of scaling, which is produced on the metal surface directly as a
function of a reaction between Fe++ and S- - is influenced by pH and temperature. This surface
reaction can lead to the formation of a thin surface film that can mitigate corrosion. The
stability and formation of such films called mackinawite is the subject of much research.

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3. In H2S dominated systems (ratio of pCO2/pH2S < 200), there is a preferential formation of a
meta-stable sulfide film in preference to the FeCO3 scale; hence, there is protection available
due to the presence of the sulfide film in the range of temperatures 60 to 240 C. Here, initially it
is the mackinawite form of H2S that is formed as a surface adsorption phenomenon. At higher
concentrations and temperatures, mackinawite becomes the more stable pyrhotite. However, at
temperatures below 60 C or above 240 C, presence of H2S exacerbates corrosion in steels since
the presence of H2S prevents the formation of a stable FeCO3 scale. Further, it has been
observed that FeS film itself becomes unstable and porous and does not provide protection.
Also, the scale factor applicable for CO2 corrosion with no H2S (shown in Figure 1) becomes
inapplicable. Even though there is agreement amongst different workers that there is a
beneficial effect of adding small amounts of H2S at about 60 C, Ikeda et al.[9] and Videm et
al.[11] present divergent results at higher concentrations and higher temperatures.

The effect of H2S adopted in the Predict model reflects work published by T. Murata et al. for CO2
dominated systems. Figure 5 [29] shows the combined effects of temperature and gas composition on
corrosion rate of carbon steels. Figure 6 [9] shows the effect of varying degrees of H2S contamination
on CO2 corrosion. It is to be noted that the role of H2S in CO2 corrosion is a complex issue governed
by film stability of FeS and FeCO3 at varying temperatures and is an area further active research.

Bicarbonates

The bicarbonate ion is a buffering agent used in aqueous solutions to increase the pH of the solution.
Its presence is typically measured in mili-equivalents/liter (meq/l). One meq/l represents 0.061 grams
of HCO3 in one liter of solution. The reduction in pH in turn decreases the corrosivity of the
environment.

Bicarbonates in the operating environment have a significant impact on corrosion rates. On one hand,
high levels of bicarbonates can provide higher pH numbers leading to corrosion mitigation even when
the partial pressures of CO2 and H2S are fairly high. There is a natural inhibitive effect of presence of
bicarbonates which can be present in substantial quantities in formation waters (up to 20 meq/l)31.
Condensed water in production streams typically contains no bicarbonates.

Chlorides

Produced water from hydrocarbon formations typically contains varying amounts of chloride salts
dissolved in solution. The chloride concentration in this water can vary considerably, from zero to few
ppm for condensed water to saturation in formation waters having high total dissolved salts/solids
(TDS). In naturally deaerated production environments, corrosion rate increases with increasing
chloride ion content over the range 10,000 ppm to 100,000 ppm30. The magnitude of this effect
increases with increasing temperature over 60 C (150 F). This combined effect results from the fact
that chloride ions in solution can be incorporated into and penetrate surface corrosion films which can
lead to destabilization of the corrosion film and lead to increased corrosion. This phenomenon of
penetration of surface corrosion films increases in occurrence with both chloride ion concentration and
temperature. Chlorides are often specified in ppm NaCl. It should be noted that ppm chlorides can be

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obtained as 0.63 x ppm NaCl.

Under normal circumstances, the chloride content of the aqueous phase does not directly affect the
hydrogen charging conditions in steel. However, it can also affect the effectiveness of chemical
corrosion inhibitors. Therefore, in many cases, more careful selection of inhibitors and inhibition
procedures must be performed where high levels of chlorides (>30,000 ppm) are present.

Corrosion rates of steel in oil and gas production generally increase with increasing chloride content.
The chloride species in the aqueous phase can work to penetrate and destabilize protective surface
films. Typically, brines with low chloride content (i.e. <10,000 ppm) are less aggressive than those
having higher chloride contents provided that they are compared at the same pH. In some cases, the
presence of salts can reduce the solubility of acid gases or buffer the water and may therefore alter the
solution pH.

Operating Temperaure

Temperature has a significant impact on corrosivity in CO2/H2S systems. Corrosion rate as a function
of different levels of CO2 and temperature are given in Figure 7 [2]. It has to be noted that once the
corrosion products are formed, there is a significant mitigation in corrosivity. It is also apparent that
the carbonate film is more stable at higher temperatures and affords greater protection at higher
temperatures. Figure 7 also shows that at temperatures beyond 120 C, corrosion rate is almost
independent of the CO2 partial pressure of the system. The carbonate film may, however, be weakened
by high chloride concentrations or can be broken by high velocity. In H2S dominated systems, because
of the fact that no carbonate scale may be formed and that the FeS film becomes porous and unstable
at temperatures beyond 120 C, significant localized corrosion may be observed.

Gas to Oil Ratio

In oil and gas production, where the environment has a GOR < 890 m3/m3 (5000 scf/bbl in British
units), the tendency for corrosion and environmental cracking is substantially reduced. This is caused
by the inhibiting effect of the oil film on the metal surface, which effectively reduces the corrosivity of
the environment. However, the inhibiting effect is dependent on the oil phase being persistent and
acting as a barrier between the metal and the corrosive environment. If GOR is not known, it is
recommended that a value greater than 5000 scf/bbl or 890 m3/m3(in SI units) be used.

Water to Gas Ratio

To have corrosion in oil and gas systems, aqueous water is required. In many production applications
where essentially dry hydrocarbons are being produced, the full corrosivity of the hydrogen sulfide
and/or carbon dioxide will not be present.

In such systems, a dry gas is considered as that which contains no more than 2 BBL water/MSCF gas
(or 11.3m3/Million m3). For Water to Gas Ratio with less than or equal to this amount, the corrosive
severity is substantially reduced.

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Care should be taken to evaluate presence of possible locations where water can separate from the
hydrocarbons and form a continuous water phase. Under such conditions, substantial corrosion can
exist.

Dew Point

In gas dominated systems, there are two measures to evaluate availability of the aqueous medium. If
the operating temperature is higher than the dew point of the environment, no condensation is going to
be possible and will lead to highly reduced corrosion rates. Corrosion under condensing conditions
(i.e., operating temperature less than the dew point) is a function of the rate of condensation and
transport of corrosion products from the metal surface. If the total water in a condensing system as
measured by the Water to Gas Ratio is less than 11.3m3/Mm3 (2 BBL water/MSCF gas), corrosivity is
substantially reduced. Hence the dew point plays a critical role in gas-dominated systems in that at
higher operating temperatures (greater than the dew point) significantly lower or no corrosion may be
observed due to absence of condensed moisture.

Water Cut

The Predict model classifies systems as oil dominated or gas dominated on the basis of the gas/oil ratio
(GOR) of the production environment. If the environment has a GOR < 890 m3/m3 (5000 scf/bbl in
English units)35, the tendency for corrosion and environmental cracking is often substantially reduced.
This is caused by the possible inhibiting effect of the oil film on the metal surface, which effectively
reduces the corrosivity of the environment. However, the inhibiting effect is a function of the type of
oil phase and the water cut of the environment. The persistence of the oil phase is a strong factor in
providing protection, even in systems with high water cuts. In oil systems with a persistent oil phase
and up to 45 percent water cut, corrosion is fully suppressed, irrespective of the type of hydro-carbon.
Relative wettability of the oil phase versus the water phase also has a significant effect on corrosion.
Metal surfaces that are water wet show significantly higher corrosion rates.

The degree of protection provided by oil films can be quantified only as a function of water cut and
velocity. Figure 10 [36] shows data that relates the acid number of the crude to oil wettability and
Figure 11 [36] shows corrosion rate as a function of produced water content for different crude
oil/produced water mixtures. In oil systems the water cut acts in synergy with the oil phase to
determine the level of protection from the hydrocarbon phase. However, at very low water cuts (less
than 5 percent), corrosive severity of the environment is lessened due to the absence of an adequate
aqueous medium required to promote the corrosion reaction.

Oil Type

The Predict model classifies systems as oil dominated or gas dominated on the basis of the gas/oil ratio
(GOR) of the production environment. If the environment has a GOR < 890 m3/m3 (5000 scf/bbl in
English units), the tendency for corrosion and environmental cracking is often substantially reduced.
This is caused by the possible inhibiting effect of the oil film on the metal surface, which effectively
reduces the corrosivity of the environment. However, the inhibiting effect is dependent on the oil phase
being persistent and acting as a barrier between the metal and the corrosive environment. The

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persistence of the oil phase is a strong factor in providing protection, even in systems with high water
cuts. In oil systems with a persistent oil phase and up to 45 percent water cut, corrosion is fully
suppressed, irrespective of the type of hydro-carbon. Relative wettability of the oil phase versus the
water phase has a significant effect on corrosion. Metal surfaces that are oil wet show significantly
lower corrosion rates37.

The Predict system provides for a significant reduction in the corrosion rate (up to a factor of 4) based
on the type of oil phase being

● Highly persistent,
● mildly persistent
● not persistent.

However, the degree of protection can be quantified only as a function of water cut and velocity. The
persistence determination is a more complex task and requires knowledge of the kerogen type and
hydrocarbon density. It is important to understand the type of crude oil in terms of the organic
compounds that make up the crude to determine wettability effects. Figure 10 [36] shows data that
relates the acid number of the crude to oil wettability and Figure 11[36] shows corrosion rate as a
function of produced water content for different crude oil/produced water mixtures. While the effect of
persistence of the oil medium is significant on corrosion rates, it is even more difficult to quantify
precise compositional elements of an oil medium that contribute to wettability and persistent oil film
formation. Such quantification is possible by rigorous laboratory testing of different actual,
uncontaminated (read deaerated) production water samples, so as to determine the extent of protection.

In oil systems the water cut acts in synergy with the oil phase to determine the level of protection from
the hydrocarbon phase. However, at very low water cuts (less than 5 percent), corrosive severity of the
environment is lessened due to the absence of an adequate aqueous medium required to promote the
corrosion reaction.

Oxygen

Presence of oxygen significantly alters the corrosivity of the environment in production systems.
Oldfield [39] has chronicled how presence of oxygen can significantly increase corrosion rates due to
acceleration of anodic oxidation. While corrosion rate increases with oxygen, rate of oxygen reduction
as a cathodic reaction is further exacerbated by:

1. Increase in operating temperature

2. Increased fluid flow leading to increased mass flow of oxygen to the metal surface

3. Increasing oxygen concentration

Data showing increases in corrosion rate as a function of oxygen concentration for differing
temperatures is shown in Figure 12. Corrosion rates for different flow velocities and oxygen levels as a
function of temperature is shown in Figure 13.

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Sulfur

In systems containing high levels of H2S, elemental sulfur is often found to be present. Its presence can
significantly increase the corrosivity of the production environment with respect to weight loss
corrosion and localized corrosion. Presence of sulfur is similar to that of having oxygen in production
systems in that it can be a strong oxidizing agent and can lead to significantly increased local attack.
Sulfur can directly combine with Iron to form FeS and can lead to significant metal loss in a localized
mode.

Fluid Velocity

Next to the corrosive species that instigate corrosion, velocity is probably the most significant
parameter in determining corrosivity of production systems. Fluid flow velocities affect both the
composition and extent of corrosion product films. Typically, high velocities (> 4 m/s for non-
inhibited systems) in the production stream leads to mechanical removal of corrosion films and the
ensuing exposure of the fresh metal surface to the corrosive medium leads to significantly higher
corrosion rates. Corrosion rate as a function of flow velocity and temperature is shown in Figure 8[15].

In multiphase (i.e. gas, water, liquid hydrocarbon) production, the flow rate influences the corrosion
rate of steel in two ways. First, it determines the flow behavior and flow regime. In general terms, this
is manifested as static conditions (i.e. little or no flow) at low velocities, stratified flow at intermediate
conditions and turbulent flow at higher flow rates. One measure which can be used to define the flow
conditions is the superficial gas velocity. In liquid (oil / water) systems, this is replaced with the liquid
velocity.

Velocities less than 1 m/s are considered static. Under these conditions corrosion rates can be higher
than those observed under moderately flowing conditions. This occurs because under static conditions,
there is no natural turbulence to assist the mixing and dispersion of protective liquid hydrocarbons or
inhibitor species in the aqueous phase. Additionally, corrosion products and other deposits can settle
out of the liquid phase to promote crevice attack and underdeposit corrosion.

Between 1 and 3 m/sec, stratified conditions generally still exist. However, the increased flow
promotes a sweeping away of some deposits and increasing agitation and mixing. At 5 m/sec,
corrosion rates in non-inhibited applications start to increase rapidly with increasing velocity.31 Data
shown in Figure 9[31] demonstrates the effects of velocity on corrosion rate for both inhibited and non-
inhibited systems. For inhibited applications, corrosion rates of steel increase only slightly between 3
to 10 m/sec, resulting from mixing of the hydrocarbon and aqueous phases. Above about 10 m/sec,
corrosion rates in inhibited systems start to increase due to the removal of protective surface films by
the high velocity flow.

Flow related effects on corrosivity have been linked to the wall shear stress developed and is an area of
intense research in the community. Flow induced corrosion is a direct consequence of mass and
momentum transfer effects in a dynamic flow system where the interplay of inertial and viscous forces
is responsible for accelerating or decelerating metal loss at the fluid/metal interface. While flow-

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induced corrosion is a significant component of predictive modeling discussed herein, the topic of flow-
related effects is being actively researched by the authors and forms the focus of another publication.
Another relevant aspect of flow or velocity induced corrosion is erosion corrosion and refers to the
mechanical removal of corrosion product films through momentum effects or through impingement
and abrasion. Guidelines for velocity limits with respect to erosional considerations are given in API-
14E in terms of the density of the fluid medium.

Corrosion Allowance

In designing systems from materials such as steel which can exhibit corrosion, it is common to take
into account and added factor of safety in terms of the Corrosion Allowance. The concept of Corrosion
Allowance involves the use of an increased thickness over that required for mechanical design to allow
for corrosion and metal loss that may take place during

● the project life or

● until replacement.

The magnitude of the Corrosion Allowance is dependent on the severity of corrosion expected and the
ability to mitigate corrosion usually by the use of corrosion inhibitors. The Corrosion Allowance in
most cases is < 0.12 inches (3 mm). However, in some particularly severe cases larger Corrosion
Allowances can be utilized.

Service Life

The Service Life is the period of useful service for a particular component. This is usually taken to be
the time required to achieve a corrosion metal loss equal to the Corrosion Allowance. Alternatively,
the Service Life may be used to define the required Corrosion Allowance based on the assessment of
corrosion severity and inhibition performance and methods in the particular application.

Type of Flow

The flow conditions (i.e. static, stratified, turbulent, etc.) are dependent on the nature of the produced
gases and fluids and if the flow is primarily horizontal (surface production) or vertical (subsurface
production). Horizontal flow is usually more prone to static and stratified conditions which limits the
amount of mixing of oil and water phases at low flow rates. Vertical flow typically exhibits these types
of conditions only during period of shut-in of the well. See fluid velocity for more information.

Method of Inhibition

For horizontal flow systems the following types of inhibition method are commonly used:

No Treatment - The conditions may be essentially non-corrosive. This usually occurs under the
following conditions (a) very low acid gas (CO2 and H2S) partial pressures, (b) low amounts of water
or (c) very persistent oil phase.

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Continuous Inhibition - Inhibitor is continuously injected into the flow stream. This may be
conducted in both downhole and surface production systems. It is preferred where the flow velocity is
greater than 10 ft/sec (3 meter/sec) or where the amount of water is high.

Batch Inhibition - Inhibitor is added in the flow system periodically in batch treatments usually
between two pigs. A strongly persistent filming inhibitor is usually used which can reduced corrosion
rates effectively during the period between batch treatments. This technique is usually effective where
the chloride concentration is high but the velocity is low. It is commonly used to supplement other
inhibition techniques.

Pigging - Pigging is the use of flowline pigs to assist in (a) application of batch inhibitors and (b)
removal of accumulated water, solids and other deposit in the flow system. In many applications,
pigging is required to get proper distribution of inhibition chemicals through the flow system. In cases
where flow velocity is low, pigging is used to remove water and deposits from the bottom of the pipe
which can promote corrosion at this location.

For vertical flow systems the following types of inhibition method are commonly used:

No Treatment - The conditions may be essentially non-corrosive. This usually occurs under the
following conditions (a) very low acid gas (CO2 and H2S) partial pressures, (b) low amounts of water
or (c) very persistent oil phase.

Batch Inhibition - Inhibitor is added in the flow system periodically in batch treatments and usually
added to the tubing bore in a process where the fluids in the well bore are displaced with the inhibitor
and its carrier. A strongly persistent filming inhibitor is usually used which can reduce corrosion rates
effectively during the period between batch treatments. This technique is usually effective where the
chloride concentration is high but the velocity is low. However, conditions of high temperature (>250
F; 120 C) and high flow rate generally limit the use of this technique.

Squeeze Treatment - Squeeze treatments are a modification of batch inhibition used for controlling
downhole corrosion. Instead of just displacing the tubing with inhibitor and its carrier fluid, the
squeeze treatments also forces the fluid under pressure into the surrounding formation. This has the
benefit of extending the duration between batch treatments in some wells. However, in other cases,
squeeze treatments can also interfere with the well's production by plugging the formation.

Continuous Inhibition - Inhibitor is continuously injected into the tubing at bottom of the string or
through a subsurface injection valve. The rate of injection is regulated to provide the inhibitor at a
required concentration to mitigate corrosion. While more costly and requiring more equipment than
batch inhibition, continuous inhibition has been shown to be more effective particularly in deeper high
temperature wells and at more severely corrosive conditions. At high flow rates, continuous inhibitor
injection may become costly and possibly ineffective.

Inhibition Efficiency

Appropriate inhibition is a critical criterion for effective use of carbon steels in corrosive production

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systems. Inhibition has been typically found to be viable in flows with velocity in the range 0.3 - 10
m/s. Inhibition Efficiency (IE) describes the efficacy of an inhibitor treatment in mitigating weight loss
corrosion and is an important factor in assessing corrosivity. It is based on either laboratory or field
data where inhibited and non-inhibited corrosion rates are compared using the following equation:

IE = 100[(CRn - CRi)/CRn]

where

CRn = non-inhibited corrosion rate,

CRi = inhibited corrosion rate.

Values of IE near 1.0 represent conditions with maximum efficacy of the inhibitor reatment.
Conditions which affect IE include:

1. Inhibitor concentration.
2. Severity of corrosive environment.
3. Service temperature.
4. Solubility of inhibitor in aqueous phase.
5. Phase behavior of inhibitor and carrier fluid in service environment.
6. Persistence of inhibitor on metal surface.

The predictive model evaluates inhibition efficacy on the basis of velocity, hydrocarbons to water ratio
and dissolved chloride levels. The method of delivery (batch, continuous, pigging etc.) is also an
important factor in determining appropriateness of inhibition for a given set of operating conditions.

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