Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Most of the information that has led to the emergence of biotechnology in the
present form has been generated during the last five decades. The setting up of a
separate Department of Biotechnology (DBT) (www.dbtindia.nic.in ) under the
Ministry of Science and Technology in 1986 gave a new impetus to the development of
the field of modern biology and biotechnology in India. More than 6000
biotechnologists of higher skill are required in India as per the report from the Human
Resource Development Ministry. To overcome this vast requirement the department of
Biotechnology (DBT) has highlighted the need to set up a regulatory body for the
maintenance of standard education under the name of 'All- India Board of
Biotechnology Education and Training' under the AICTE .
Biotechnology is a popular term for the generic technology of the 21st century.
Although it has been utilized for centuries in traditional production processes, modern
biotechnology is only 50 years old and in the last decades it has been witnessing
tremendous developments. Bioengineering is the science upon which all
Biotechnological applications are based. With the development of new approaches and
modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are also acquiring new horizons
enabling them to improve the quality of their products and increase the productivity of
theirsystems.
Contrary to its name, biotechnology is not a single technology. Rather it is a group of
technologies that share two (common) characteristics -- working with living cells and
their molecules and having a wide range of practice uses that can improve our lives.
Throughout its history, the Indian government has created policies to help
enable the manufacturing of conventional and modern biotech products at affordable
prices. Presently, private companies in India dominate the bio manufacturing sector,
while new and existing institutes are being created and funded by the government. To
educate and train future workers, biotech courses are being offered at graduate,
postgraduate, and Ph.D. levels; private institutions are also supporting these efforts.
Countries in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere are grappling with how to continue
feeding a growing population. They are also trying to benefit more from their existing
resources. Biotechnology holds the key to increasing the yield of staple crops by
allowing farmers to reap bigger harvests from currently cultivated land, while
preserving the land’s ability to support continued farming.
A second phase of the project will increase the iron content in rice to combat
anemia, which is widespread problem among women and children in underdeveloped
countries. Golden rice, expected to be for sale in Asia in less than five years, will offer
dramatic improvements in nutrition and health for millions of people, with little
additional costs to consumers.
Similar initiatives using genetic manipulation are aimed at making crops more
productive by reducing their dependence on pesticides, fertilizers and irrigation, or by
increasing their resistance to plant diseases .
As biotechnology has become widely used, questions and concerns have also
been raised. The most vocal opposition has come from European countries. One of the
main areas of concern is the safety of genetically engineered food .
In assessing the benefits and risks involved in the use of modern biotechnology,
there are a series of issues to be addressed so that informed decisions can be made. In
making value judgments about risks and benefits in the use of biotechnology, it is
important to distinguish between technology-inherent risks and technology-
transcending risks. The former includes assessing any risks associated with food safety
and the behavior of a biotechnology-based product in the environment. The latter
involve the political and social context in which the technology is used, including how
these uses may benefit or harm the interests of different groups in society.
The health effects of foods grown from genetically engineered crop depend on
the composition of the food itself. Any new product may have either beneficial or
occasional harmful effects on human health. For example, a biotech-derived food with a
higher content of digestible iron is likely to have a positive effect if consumed by iron-
deficient individuals.
Alternatively, the transfer of genes from one species to another may also
transfer the risk for exposure to allergens. These risks are systematically evaluated by
FDA and identified prior to commercialization. Individuals allergic to certain nuts, for
example, need to know if genes conveying this trait are transferred to other foods such
as soybeans. Labeling would be required if such crops were available to consumers.
Among the potential ecological risks identified are increased weepiness, due to
cross- pollination from genetically modified crops spreads to other plants in nearby
fields. This may allow the spread of traits such as herbicide-resistance to non-target
plants that could potentially develop into weeds. This ecological risk is assessed when
deciding if a plant with a given trait should be released into a particular environment,
and if so, under what conditions.
Other potential ecological risks stem from the use of genetically modified corn
and cotton with insecticidal genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt genes). This may
lead to the development of resistance to Bt in insect populations exposed to the biotech-
derived crop.
There also may be risks to non-target species, such as birds and butterflies,
from the plants with Bt genes. The monitoring of these effects of new crops in the
environment and implementation of effective risk management approaches is an
essential component of further research. It is also important to keep all risks in
perspective by comparing the products of biotechnology and conventional agriculture.
What we know from our understanding of science and more than a decade of
experience with biotech-derived plants is the following . There is no evidence that
genetic transfers between unrelated organisms pose human health concerns that are
different from those encountered with any new plant or animal variety. The risks
associated with biotechnology are the same as those associated with plants and
microbes developed by conventional methods.
The majority of processed foods on the market contain soy or corn ingredients
that come from GM plants. To date none have posed a food safety risk. The chief safety
concerns are the potential to alter nutrient content or introduce allergens. Federal
agencies involved in biotechnology regulation include the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) which evaluates agricultural production processes for all foods; the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which evaluates whole non-animal foods
(seafood), food ingredients, and food additives; and the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), which evaluates plants with insecticidal properties .
All organisms are made up of cells that are programmed by the same basic
genetic material, called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each unit of DNA is made up of
a combination of the following nucleotides -- adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T),
and cytosine (D) -- as well as a sugar and a phosphate. These nucleotides pair up into
strands that twist together into a spiral structure call a "double helix." This double helix
is DNA. Segments of the DNA tell individual cells how to produce specific proteins.
These segments are genes. It is the presence or absence of the specific protein that
gives an organism a trait or characteristic.
More than 10,000 different genes are found in most plant and animal species.
This total set of genes for an organism is organized into chromosomes within the cell
nucleus. The process by which a multicellular organism develops from a single cell
through an embryo stage into an adult is ultimately controlled by the genetic
information of the cell, as well as interaction of genes and gene products with
environmental factors.
When cells reproduce, the DNA strands of the double helix separate. Because
nucleotide A always pairs with T and G always pairs with C, each DNA strand serves
as a precise blueprint for a specific protein. Except for mutations or mistakes in the
replication process, a single cell is equipped with the information to replicate into
millions of identical cells.
Because all organisms are made up of the same type of genetic material (nucleotides A,
T, G, and C), biotechnologists use enzymes to cut and remove DNA segments from one
organism and recombine it with DNA in another organism. This is called recombinant
DNA (rDNA) technology, and it is one of the basic tools of modern biotechnology .
rDNA technology is the laboratory manipulation of DNA in which DNA, or fragments
of DNA from different sources, are cut and recombined using enzymes. This
recombinant DNA is then inserted into a living organism. rDNA technology is usually
used synonymously with genetic engineering. rDNA technology allows researchers to
move genetic information between unrelated organisms to produce desired products or
characteristics or to eliminate undesirable characteristics.
For example, an “insect protection” gene (Bt) has been inserted into several
crops - corn, cotton, and potatoes - to give farmers new tools for integrated pest
management. Bt corn is resistant to European corn borer. This inherent resistance thus
reduces a farmers pesticide use for controlling European corn borer, and in turn requires
less chemicals and potentially provides higher yielding Agricultural Biotechnology.
Although major genetic improvements have been made in crops, progress in
conventional breeding programs has been slow. In fact, most crops grown in the US
produce less than their full genetic potential. These shortfalls in yield are due to the
inability of crops to tolerate or adapt to environmental stresses, pests, and diseases. For
example, some of the world's highest yields of potatoes are in Idaho under irrigation,
but in 1993 both quality and yield were severely reduced because of cold, wet weather
and widespread frost damage during June. Some of the world's best bread wheat’s and
malting barleys are produced in the north-central states, but in 1993 the disease
Fusarium caused an estimated $1 billion in damage.
Scientists have the ability to insert genes that give biological defense against
diseases and insects, thus reducing the need for chemical pesticides, and they will soon
be able to convey genetic traits that enable crops to better withstand harsh conditions,
such as drought
Major advances also have been made through conventional breeding and
selection of livestock, but significant gains can still be made by using biotechnology
Currently, farmers in the U.S spend $17 billion dollars on animal health.
Diseases such as hog cholera and pests such as screwworm have been eradicated. Uses
of biotechnology in animal production include development of vaccines to protect
animals from disease, production of several calves from one embryo (cloning), increase
of animal growth rate, and rapid disease detection
Modern biotechnology has offered opportunities to produce more nutritious and
better tasting foods, higher crop yields and plants that are naturally protected from
disease and insects. Modern biotechnology allows for the transfer of only one or a few
desirable genes, thereby permitting scientists to develop crops with specific beneficial
traits and reduce undesirable traits
Similarly introducing genes that increase available iron levels in rice three-fold is a
potential remedy for iron deficiency, a condition that effects more than two billion
people and causes anemia in about half that number
Most of the today's hard cheese products are made with a biotech enzyme called
chymosin. This is produced by genetically engineered bacteria which is considered
more purer and plentiful than it’s naturally occurring counterpart, rennet, which is
derived from calf stomach tissue.
The ears of corn from selected stalks with each desired trait (e.g, drought
tolerance and yield performance) would then be grown and combined (cross-
pollinated). Their offspring (hybrid) would be further selected for the desired result (a
high performing corn with drought tolerance). With improved technology and
knowledge about agricultural organisms, processes, and ecosystems, opportunities will
emerge to produce new and improved agricultural products in an environmentally
sound manner.
(i) The First Conference on the Human Environment was held in 1972 at
Stockholm, where Late Smt. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India
called poverty to be the biggest pollutant.
(iii) Among implications, there is also att alarm due to release of genetically
engineered organisms in the atmosphere and also due to the release of
effluents from biotechnological companies, so that the environmentalists are
having a debate on the effects of developments in biotechnology on the
environment.There is also a debate on the safety of the use of the products of
biotechnology, an area described as biosafety. Among applications, on the
other hand, efforts are also being made to use biotechnology to protect the
environment from pollution and to conserve natural resources.
(iv) At a time, when the gap between those who have plenty and those who do
not have even the minimum is widening, both ends of this spectrum i.e.
plenty and poverty are contributing to environmental degradation. It is,
therefore, necessary that the developing and developed countries jointly find
a path of development which "meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their need" (World
Commission on Environment and Development). Efforts are being made to
achieve this objective through a variety of approaches, and biotechnology is
certainly one of them. In this and the next three chapters, environmental
implications and applications of biotechnology for environment will be
discussed.
(vi) However, there have also been rapid developments in the applications of
biotechnology, which may help in controlling environment pollution, thus
giving a cleaner and sustainable environment in future. According to one
estimate in USA, the US market for environmental clean up applications was
expected to grow at an average rate of 17%, while that for microbes and
enzymes was expected to grow by only 7% every year. Besides others, these
applications for environment clean up include mistreatment methods for
effluents and toxic wastes. However, these treatments, it is feared, could be
problematic, where they involve deliberate or accidental release of
genetically modified microbes to the environment. These applications of
biotechnology in environment management (pollution control) and the risks.
Applications of
Biotechnology
Introduction, The decibel scale, effects of noise - physiological effects - acute and
chronic, psychological effects, noise control programme in industries - measurement of
noise levels, noise control criteria - annoyance, interference with communication,
hearing loss criteria, permissible exposure limits, equipment used for noise
measurement - different types of meters and analysers, approaches for noise control,
noise control in industrial establishments - administrative controls and engineering
controls, suppression at source, path control, sound absorption, sound insulation,
vibration control, acoustic enclosures, noise barriers, mufflers or silencers, acoustic
plenums, vibration isolation, damping, lagging, protection of the personnel - ear plugs,
ear muffs, helmets, personnel isolation, acoustical absorptive materials, noise sources
and control in industrial plants.
INTRODUCTION
Water treatment has assumed importance in recent years with the increasing
demand on this limited resource and pollution parameters arising out of discharge from
untreated/partially treated effluents. As such, R&D effects for improving the
conventional system and evolving new technologies for waster treatment have
necessarily received attention more than ever before. These have resulted in
development of several modified and new products which are significant from the view
point of pollution control, water conservation, energy generation, resource recovery and
such other attendant benefits.
The need to maintain clean water for both humans and animals has
become a major, even a critical concern
Till 1972, there were no uniform national laws governing water quality
Two very significant national laws, the 1972 Clean Water Act and 1974
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
were passed and these laws have been updated over the years.
The scope of the study has been designed to cover the following aspects:
a) Basic water treatment biotechnology.
b) Water quality criteria-national and international.
c) Raw water treatment biotechnologies/national and international.
d) Domestic wastewater-national and international
e) Industrial wastewater- national and international.
f) Technology gaps and options available.
g) Sources ad recommended technology options
h) Action plan and agencies involved in implementation
The socio-cultural roots of our present environmental crisis lie in the paradigms
of scientific materialism and economic determinism which fail to recognize the physical
limits imposed by ecological systems on economic activity. The economies must
expand within ecosystems which have limited regenerative capacities.
Major contaminants in surface and ground water sources, harmful for human
health are bacteria, guinea worm, faucal coli forms and excess dissolved solids apart
from hardness and turbidity. It is helpful to understand the water quality standards laid
down by ISI and as per Water Act 1974 and Environment Act 1986. Annexures III-VIII
include these water quality standards for various uses.
BOILER FEED WATER
A boiler is a device for generating steam, which consists of two principal parts: the
furnace, which provides heat, usually by burning a fuel, and the boiler proper, a device in
which the heat changes water into steam. The steam or hot fluid is then recalculated out of
the boiler for use in various processes in heating applications.
The water circuit of a water boiler can be summarized by the following pictures:
The boiler receives the feed water, which consists of varying proportion of
recovered condensed water (return water) and fresh water, which has been purified in
varying degrees (make up water). The make-up water is usually natural water either in
its raw state, or treated by some process before use. Feed-water composition therefore
depends on the quality of the make-up water and the amount of condensate returned to
the boiler.
The steam, which escapes from the boiler, frequently contains liquid droplets
and gases. The water remaining in liquid form at the bottom of the boiler picks up all
the foreign matter from the water that was converted to steam. The impurities must be
blown down by the discharge of some of the water from the boiler to the drains. The
permissible percentage of blown down at a plant is strictly limited by running costs and
initial outlay. The tendency is to reduce this percentage to a very small figure.
Oil Water Separator - Desorber
FEATURES
No electricity required
• No filters needed
• No operating cost
• No maintenance cost
• Suitable for any liquid
• Robust, compact, and re-locatable
• Can be integrated with existing systems without modifications
AREAS OF APPLICATION
Hydro Free uses coalesce columns to separate free water from Petroleum
products like unraced Oil, LSHS, Diesel etc. The liquid with water is pumped through
the unit and water gets separated at the bottom of the unit which is drained periodically.
The coalesce units are made form Stainless steel material.
FEATURES
The oil spills from oil tankers on land surface as well as in seas and
oceans are a major environmental hazard. This not only kills the aquatic flora and fauna
by destroying the habitat but also creates health problems for the local inhabitants.
Traditionally chemical dispersants are being used as remediation efforts.
However these chemical dispersants are also toxic in nature and they persist in
the environment for a long time. The present techniques of washing the oil off the
gravel and cleaning the area of oil spills, is very expensive and time consuming. In
order to overcome some of these problems, the oleophilic fertilizers are being
developed which allow rapid growth and multiplication of microbes which further leads
to the increase in the biodegradation process for removal of oil. In recent years, using
genetic engineering, oil utilizing microorganisms have been produced which can grow
rapidly on oil.
The genetically engineered microbes for cleaning oil spills are mixed with
straw. At the site of oil spill, the straw mixed with microbes are scattered over the oil
spilled area. The straw soaks the oily water and the microbes break the oil into non-
toxic and non polluting materials thereby cleaning up the site.
Some of the oil utilizing microbes can also produce surface active compounds
that can emulsify oil in water and thereby removing the oil. A strain of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa produces a glycolipid emulsifier that reduces the surface tension of oil-water
interface which helps in the removal of oil from water. This microbial emulsifier is
nontoxic and biodegradable and has shown promising results in the laboratory
experiments.
Odor Concentrations of the inlet and outlet air. Samples were collected in a
Teller bag and sent to a laboratory.( St-Croix Sensory Inc., Lake Elmo MN) for
determination of the odor concentration, using the ASTM 679-99 standardized
method at an airflow of 20 l min-1.
Reduced sulfur compounds other than hydrogen sulfide, samples were collected
and measured by Air toxics Lts., (Folsom ,CA) using standardized method
ASTM D 5504. This method used GC-MS and measured the concentrations of
19 different organic reduced sulfur compounds.
The system performance results for 2 and 4 months after start-ups are provided in Table
. These results demonstrated reactor performance of greater than 99% removal of
hydrogen sulphide, and 96% removal of doors.
INLET OUTLET
POLLUTANT UNIT REMOVAL(%)
CONCENTRATION CONCENTRATION
Hydrogen
sulfide (48h
ppbv 10,000-87,000 100-500 99
before taking
bag samples)
Hydrogen
sulfide (in bag ppbv 17,000 320 98
samples)
Organic
reduced sulfur
compounds
Methyl
ppbv 430 16
mercaptan
Carbonyl
ppbv 0 16
sulphide
Isopropyl
ppbv 0 13
mercaptan
Total reduced
ppbv 430 45 90
sulfur
Odor
concentration D/T 5,500 690 87
(8weeks)
Odour
concentration D/T 7,800 310 96
(4 Months)
Performance
at higher D/T 7,800 30 96
airflow
Hydrogen
ppmv 9.4 0.013 99.9
sulfide
Odor
D/T 5,700 540 90.5
concentration
Outlet air
F 54
temperature
Different groups have workde on modeling bio trickling and bio scrubber
systems(Rimes and Divinely 2004).Better models, especially on the bioflims, are made
include ,besides degradation of pollutants , proceses like growth , death and predation.
Raw water drawn from various sources is not fit enough for human consumption
directly without subjecting it to treatment. Certain gases, traces ofmineral water and
other undesirable substances gets dissolved in the raw water as a result of various
hydrological processes. During runoff on the earth surface, raw water picks up soil,
garbage, sewage, pesticides and other physical, chemical and bacteriological agents
including human and animal wates.
The following treatment method are generally applicable each suing different
technologies:
a) Screening
b) Sedimentation
c) Filtration
d) Disinfection
e) Softening
f Desalination
g) Demineralization
a) Clarification
b) Filtration
c) Ultra-filtration
d) Flocculation
e) Reverse-osmosis
f) Electrodialysis
g) Water-softening
h) FluorideRemoval
i) Disinfection
j) Iron removal.
The treatment system discussed in the present report include the following:
a) Secondary biological treatment processes- Aerobic and Anaerobic
b) Low cost treatment systems- Aerated Lagoons, extended aeration, oxidation or
stabilization ponds etc.
c)Organicwastetreatment
d) Tertiary biological treatment systems.
The details of the above processes and the latest biotechnology have been
discussed in Chapter 4 to 10. A few case studies have also been included in these
Chapters for highlighting some of the foreign as well as indigenous biotechnology
presently being utilized.
On the basis of the details presented in Chapters 3 to 10 the following gaps have
been identified:
a)Rawwater
i)Highgradewaterforspecialindustries
ii)Brackishwatertreatment
iii) Surface polluted water.
b)DomesticWasteWaterTreatment
i)Nutrientremoval
ii) Small community waste water treatment plants.
c)IndustrialWasteWaterTreatment
i)Useofmicrobesfordigestionoforganicwastes
ii) Complex waste water in industries using multiple processes.
WASTE-WATER TREATMENT
A waste-water treatment process is a combination of separate treatment
processes or units designed to produce an effluent of specified quality from a
waste-water of known composition and flow rate
• TDS is based on the electrical conductivity (EC) of water. Pure H20 has
virtually zero conductivity. Conductivity is usually about 100 times the
total captions or anions expressed as equivalents. TDS is calculated by
converting the EC by a factor of 0.5 to 1.0 times the EC, depending upon
the levels. Typically, the higher the level of EC, the higher the
conversion factor to determine the TDS.
WATERPOLLUTIONPREVENTION:
Water is one of the greatest resources on the earth. It is essential to life and it is
found in every living being. Without water all living creatures would cease to exist.
Water not only nurtures but helps to create life as well. Its importance can not and
shouldnotbeoverlooked.
DRILLINGFLUIDS
OILYWATER
OILY SLOPS
• Oil well drilling uses “mud” to lubricate the drilling string and to coat the insides
• After a well is drilled, the cake must be removed or “broken”. Traditional breakers
procedures.
damage, even degradation of filter cake, and using enzymes reduces acids or petro
chemicals in water/mud discharge.
OILYSLUDGES
OILFIELD FILTRATION
The “Oilfield Division” of Twin Filter is a market leader, and known for its
filter expertise in the oil and gas industry. Twin Filter has systems and consumables
supplied to more than 80 countries.
EXPERTISE
COMPLETIONFLUIDSFILTRATION
Clean completion fluids are essential for a successful completion of an oil or gas
producing well. Twin Filter engineers and manufactures a full range of equipment for a
reliable and effective filtration service such as: vertical pressure leaf (VPL) filter, filter
press, slurry skid, duplex cartridge filter unit, slurry skids, pump units, DE powder
handling. Our absolute and nominal rated cartridges will complete the total scope of
products.
WATERINJECTION:
Current environmental laws are becoming more stringent and discharge limits
are getting lower every year. Our solutions; hydro cyclones, (compact) flotation units,
coalesce systems, coaxial separator, walnut shell filters, cartridge and media absorption
for polishing waste and produced water.
Our range of automatic self cleaning filter units are applied in a wide range of
applications. Skid mounted system for pipeline flushing, cooling water filtration. The
complete packages can be manufactured in different construction materials from carbon
steel lined to super duplex. Water flow rates of 5000 m3/hr can be treated with one
single unit. Solids down to 10 micron can be removed fully automatic without any
consumable.
OTHEROILFIELDFILTRATIONSOLUTIONS
Twin Filter manufactures a full range of products for Gas filtration and
separation, Amine & Glycol filtration, Diesel filters, Drinking water units, RO systems,
RO pre-filtration and many other filtration and treatment solutions.
WORLD WIDE SUPPORT
Our strength and reputation has been built on customer service, reliability,
experience, industry knowledge and after sales. Wherever in the world, you can count
on our support 24 hours a day. We have worldwide stock. In addition to our standard
scope of supply, we also hold a large rental fleet of equipment.
POLLUTEDOILYSEMISOLIDS
This allows for the wash water to be recycled. Tractor bucket, skips and
conveyors generally handle the mobilization of these materials. The solids treatment
system normally involves the incorporation of bulk hoppers with conveyors, wash
tanks, screen separators, 2-phase decanters and possibly high-speed 3-phase centrifuges.
In general oily semi solids are treated more in line with residence time on or through the
equipment employed and in this system the 2-phase decanter generally dictates
the throughputs capacity. In general a single decanter for the treatment of
fluidized semi solids would range from 2 to 4 m³/hr per unit supplied. Greater
capacity is achieved by multiples\ofunitsinstalledintandem.
TYPESOFWATERPOLLUTIONPREVENTION
The ways in which water is polluted can happen due to the actions of man,
animal or nature. In some cases pollution is completely preventable but in other
situationsitisnot.
Waste from humans and animals pollute water ways. It can be in the form of
feces, trash or anything else left behind. Water pollution can also be from chemical or
other hazardous matters which run off or otherwise find their way into the water
sources.
IMPORTANCEOFWATERPOLLUTIONPREVENTION
Water pollution prevention assures that pollution is kept to a minimal and that
any pollution is cleaned up so that the water can remain safe.
Polluted water can lead to serious problems with disease and death of plants and
vegetation, humans and animals. Depending upon the type of pollution, the effects can
be very difficult to remedy which is why prevention is key.
PREVENTIONMETHODS
Prevention of water pollution is done in various ways. Legislation through
government bodies helps greatly. The Clean Water Act of 1970 helped to initiate the
building of wastewater facilities to ensure waste water and water for consumption never
mixed.
The Clean Air Act of 1972 provided for state water standards to be set ensuring
safe drinking water. Additionally, the control of surface pollution was a focus because
pollution above ground can go into the groundwater which is the main source of all
drinking water.
All of these methods help to ensure that there is plenty of safe drinking water
and that waterways are kept clean for the animals and plants to use without worry of
pollutionrevention
In order to bridge the technology gaps, an action plan has been drawn and
presented in Chapter 13. this action plan also includes the role of various R&D
organization, industry, and financial organization such as Asian Development Bank,
Manila ands World Bank etc.
a) The criteria for beneficial uses of water be studied by Bureau of Indian Standards.
The necessity and time frame for modifying the same be assessed.
b) Evolve a strategy to overcome technology gaps mostly by indigenous development.
In exceptional cases assistance of foreign consultants or even collaboration be
considered.
e) In view of the overall constraints of finances, the allocation for the sewage treatment
is limited. The facilities of the World Bank, Asian Development Bank and IDBI be
utilized to the maximum.
f) Water treatment technology cannot be viewed in isolation and has to be related to the
overall activity of water management. An apex body be formed to deal with major areas
such as R&D, financial allocations, Import policy, taxation policy, industrial policy and
overall coordination/monitoring.
Introduction, classification of air pollutants, air pollutants and their effects, acid
rain, photochemical smog, particulates, Characteristics and biochemical effects of some
air pollutants, sources of some important air pollutants and their effects.
AIRFILTRATION
The Air division of Twin Filter is specialized in the purification of air and other
gasesinabroadvariationofmarkets.
EXPERTISE
Twin Filter provides solutions for the control and elimination of odour
emissions. Odours from sewer pump stations, waste water treatment plants and general
industrial sources are neutralized by a combination of different technologies. The goal
is astenchfreeenvironment.
Dust and especially acid gases cause corrosion on circuit boards, frequency
drives and compressors. By eliminating these gases, Twin Filter saves maintenance
costs and improves equipment reliability. Twin Filter guarantees a G1 air quality behind
thefilter.
Twin Filter has a large range of inline filter systems for the following
applications:
This book brings together our knowledge of the trends and the causes behind the
increased levels of methane. Based on the scientific information on the sources and
sinks, and the role of methane in climate change, strategies to limit emissions can be
designed as part of a program to control future global warming. The contents are as
follows:
INTRODUCTION
Bio technology offers the most economical and environmentally benign method
for air pollution control when dealing with the removal of odorous and toxic
contaminants from Industrial and municipal airstreams. When emitted in
large amounts, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and inorganic
odorous
compounds create hazards to the eco system and health effects to
humans.
Substances such as ammonia, amines, hydrogen sulfide, methyl
mercaptan,
dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl disulfide cause door nuisance in the environment.
The need for the removal of odours and VOCs is driven by regulatory
issues,
generally enforced as a result of public complaints about poor local air quality
and through emission monitoring by the enforcement agencies.
In the early 1990s, it was not an easy task for an industry to select a biotechnology
systems reduce odour or VOC air emissions as a means of compliance. In Chapter 2,
the
details on door and VOC control laws, regulatory measures to handle citizens’
complaints, performance standards required for biological treatment
systems,
and review of regulations in several countries are discussed.
The treatment of off-gases has been practiced for years and is primarily based
on non-biological methods such as condensation, activated carbon adsorption,
absorption |scrubbing , and incineration. In the condensation process,
cooling and compression condense contaminant vapours’ from air. This
process
is economical for higher boiling point compounds and more
concentrated
airstreams . In the adsorption process, pollutants are adsorbed onto adsorbents
(i.e., activated carbon). This process is effective when the concentration in the
Airstreams is low. Regeneration of the adsorbents is done using steam or hot
air.
The prevention of air pollution is world wide concern. There have been many
investigations into what causes air pollution and the exact methods that work best in the
preventionofairpollution.
Through the use of many different methods air pollution is becoming easier to
control. It is only through various measures, though, that the prevention of air pollution
impossible.
GOVERNMENTROLE
Legislation, such as the Clean Air Act, helps to make sure that the main
culprits of air pollution are properly regulated and mandatory laws are in place to
ensure that air pollution prevention is taken seriously. The government also helps by
continuously making regulations stricter and enforcing new regulations that help to
combatanynewfoundsourceofairpollution.
INDOORAIRPOLLUTION
Indoor air pollution may seem like an individual concern, but it actually is
not just something to worry about in your own home. Indoor air pollution contributes to
outdoor air pollution. In the prevention of air pollution it is important to understand
aboutindoorairpollution.
Indoor air is much easier to clean up and regulate than the air outside.
However, if you do not know what causes indoor air pollution then you certainly can
notpreventit.
Some things that contribute to indoor air pollution are smoking, appliances, the
use of chemicals and animals. You can prevent indoor air pollution by not smoking
indoors, not using harmful chemicals, buying new energy efficient appliances and
keepinganimalsoutside.
PREVENTAIRPOLLUTION
Prevention of air pollution can be done in many ways. Some of the larger scale
methods of preventing air pollution include urban planning, technology development
and legal regulations.
Technology is one of the greatest tools in preventing air pollution. The creation
of new vehicles that produce less pollution is a major step towards clean air.
Legal regulations are one very effective way to ensure that all possible measures
are taken to prevent air pollution. The government sets regulations that prevent
individuals and businesses from doing anything that can cause air pollution if it is not
absolutely necessary. These regulations also help to reduce pollution in the cases where
the polluting activity can not be avoided.
INTRODUCTION
INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
It has been projected that 30% of the world’s chemical and fuel needs could be
supplied by such renewable resources in the first half of the next century. It has been
demonstrated, at test scale, that bio pulping reduces the electrical energy required for
wood pulping process by 30% (11).
THE APPLICATION OF INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY TO
POLLUTION PREVENTION
ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
Cleaning of environment through nature’s scavengers
ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS
INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
• It uses genetically engineered bacteria, yeasts and plants - - whole cell systems
or enzymes
– less pollution
– resource conservation
Waste products and the pollution problems associated with such products have
been art of human existence since the dawn of civilization. Troublesome wastes are of
three types: those in the atmosphere, those in aqueous systems, and solids, In the
treatment of both liquid and solid wastes, there are significant opportunities for the use
of biotechnology. Indeed, most liquid and solid wastes have been dealt with for
millennia by nat - ural biological processes, Moreover, humans in their initial attempts
to control such wastes have generally resorted to contained biological systems,
particularly for the treatment of liquid wastes. The possibilities for using biological
systems tocontrol atmospheric pollution, in contrast, are rather limited. The discussion
here, therefore, focuses on the applications of biotechnology in the treatment of liquid
and solid wastes.
Of the conventional microbiological systems for the treatment of liquid wastes now
in use, the most complex is that found in publicly owned water treatment plants. There
are four basic unit operations in a wastewater treatment plant:
• primary processing;
• secondary processing;
• tertiary processing; and
• digestion.
The primary treatment step removes solids from the wastewater. These solids
(sludge) are then either disposed of or sent to a sludge digester, and the wastewater is
forwarded to second .
Waste recycling
Chirac synthesis
Textile treatment
Food enzymes
etc., etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
• Introduction
• The Hydrosphere
• The Atmosphere
• The Ecosphere
• The Biosphere
• The Astrosphere
• Cycles of Matter
INTRODUCTION
Conversion of waste into useful products, such as manure into plastic or fish food, or
using it as a source of energy
• Treatment of solid waste and waste water
• Bioindicators for environmental pollutants such as heavy metal toxins and
chemical contaminants
• Detection, removal and treatment of toxins in water, air, food and soil
ascorbic acid
In rural communities recycling of human, animal and vegetable waste has been
practiced by man for centuries, providing in many cases valuable fertilizers or fuel. In
urban communities where most of the deleterious wastes accumulate efficient waste
collection and specific treatment processes have been developed since it is impractical
to discharge high volumes of waste into natural land and waters. The development of
these practices in the last century was one of the main reasons for the spectacular
improvement in health and well being of the community.
4. Water pollution and its control : Water as a scarce natural resource, Need for
water management, Measurement of water pollution, Sources of water pollution,
Waste water collection, Waste water treatment – Physical, chemical and
biological treatment processes.
12. Global environmental problems: Ozone depletion, UV-B, Green house effect
and acid rain, their impact and biotechnological approaches for management.
Acid rain is still with us. Although it is a problem that people have worked
diligently to solve, there are still many problem areas throughout the world. In reality
the focus of acid rain research has shifted, and this book adds new vision to the topic. It
contains papers, selected from Acid Rain 2005, the 7th International Conference on Acid
Deposition, that take a broad perspective of the issues, emphasizing a number of
themes:
ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
In paper industry, the current pulp bleaching technologies are being replaced by
a better technology. The objective of all pulp processing operations, is to efficiently
remove lignin without damaging valuable cellulosic fibres.Various chemical and
mechanical processes are currently used to release cellulose from its encasing lignin
matrix (this process is called pulping), but they suffer from serious disadvantages-
including damage to cellulosic fibres, high costs, high energy use and corrosion.
Conventional process for plastic industry uses oil based raw materials. Alkenes
like ethylene and propylene, produced from these raw materials, arc first converted into
alkene oxides, which are then polymerized to form plastics, such as polypropylene
(used for making containers) and polyethylene (commonly called polythene).
The use of these raw materials has inherent danger of escaping into the atmosphere,
thus causing pollution. Therefore, it is suggested that in plastic industry raw materials
like sugars (glucose) should be used, which can be enzymatically (or through direct use
of microbes), converted into alkene oxide to be used in this industry. Methylococcus
capsulatus has also been successfully used for converting alkene into alkene oxide.
REDUCING ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT OF PAPER INDUSTRY
In pre-tanning operations, the hides and skins are first subjected to a water soak.
For loosening the hair7, the oldest method is the ‘sweating’ process – a natural autolysis
or breakdown process. It is a mild putrefaction process induced at random. Since the
type and quantity of the putrefying bacteria cannot be controlled, the process itself
eludes control. Moreover, since the sensitivity to attack the epidermal proteins and the
fibrous proteins of the corium by the proteolytic enzymes is more or less the same, the
sweating may result in serious damage to the hide surface. Dehairing is used to be
followed by opening up of fibre structure in ‘liming’. The dehaired hide is transferred to
an alkaline solution of lime milk where swelling occurs and the nonfibrillar proteins are
dissolved. After mechanical removal of the subcutaneous tissue, deliming is performed
in order to remove the adsorbed lime from the hide and to eliminate the lime swell.
The fat present in the hide skins is removed either as soluble lime soap or hydrolysis
products like fatty acids. Kerosene, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and white spirit are used
in the degreasing system which add to the toxicity of the environment and effluents.
ENZYMES IN PRE-TANNING
Although enzymes from plants, animals, and microbial sources have been used
for decades, large-scale use of microbial enzymes received a boost only in 1960s
following the introduction of fermentation technology. The enzymes or enzymatic
formulations need not be pure but must be cheap compared to that of commercial
chemicals used in leather industry.
Animal proteases and microbial proteases from bacteria and fungi are used in
finishing
the pre-tanning processes of leather manufacture. The most important criteria for their
selection are their specificity, pH activity range as well as pH and thermal stability. If
an enzyme is to act uniformly, it must be able to diffuse into the hide and this is
obviously acheived with skins rather than with hides. In the latter case, an accumulation
of enzyme at the surface of the grain occurs. A pronounced difference between the pH
value of the solution and that of the hide is also possible.
Since microorganisms can be made to propagate rapidly and profusely, they are
an ideal source for enzymes. Mainly, neutral and alkaline proteases are obtained from
bacteria, which differ in their pH activity range. Fungal proteases are also classified
according to the pH activity range : fungal acid proteases act between pH 2.5 and 6.0
and can be derived from A. satoi. These are used for bating prior to pickling and serve
to open up the fibre structure. Fungal alkaline proteases14 belong to the same group of
serine proteases as alkaline bacterial proteases. However, these are more heat sensitive
and are quickly deactivated above 60° C. Fungal neutral proteases are mainly obtained
from
ASPERGILLUSORPENICILLIUMSPECIES
Table shows the various enzymes produced by various microorganisms used in the
leather industry.
Process Enzyme Microorganism
A spergilus parasitiscus. A
flavus, A.oriza, and Bacilus
Soaking Protocase
subtains Rhizopus
rhizopodiformis.
A spergilus falut aspergillus
Dehairing Protocase sp.Bacillus subluls ,
Lactobacillus.
A.Parasticus S.Rimosus
and B.Licheniformis , B.
Bating Protoease
subulis, penicilium
janthinellim.
Rhizopous nodosus.
Degreasing Lipase
A.oryzaer and A.flaus
Apart from bacterial and fungal proteases, specific proteases like keratinases are
known. Keratinases which hydrolyse keratins, are obtained from Streptomyces fradiae
and can be used for dehairing.
ENZYMES IN SOAKING
Soaking is the first operation in the tannery wherein the hides and skins are cleaned and
softened with water. Wet-salted or freshly slaughtered hides and skins do not require
any chemical agent for their proper soaking4. Soaking is necessary for solubilization
and elimination of salts and globular proteins contained within the fibrous structure of
hides and skins. It is carried out under alkaline conditions at low temperature between
10° C and 20° C in water treated with antiseptics such as sodium hypochlorite, sodium
pentachlorophenate, formic acid, etc.1. It is accelerated by some of the nonionic
detergents and additives such as sodium sulphide or sodium tetrasulphide.
The advantages of enzymatic soaking include loosening of the scud, initiation of
the opening of the fibre structure, and production of leather with less wrinkled grain
when used at an alkaline pH of less than 10.5 (ref. 6). Use of enzyme preparation in
soaking of rabbit skins improves the softness and elasticity, and increases the area yield
of the fur by 3.3% while reducing the processing time by 10–20 h (ref. 18).
Alkaline proteases of bacterial and fungal origin have been used for soaking
which reduces the need for the liming chemicals by 30–60% . Soaking of dried furs in
an aqueous bath containing 1% acid proteinase from Rhizopus rhizopodiformis and
sodium bisulphite at 25° C for about 20 h has been reported by Asbeck et al. Orlita and
Beseda25 have tested three commercial bacterial alkaline protease preparations for the
soaking of salted cow hides. Thus, use of enzyme preparations results in a decrease in
soaking time.
Soaking is usually carried out using a combination of proteolytic enzymes that are
optimally active in the neutral or alkaline pH range. For enzymatic soaking, the average
soaking period for salted raw stock is about 4 h and for dried raw stock is about 8–10 h
(ref. 26). A water soak without auxiliary agents takes 24 h for salted hides, and 36–48 h
for dried hides.
ENZYMES IN DEHAIRING
Dehairing is one of the main operations in the beamhouse. Five methods of dehairing
are generally adopted, viz.
Of these, the most commonly practiced method of dehairing of hides and skins
is the chemical process using lime and sodium sulphide. However, the use of high
concentrations of lime and sodium sulphide creates an extremely alkaline environment
resulting in the pulping of hair and its subsequent removal. While one cannot question
the efficacy of this process, its inherent disadvantages have to be taken note of.
Significant amongst these are:
(ii) Sulphide is highly toxic with obnoxious odor. If left untreated, it can
cause major problems in the sewers.
(iii) The severe alkaline condition is a health hazard for the workers.
Enzymatic dehairing is suggested as an environmentally friendly alternative to
the conventional chemical process6. The enzyme digests the basal cells of the hair bulb
and the cells of the malphigian layer. This is followed by loosening of hair with an
attack on the outermost sheath and subsequent swelling and breakdown of the inner root
sheath and parts of the hair that are not keratinized28. Advantages of enzymatic
dehairing are:
(ii) Recovery of hair of good quality and strength with a good saleable
value.
(ii) Creation of an ecologically conducive atmosphere for the workers.
(iv) Enzymatically dehaired leathers have shown better strength properties
and greater surface area.
(v) Simplification of pre-tanning processes by cutting down one step, viz.
bating.
(vi) A significant nature of the enzymatic dehairing process is the time factor
involved. The lime-sulphide process takes about 16 h, whereas the enzymatic
dehairing would be also completed between 12 and 20 h .
Microbial proteases are derived from a wide variety of yeasts, molds, and
bacteria. Yeast proteases are mainly intracellular in nature and therefore these enzymes
have not gained significant commercial interest. The protease from A. flavus was earlier
being used for dehairing, and later it was reported that simultaneous dehairing and
bating is possible with the protease of A. flavus . Gillespie has observed that the enzyme
preparation from cultures of A. oryzae, A. parasiticus, A. fumigatus, A. effusus, A.
ochraceus, A. wentii, and P. griseofulvum exhibit marked depilatory activity on sheep
skins.
The fungal culture, Conidiobolus sp., isolated at NCL, produces high yields of
extracellular alkaline protease. The enzyme is active at pH 10.0 and is being tried for
many industrial applications. Enzymes derived from bacteria have gained much
commercial interest , because of their easy production capabilities by submerged
cultivation, high yield of enzyme, short duration for production, and easy recovery of
the enzyme.
In the paint method, the enzyme solution is mixed with an inert material like
kaolin, made into a thin paste, adjusted to the required pH, applied on the flesh side of
hides and skins, piled flesh to flesh, covered with polythene sheets and kept till
dehairing takes place. In the dip method of enzymatic unhairing, the hides or skins are
kept immersed in the enzyme solution at the required pH in a pit or tub. The
disadvantage encountered in this method is the unavoidable dilution of the enzyme
solution. Even though enzyme penetration is observed to be uniform, dehairing at
backbone and neck is not up to the mark. A novel spraying technique has been adopted
for the application of multienzyme concentrate in depilation.
The advantages of this method over the painting and dip methods are that
ENZYMES IN BATING
The comparatively richer source for the proteolytic enzyme is the pancreas from
bovine and pig. The proteolytic enzymes in the pancreas are present in inactive forms;
chymotrypsin as chymotrypsinogen, trypsin as trypsinogen, and carboxypeptidase as
procarboxypeptidase. A process has been patented for the activation of pancreatic
enzymes by the use of acid protease from A. fumigatus.
ENZYMES IN DEGREASING
CLRI has developed a potent fungal lipase from A. niger and a potent bacterial
lipase. Comparative studies on degreasing of sheep skins using the bacterial lipase and
commercial detergent-based degreasing agent Gelon-PK have been carried out.
Improved degreasing results with the bacterial lipase, with added advantages of better
softness, smoothness, and improvement in other physical properties. Furthermore, the
lipase without detergent is observed to show 70% degreasing in 2 h, with the effluent
showing minimal pollution load.
Enzymatic degreasing can be carried out with acidic or alkaline lipases of fungal
or bacterial origin. For degreasing, pickled pelts are kept immersed in an enzyme bath
containing microbial lipase and water pH of 3.6, and left in the same bath overnight at a
temperature of 28–32° C. The degreased pelts are then removed from the bath and
subjected to salt wash twice with water and common salt for 40 min. The washed pelts
are repickled, chrome tanned and taken for further processing. The use of an alkaline
lipase at a pH of 9.0 to 9.3 in the degreasing of pig skin results in short degreasing time
and high degreasing efficiency.
ENZYMES FOR BY-PRODUCTS UTILIZATION AND EFFLUENT
TREATMENT
Enzymes could be used in the treatment of fleshings and effluent from tannery
processes. A combination of hydrolytic enzymes, viz. proteases, carbohydrases, and
lipases would be required. The advantages to be realised include a protein by-product
suitable for animal feed as well as energy conservation and fat recovery. Again, the
major disadvantage would be the cost.
When raw hides are processed to leather, a number of by-products such as
native hide material (claws, tails, necks, fleshings), pelt waste (trimmings, machine
fleshings, gluestock, pelt cuts), and tanned material (shavings, leather cuts, buffing dust,
chrome cuttings) are obtained.
Braeumer et al. have described the enzymatic conversion of glue stock and other
hide offal to technically useful byproducts by hydrolysing the pulverised hide wastes
with an alkaline protease, pH 9.0–13.0, in the presence of urea, and then at pH 2.0–5.0
in the presence of a strong acid. Bronowski et al. have shown that treating fleshings
with pancreatic enzymes instead of heat treatment for separating the fat from the
proteinaceous matter requires much less energy, and the yield is increased from 60–
65% to over 90%.
Sauer has described a process for the utilization of fleshings which consists of the
enzymatic hydrolysis of the proteins, conditioning of the resulting liquid, and separating
the fats and solids present in the hydrolysate. The outstanding feature of the process is a
recovery of 91% of the fat in the fleshings and the application of the hydrolysate
directly to the soil, as a fertilizer. Iliskovic and Mersed 62 have described the separation
of fats from the fleshy wastes from cattle hide processing by treatment with enzymes.
The problem of waste treatment can be approached
The necessity for chromium removal in tannery waste water is another area of
waste management. Microorganisms such as A. fumigatus and species of Pseudomonas
when grown on chrome waste can ‘leach’ out chromium. Pentachlorophenol, a
preservative used for raw as well as semi-processed skins, creates problems during
handling and also during biological effluent treatment. P. aeruginosa could be used
successfully to degrade pentachlorophenol. Other potential techniques for reduction of
pollution load are recycling of immobilized enzymes to hydrolyse the solid waste, and
recycling of immobilized whole cells to absorb or detoxify toxic metals in the effluent.
Indian Leather Industry Foundation (ILIFO), a nonprofit association of major Indian
tanners, and UNIDO’s Regional Programme for Pollution Control in the Tanning
Industry in South–East Asia (RePO) have recently launched a research programme to
find uses for treated tannery effluents in agriculture. At present, the experiment is on in
the North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu, where several fruit, flower and vegetable plants
are grown with irrigation from treated tannery effluents.
Like treated effluent, tannery sludge also contains some nutrients which could
be applied to agricultural fields. Disposal of sludge generated in the tannery effluent
treatment process is a major bottleneck in tackling tannery pollution.
example:
INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
Oil is a commodity which is needed for many purposes in our lives. The uses of
the oil are sometimes off set by the hazards that occur. These hazards can occur on the
ocean waters and also on the land. The land pollution which is the result of this spilled
oil is just as damaging as those of the ocean variety.
As with the ocean variety the land pollution is difficult to remove but every
effort must be made. Like the animals that live and visit the ocean the land animals are
at risk from this pollution. There is also a risk of the oil spill leaking into the
underground water table. When this occurs the rivers and lakes will also get caught to
the flow of the oil that is polluting the surface.
This land pollution can happen when the pipes that carry the oil to the refining plants
will corrode and break. These breaks are what causes the oil to spill onto the land and
then flow everywhere that is in the path of the oil. In some dire cases the oil spill will
occur due to malicious acts.
These acts are in some cases sabotage or terrorist activities. While these are very
serious accidents they are hard to investigate and prove. The most that oil companies
can do is to repair the breaks and posts guards to protect the pipe lines. This operation is
very costly and not very feasible as there are many miles of pipe lines to protect.
While the cases of land pollution from oil rigs or oil pipe lines is not that known there
have been instances where these oil spills have caused the environment massive
damage. The cost to the oil company is also very high. For this reason the different oil
companies are now looking into various other methods of transporting the oil to the
refineries. They are also developing new methods of cleaning up the land pollution that
is caused by the oil spills.
GREASE DECOMPOSITION
Facilities processing meats, poultry, and certain other foods have particularly
difficult problems with grease. Grease problems also appear throughout the wastewater
collection and treatment cycle.
Both pipe collection branches and pump stations are susceptible to the problems
of grease accumulation, which include plugging of lines, accumulation of debris in wet
wells, slippery working surfaces, unsightly conditions, odor, and operational problems
at the facility site. Scum layers on sedimentation tanks and scum mats in digesters cause
additional problems.
The two basic problems are the congealing (solidifying) of the grease and the
difficulty, if not an impossibility, of decomposing the grease once it arrives at the
wastewater treatment plant. Techniques that result in the emulsification and
decomposition of grease would significantly improve the operation of all waste
treatment facilities.
Bacterial formulations have been used in the past for grease decomposition.
Improvement of these cultures might be possible. Additionally, an enzymatic approach,
such as the use of lipases, could improve the operation of waste facilities. However,
because grease contamination generally is in the form of nonaqueous, congealed
deposits. A mechanism for delivering the enzyme to the substrate might solve the
problem, but no approaches for accomplishing this have been postulated.
Grease buildup in the same tank after 4% months of operation with daily
addition of decreasing bacteria produced through classical genetic selection techniques
making initial assessments of the impact of advanced biotechnology in this area. Japan
is also
conducting a small amount of R&D in this area. In the United States, there probably is
more activity oriented to biotechnology, much of it financed by the U.S. Government,
in the municipal solid waste treatment sector than in either the air or liquid waste
treatment sectors. Additionally, R&D efforts aimed at improving the technology of
wastewater treatment are concentrated in a handful of small bioprocess-oriented
companies and certain academic microbiology laboratories.
Only recently did interactions begin between these research groups and the plant
operators involved in purifying wastewater . In the past, industry has relied primarily on
engineering consultants, not technology-based companies, to address pollution
problems; these consultants haveused the most basic existing technologies for treatment
of organic wastes.
Two potential barriers to the commercial application of novel approaches to the
problems of pollution control and waste treatment are the performance of the products
that are developed and scientific uncertainty regarding their application. For example,
although the technology for highlevel production of enzymes and metallothioneins
certainly exists or can be developed, the performance of these products in the desired
application is as yet untested. If their performance turns out to be poor, then the R&D
effort for commercialization would be much more extensive and might not be worth
pursuing.
At the present time, most industries will not fund biotechnological research on
waste treatment problems. They are only interested in licensing or purchasing such
technology if it has already been developed. Another potential barrier to
commercializationof products for pollution control is Government regulation of the
products themselves. In the case of enzymes and other proteins, few significant safety
problems requiring regulation are anticipated, although care must be taken in handling
these products. The application of micro-organisms, in contrast, could involve
significant regulatoryimplications. Since the micro-organisms proposed here will have
the potential for beingreleased into the environment, it will probably be necessary to
establish their safety or to develop methods for their containment at the site of
treatment.
You can participate in land, water, and air pollution preventions are following :
Reduce: Source reduction is any practice that reduces the quantity and/or
toxicity of pollutants entering a waste stream before recycling, treatment or
disposal. Examples include equipment or technology modifications,
reformulation or redesign of products, substitution of less toxic raw materials,
improvements in work practices, maintenance, worker training and better
inventory control.
Reuse: Is using a product or component in its original form more than once.
Examples include refilling a glass bottle that has been returned, donating clothes
to charity or using a coffee can to hold nuts and bolts.
Avoid chemicals in your home and yard: Substitute green cleaning practices
for chemical cleaners. If you do use household chemicals or fertilizers, dispose
of them safely.
Land Remediation and Pollution Control conducts research at the basic level as well
as bench- and pilot-scales to explore innovative solutions to current and future land
pollution problems. Our programs include:
• Fish feed based on omega-3-enriched plants such as lupins and chick peas, to
replace use of wild fish as feed
• Bigger, faster-breeding domestic species of prawns, salmon and abalone
• Production of highly-valued aquaculture products from intensive livestock
wastes
MICROBIOLOGICAL MINING
Micro-organisms have been used to some extent in mineral leaching and metal
concentration processes for many years. For the most part, these processes have been
fortuitous, relying on micro-organisms found associated with mine dumps.
With the recent advent of novel biological techniques, people in the mining
industry and biologists have begun to think about ways to manipulate genetically some
of the microorganisms important in metal recovery processes to increase their
efficiency and allow them to function on a larger variety of substrates.
MINING
• Leaching of ores from underground or from waste heaps, using bacteria
• Use of biological approaches to extract and recover metal from ores (known as
biomining), and control acid drainage
• Coal bioprocessing to improve ways of cleaning coal and converting it for
chemical and energy use
MINING REFINING
BILLETON
BUDEL ZINC
(Netherlands) is a major producer of zinc. The acidic waste water from its zinc
refinery contains zinc and other metals (tin, copper, nickel, manganese, chromium, lead
and iron). The conventional process for treating this waste water involves neutralising it
with lime or limestone, which results in large quantities of gypsum contaminated with
heavy metals. Budel has developed a bioprocess that uses sulphate-reducing bacteria to
capture and recycle zinc and other metals in its waste water as metal sulphide
precipitate.
The metal sulphide precipitate is recycled back into the refinery feedstock.
This process has resulted in a 10 to 40-fold decrease in the concentration of heavy
metals in the refinery 15 wastewater and eliminated the production of metal-
contaminated gypsum which is a hazardous solid waste by-product.
ENERGY
Once the well is drilled to the desired depth, the low permeability layer must be
removed in order to maximise oil production rates. Traditional drilling fluids are muds
– dispersions of clay minerals in water and oil where the clay provides the required
viscosity and the oil provides the lubrication.
(i) the oil used in their formulation can have negative environmental impacts
and requires Treatment
(ii) the strong acid required to remove the low permeability layer is toxic to the
environment, corrodes equipment and does not uniformly remove the low
permeability layer.
(United Kingdom) are now using a drilling fluid containing mixtures of bio-
organic polymers such as xanthan gum, which provides viscosity, and starch or
cellulose, which acts as a binder. The formulation also contains an inert solid called a
bridging agent that has a particle size allowing it to bridge pores in the structure of the
rock being drilled.
This formulation is non-toxic and avoids the problems of conventional drilling muds:
(i) there is no oil or other component
which requires treatment before release into the environment; and,
• It’s innovative applications are increasing and spreading rapidly into all areas of
manufacturing.
• It is already providing useful tools that allow for cleaner, more sustainable
production methods and will continue to do so in the future.
This study has raised some pertinent issues in areas such as relevance of quality
criteria with respect to technology gaps and financial implication of implementing the
technology options. It has also highlighted that several technology options are available
in the country and they need to be exploited to the maximum possible extent so as to
mitigate the increasing environmental hazards as a result of water pollution.
Laying down of the priorities and allocation of funds are necessary because the basic
infrastructure for implementation exist in our country.
The tanneries in future will use a combination of chemical and enzymatic processes.
The potential for use of microbial enzymes in leather processing lies mainly in areas in
which pollution-causing chemicals, such as sodium sulphide, lime and solvents, are
being used and conversion of waste products into potentially saleable by-products is
possible.
Future may witness ecolabelled leather/leather products emerging as niche
products, and the experience gained by the Indian leather industry in this area might
greatly help India to emerge as a global leader in leather industry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY