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Chapter 6

Time-Varying Fields and


Maxwell’s Equations
6-1

Overview
7-1

Fundamental Relations for


Electrostatic and Magnetostatic Models

Fundamental Electrostatic Magnetostatic


Relations Model Model
∇×E = 0 ∇ ⋅B = 0
Governing equations
∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∇ × H =J
Constitutive relations 1
(linear and isotropic media) D =ε E H= B
µ

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6-1

Introduction
‹ In the static (non-time-varying) case, (E , D) and
(B , H) form separate and independent pairs
not related
(E , D) X (B , H)

‹ In a conducting medium, static electric and


magnetic fields may both exist and form an
electromagnetostatic field.
E
σ E
conducting steady current J = σE static H

E medium
E
¾ The magnetic fields is a consequence, it does not
affect the calculation of the electric field.
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6-1

Time-Varying Fields
‹ When the source producing the fields are
changing with time (time-varying)
changing magnetic field electric field
changing electric field magnetic field

‹ Therefore, the fundamental relations for


electrostatic and magnetostatic models need to
be modified to show the mutual dependence
between the E and H fields in the time-varying
case.

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6-2
Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic
Induction
„ electromagnetic induction
„ transformers
„ transformer emf
„ eddy current
„ flux-cutting emf
6-2

Electromagnetic Induction
‹ Michael Faraday discovered experimentally in
1831 that a current was induced in a conducting
loop when the magnetic flux linking the loop
changed.
‹ The quantitative relationship between the
induced electromotive force and the rate of
change of flux linkage is the Faraday’s law.

2006/9/18 7
Fundamental Postulate for
6-2

Electromagnetic Induction
∂B
∇ × E= −
∂t
point-function relationship, applies
to every point in space, whether in
free space or in a material
∂B( x, y, z; t )
∇ × E( x, y, z; t )= −
take surface integral on both
∂t
sides over an open surface S
with a bounding contour C S
∂B
∫S ∇ × E ⋅ ds = ∫S − ∂t ⋅ ds C

Stoke’s theorem can be real or virtual

∂B
v∫C E ⋅ d A = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ ds
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6-2

Electromagnetic Induction
‹ changing magnetic field induces electric field
‹ three different cases to consider the induction
phenomena
¾ a stationary circuit in a time-varying magnetic field
¾ a moving conductor in a static magnetic field
¾ a moving circuit in a time-varying magnetic field

2006/9/18 9
A Stationary Circuit in a Time-Varying
6-2.1

Field

∂B
v∫C E ⋅ d A = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ ds
take ∂/∂t outside the integral

d
v∫C E ⋅ d A = − dt ∫S B ⋅ ds


V =−
dt
V = v∫ E ⋅ d A : emf induced in circuit with contour C
C

Φ = ∫ B ⋅ ds : magnetic flux crossing surface S


S

2006/9/18 10
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
6-2.1

Induction

V =−
dt
‹ the electromotive force induced in a stationary
closed circuit is equal to the negative rate of
increase of the magnetic flux linking the circuit
‹ Lenz’s law : the negative sign asserts that the
induced emf will cause a current to flow in the
closed loop in such a direction as to oppose the
change in the linking magnetic flux
‹ transformer emf : emf induced in a stationary
loop caused by a time-varying magnetic field

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Example 6-1
‹ A circular loop of N turns of conducting wire lies in the xy-plane with its
center at the origin of a magnetic field specified by B = a z B0 cos(π r / 2b)sin ωt ,
where b is the radius of the loop and ω is the angular frequency. Find
the emf induced in the loop.
‹ Solution :

Φ = ∫ B ⋅ ds
S

⎡ πr ⎤
= ∫ ⎢a z B0 cos sin ωt ⎥ ⋅ ( a x 2π rdr )
b

0
⎣ 2b ⎦
8b 2 ⎛ π ⎞
= ⎜ − 1 ⎟ B0 sin ωt
π ⎝2 ⎠

N turns

dΦ 8N 2 ⎛ π ⎞
V = −N =− b ⎜ − 1⎟ B0ω cos ωt
dt π ⎝2 ⎠

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6-2.2

Transformers
an a-c device for
transforming
voltages, currents,
and impedances

ferromagnetic core

N1i1 − N 2i2 = ℜΦ
A
ℜ= : reluctance
µS
A
N1i1 − N 2i2 = Φ
µS
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6-2.2

Ideal Transformer (1)

A
N1i1 − N 2i2 = Φ
µS
µ →∞
ratio of the currents of an
i1 N 2
ideal transformer is equal =
to the inverse ratio of the i2 N1
numbers of turns dΦ dΦ
v1 = N1 , v2 = N 2
dt dt
ratio of the voltages of
v1 N1
an ideal transformer is =
equal to the ratio of the v2 N 2
numbers of turns

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6-2.2

Ideal Transformer (2)


when the secondary winding is terminated in a load
resistance RL
v1 ( N1 / N 2 )v2
( R 1 )eff = =
i1 ( N 2 / N1 )i2

2
⎛ N1 ⎞
( R 1 )eff =⎜ ⎟ RL
⎝ N2 ⎠

2
⎛ N1 ⎞
( Z 1 )eff =⎜ ⎟ ZL
⎝ N2 ⎠

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6-2.2

Real Transformers
‹ existence of leakage flux ( k < 1 )
‹ non-infinite inductance
‹ nonzero winding resistance
‹ presence of hysteresis
‹ eddy current loss
‹ nonlinearity of the ferromagnetic core ( µ(H) )

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6-2.2

Eddy Currents
‹ When time-varying magnetic flux flows in the
ferromagnetic core, the induced emf will produce
local currents in the conducting core normal to
the magnetic flux. These currents are called
eddy currents.
‹ Eddy currents produce ohmic power loss and
cause local heating. As a matter of fact, this is
the principle of induction heating.
‹ Eddy current power loss is undesirable for
transformers and can be reduced by using core
materials with high µ and low σ.
¾ Ferrite is one such material.
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6-2.2

Reduction of Eddy Currents


‹ For low-frequency, high-power applications an
economical way for reducing eddy-current power
loss is to use laminated cores.
¾ use stacked ferromagnetic (iron) sheets to make
transformer core, each sheet is separated by thin
varnish or oxide coating
‹ The insulating coatings are parallel to the
direction of the magnetic flux so that eddy
currents normal to the flux are restricted to the
laminated sheets.
¾ The total eddy-current power loss decreases as the
number of laminations increases.

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6-2.2

Laminated Cores

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A Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic
6-2.3

Field
Fm = qu × B

--
↑ and ⊕ ↓

Coulomb force of attraction


++
between and ⊕

equilibrium state when electric


and magnetic forces balance

At equilibrium, which is reached very rapidly, the net force


on the free charges in the moving conductor is zero.
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6-2.3

Motional emf
To an observer moving with the conductor,
there is no apparent motion

Fm / q = u × B has the same effect as an electric field


a voltage is created
along the conductor
2
V21 = ∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
1

if the moving conductor is


part of a closed circuit C

V ′ = v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
C

flux-cutting emf, motional emf

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Example 6-2 (1)
‹ A metal bar slides over a pair of conducting rails in a uniform magnetic
field B = azB0 with a constant velocity u.
a) determine V0 across the terminals 1 and 2
b) find electric power dissipated in R
c) show that the electric power dissipated in R is equal to the mechanical
power required to move the sliding bar with a velocity u
‹ Solution :

--

++

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Example 6-2 (2)
a) the moving bar generates a flux-cutting emf

V0 = V1 − V2 = v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
C
1′
= ∫ (a x u × a z B0 ) ⋅ (a y d A) = −uB0 h
2′

b) a current I = uB0h/R with flow from 2 to 1 when R is connected

(uB0 h) 2
Pe = I R =2

c) the mechanical force F must balance the magnetic force Fm to move the
sliding bar at a constant velocity
1′
F = −Fm = − I ∫ d A × B = a x IB0 h = a x uB02 h 2 / R
2′

Pm = F ⋅ u = Pe
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Example 6-3 Faraday Disk Generator
‹ A circular metal disk with radius b rotates with a constant angular
velocity ω in a uniform and constant B = azB0. Brush contacts are
provided at the axis and on the rim of the disk. Determine the open-
circuit voltage V0.
‹ Solution :
consider the circuit 122'341'1

only 2'34 moves

only 34 “cuts” the magnetic flux

V0 = v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
4
= ∫ [(aφ rω ) × a z B0 ] ⋅ (a r dr )
3

0 ω B0b 2
= ω B0 ∫ rdr = −
B = azB0 b 2

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A Moving Circuit in a Time-Varying
6-2.4

Magnetic Field (1)


When a charge q moves with velocity u in a region where
both E and B exist, the electromagnetic (EM) force F on q is
given by
F = q (E + u × B) Lorentz’s force equation

To an observer moving with q, there is no apparent motion,


and the force on q can be regarded as caused by an
equivalent electric field E' u

E′ = E + u × B
E
take surface integral on both B S
sides over an open surface S
C
with a bounding contour C
∂B
v∫C E′ ⋅ d A = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ ds + v∫ C (u × B) ⋅ d A
induced emf in the moving motional emf
transformer emf
frame of reference
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A Moving Circuit in a Time-Varying
6-2.4

Magnetic Field (2)

∂B
v∫C
E′ ⋅ d A = − ∫
S ∂t
⋅ ds + v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A
C

designate the left-hand side by

V ′ ≡ v∫ E′ ⋅ d A
C

emf induced in C measured in the moving frame

it can be proved that,

∂B d
−∫ ⋅ ds + v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A = − ∫ B ⋅ ds
S ∂t C dt S

d dΦ
V ′ = − ∫ B ⋅ ds = −
dt S dt
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6-2.4

Division of the Induced emf


‹ The division of the induced emf between the
transformer and the motional parts depends on
the chosen frame of reference.
‹ The transformer and motional emf’s can be
combined together.
¾ calculation of the induced emf needs not separate into
transformer part and motional part
¾ only one equation is necessary

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6-2.4

Applicability of Faraday’s Law


‹ Faraday law that induced emf in a closed circuit
equals the negative time-rate of increase of the
magnetic flux linking a circuit applies to a
stationary circuit as well as a moving one.
¾ If the circuit is not moving, V' reduces to V

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Example 6-4 Faraday Disk Generator
‹ Determine the open-circuit voltage of the Faraday disk generator by
using d dΦ
V ′ = − ∫ B ⋅ ds = −
dt S dt
‹ Solution :

Φ linking the circuit 122'341'1

flux pass through the wedge area 2'342'

Φ = v∫ B ⋅ ds
S

b ωt b2
= B0 ∫ ∫ rdφ dr = B0 (ωt )
0 0 2

dΦ ω B0b 2
B = azB0 V0 = −V ′ = − =−
dt 2
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Example 6-5 (1)
‹ An h by w rectangular conducting loop is situated in a changing
magnetic field B = ayB0sinωt. The normal of the loop initially makes an
angle α with ay. Find the induced emf in the loop :
a) when the loop is at rest
b) when the loop rotates with an angular velocity ω about the x-axis
‹ Solution :

2006/9/18 30
Example 6-5 (2)
a) when the loop is at rest

Φ = ∫ B ⋅ ds = (a y B0 sin ωt ) ⋅ (a n hw) = B0 hw sin ωt cos α


S

S = hw


Va = − = − B0 Sω cos ωt cos α
dt

b) when the loop rotates about the x-axis

1 ⎛ w ⎞
Va ′ = v∫ (u × B) ⋅ d A = ∫ ⎜ a nω ⎟ × (a y B0 sin ωt ) ⋅ (a x dx)
C 2
⎝ 2 ⎠
3⎛ w ⎞
+ ∫ ⎜ −a n ω ⎟ × (a y B0 sin ωt ) ⋅ (a x dx)
sides 23 and 41 do 4
⎝ 2 ⎠
not contribute to Va'
⎛w ⎞
= 2 ⎜ ω B0 sin ωt sin α ⎟ h
⎝2 ⎠

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Example 6-5 (3)
⎛w ⎞
Va ′ = 2 ⎜ ω B0 sin ωt sin α ⎟ h
⎝2 ⎠
if α = 0 at t = 0, then α = ωt

Va ′ = B0 Sω sin ωt sin ωt

Vt ′= Va ′+ Va = − B0 Sω (cos 2 ωt − sin 2 ωt ) = − B0 Sω cos 2ωt


using V ′ = − d
dt ∫S
B ⋅ ds = − directly
dt
1
Φ(t ) = B(t ) ⋅ [a n (t ) S ] = B0 S sin ωt cos α = B0 S sin ωt cos ωt = B0 S sin 2ωt
2

dΦ d ⎛1 ⎞
Vt ′= − = − ⎜ B0 S sin 2ωt ⎟ = − B0 Sω cos 2ωt
dt dt ⎝ 2 ⎠

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6-3

Maxwell’s Equations

„ Faraday’s law
„ Ampere’s circuital law
„ Gauss’s law
„ no isolated magnetic charge
„ integral form of Maxwell’s equations
6-3

Maxwell’s Equations (1)


‹ The fundamental postulate for electromagnetic
induction assures that a time-varying magnetic
field induces an electric field.
‹ The ∇×E = 0 equation is replaced by Faraday’s
law ∂B
∇×E = − ∇×H = J
∂t (6-40)
∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∇⋅B = 0
‹ The relationship between the sources charge and
current is the continuity equation representing the
principle of conservation of charge
∂ρv
∇⋅J = −
∂t
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6-3

Maxwell’s Equations (2)


‹ Certain equation (one, or maybe more) in (6-40)
needs to be modified further in order to be
consistent with continuity equation.
¾ because continuity equation is a conservation law
‹ Which equation needs to be modified?
∇×H = J

contradicts ∂ρv
∇ ⋅ (∇ × H ) ≡ 0 = ∇ ⋅ J ∇⋅J = −
∂t
modified
∂ρv
∇ ⋅ (∇ × H ) = 0 = ∇ ⋅ J +
∂t
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6-3

Maxwell’s Equations (3)


∂ρv
∇ ⋅ (∇ × H ) = 0 = ∇ ⋅ J +
∂t
∇ ⋅ D = ρv
∂D
∇ ⋅ (∇ × H ) = ∇ ⋅ (J + )
∂t
a time-varying electric
∂D
field will give rise to a ∇×H = J +
magnetic field even ∂t
when the current
density is zero

∂D
: displacement current density (A/m2)
∂t
adding the ∂D/∂t term in the ∇×H = 0 equation is one of the major
contribution of James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
2006/9/18 36
6-3

Foundation of Electromagnetic Theory


‹ Maxwell’s equations
∂B ∂D
∇×E = − ∇×H = J +
∂t ∂t
∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∇⋅B = 0
convection current ρvu
J : density of free current
conduction current σE
ρv : volume density of free charge
‹ Continuity equation
∂ρv explain and predict
∇⋅J = −
∂t ALL macroscopic
EM phenomena
‹ Lorentz’s force equation
F = q (E + u × B )

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6-3

Solving Maxwell’s Equations


‹ The 4 Maxwell’s equations are consistent, but
they are not all independent.
‹ In fact, the two divergence equations can be
derived from the two curl equations using the
continuity equation.
only two equations but four unknowns constitutive relations

∂B
∇×E = −
∂t E, D, B, H D = ε E , B = µH
∂D
∇×H = J +
∂t sufficient
for the
solution

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6-3.1

Integral Form of Maxwell’s Equations


‹ The four Maxwell’s equations are differential
equations that are valid at every point in space.
‹ The differential form of equations represent the
microscopic behavior of EM fields.
‹ In dealing with EM phenomena in a large scale, it
is often necessary to integrate the differential
equations into integral form to indicate the
macroscopic behavior of EM fields.
¾ Take surface integrals of the two curl equations and
apply the Stoke’s theorem.
¾ Take volume integrals of the two divergence equations
and apply the divergence theorem.
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6-3.1

Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Form

∂B
v∫
C
E ⋅ d A = −∫
S ∂t
⋅ ds Faraday’s law of EM induction

∂D
v∫C H ⋅ d A = ∫S (J + ∂t ) ⋅ ds Ampere’s circuital law

v∫S
D ⋅ ds = ∫ ρv ⋅ dv
V
Gauss’s law

v∫ B ⋅ ds = 0
S
no name

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6-3.1

Maxwell’s Equations

Differential Form Integral Form Significance

∂B ∂Φ
∇×E = −
∂t
v∫ C E ⋅ d A = − ∂ t Faraday’s law

∂D ∂D
v∫ ∫
Ampere’s
∇×H = J+ H ⋅dA = I + ⋅ ds
∂t C S ∂t circuital law

∇ ⋅ D = ρv v∫ S
D ⋅ ds = Q Gauss’s law

v∫ B ⋅ ds = 0 no isolated
∇⋅B = 0 S magnetic charge


V
ρv ⋅ dv = Q ∫ J ⋅ ds = I
S

2006/9/18 41
Example 6-6 (1)
‹ An a-c voltage source vc = V0sinωt is connected across a parallel-plate
capacitor C1.
a) Verify that the displacement current in the capacitor is the same as the
conduction current in the wires.
b) Determine the magnetic field intensity at a distance r from the wire.
‹ Solution :
a) conduction current in the connecting wire
dvC
S2 iC = C1 = C1V0ω cos ωt
S1 dt
capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor
A
C1 = ε
d

vc V
D =εE =ε = ε 0 sin ωt
d d
2006/9/18 42
Example 6-6 (2)
a) displacement current

∂D ⎛ A⎞
iD = ∫ ⋅ ds = ⎜ ε ⎟V0ω cos ωt = C1V0ω cos ωt = iC
A ∂t
⎝ d⎠

b) H at a distance r can be found from Ampere’s circuit law to contour C


∂D
v∫
C
H ⋅ d A = ∫ (J +
S ∂t
) ⋅ ds

Two typical open surfaces with rim C may be chosen


(1) planar disk surface S1

v∫ C
H ⋅ d A = 2π rH φ = ∫ J ⋅ ds = iC = C1V0ω cos ωt
S1

(2) curved surface S2 passing through the plates

∂D
v∫ C
H ⋅ d A = 2π rH φ = ∫
S2 ∂t
⋅ ds = iD = C1V0ω cos ωt

2006/9/18 43
Example 6-6 (3)
b) therefore,
C1 H φ
Hφ = ω cos ωt
2π r

If not for the presence of the displacement current density in Ampere’s


circuit law, the results would be dependent on the choice of surface S,
which is a contradiction.

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6-3.2

Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions


‹ In order to solve EM problems involving
contiguous regions of different materials, it is
necessary to know the boundary conditions that
the field vectors must satisfy at the interface.
‹ Boundary conditions are derived by applying the
integral form of Maxwell’s equations to a small
region at an interface of two media.

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6-3.2

Tangential Components

∂B
v∫ abcda E ⋅ d A = E1 ⋅ ∆w + E2 ⋅ (−∆w ) = − ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS
∂B
∆w a
∆h → 0 ⇒ S → 0 ⇒ ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS = 0
b E1t = E2t
∆h d
c
∂D
v∫ abcda H ⋅ d A = H1 ⋅ ∆w + H 2 ⋅ (−∆w) = ∫S J ⋅ dS + ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS
∂D
∆h → 0 ⇒ S → 0 ⇒ ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS = 0
H1t ∆w − H 2t ∆w = J sn ∆w

a n 2 × (H1 − H 2 ) = J s
2006/9/18 46
6-3.2

Normal Components

v∫
S
D ⋅ ds = (D1 ⋅ a n 2 + D2 ⋅ a n1 )∆S = Q = v∫ ρ s ds = ρ s ∆S
S

∂B
anEn
∆h → 0 ⇒ S → 0 ⇒ ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS = 0
E

∆S ρs a n 2 ⋅ (D1 − D2 ) = ρ s

v∫ B ⋅ ds = (B ⋅ a
S
1 n2 + B 2 ⋅ a n1 )∆S = 0
∂D
∆h → 0 ⇒ S → 0 ⇒ ∫S ∂t ⋅ dS = 0
B1n = B2 n

2006/9/18 47
6-3.2

General Statements About BC


‹ tangential component of an E field is continuous
across an interface
‹ tangential component of an H field is discontinuous
across an interface where a surface current exists
¾ the amount of discontinuity is equal to the surface
current density
‹ normal component of a D field is discontinuous
across an interface where a surface charge exists
¾ the amount of discontinuity is equal to the surface
charge density
‹ normal component of a B field is continuous across
an interface
2006/9/18 48
6-3.2

Equivalence Between BC
‹ As noted previously, the two divergence
equations can be derived from the two curl
equations and the continuity equation.
‹ Therefore, the two conditions for normal
components cannot be independent from the two
conditions for tangential components.
‹ As a matter of fact, in time-varying case,
E1t = E2t ⇔ B1n = B2 n
equivalent
a n 2 × (H1 − H 2 ) = J s ⇔ a n 2 ⋅ (D1 − D2 ) = ρ s
¾ simultaneous specification of Et and Bn would be
redundant and could result in contradiction if not
careful
2006/9/18 49
6-3.2

Interface Between Two Lossless Media

lossless σ=0 ρs = 0 and Js = 0

D1t ε1
E1t = E2t → =
D2t ε 2
B1t µ1
H1t = H 2t → =
B2t µ2
D1n = D2 n → ε1 E1n = ε 2 E2 n
B1n = B2 n → µ1 H1n = µ2 H 2 n

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Interface Between a Dielectric and a
6-3.2

Perfect Conductor
‹ Good conductors are often considered perfect
electric conductor (PEC) in regard to BC.
¾ σ Æ ∞ for PEC
‹ In the interior of a PEC, the E field is zero, or else
it would produce an infinite current density.
¾ B and H are also zero through Maxwell’s equations.
on the dielectric side (1) on the conductor side (2)
E1t = 0 E2t = 0
outward normal
a n 2 × H1 = J s H 2t = 0
from medium 2
a n 2 ⋅ D1 = ρ s D2 n = 0
B1n = 0 B2 n = 0
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6-3.2

Additional Comments
‹ When the materials have finite conductivities,
currents flowing in the material are expressed in
terms of volume current density.
¾ surface current density defined for current flowing
through an infinitesimal thickness is zero
‹ Therefore, the tangential components of H is
continuous across an interface with a conductor
having finite conductivity.

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6-3.2

Importance of BC
‹ Boundary conditions are of basic importance in
the solution of EM problems.
¾ General solutions of Maxwell’s equations carry little
meaning until they are adapted to physical problems
each with a given region and associated BC.
‹ Maxwell’s equations are partial differential
equations and their solutions will contain
integration constants that are determined from
the additional information supplied by BC.
¾ Therefore, each solution will be unique for each given
problem.

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6-4

Potential Functions

„ magnetic vector potential


„ electric scalar potential
„ wave equations
„ Lorentz gauge
6-4

Potential Functions
‹ Maxwell’s equations are a set of coupled partial
differential equations.
‹ If we try to solve for E and H directly from the
equations, it would be a very difficult process and
the results are very complicated.
‹ Therefore, we can make use of some auxiliary
potential functions to simplify the process of
obtaining the fields in terms of the sources.
¾ The use of potential functions is purely mathematical.
¾ Electric and magnetic fields obtained through the
potential functions must still obey the Maxwell’s
equations.
2006/9/18 55
6-4

Vector Magnetic Potential


∇⋅B = 0
vector identity ∇ ⋅∇× A ≡ 0

B = ∇× A
from Faraday’s law
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t


∇×E = − (∇ × A)
∂t

∂A
∇ × (E + )=0
∂t
2006/9/18 56
6-4

Scalar Electric Potential


∂A
∇ × (E + )=0
∂t
vector identity ∇ × ∇V ≡ 0

∂A
E+ = −∇V
∂t

∂A
E = −∇V −
∂t
∂A
in static case =0
∂t

E = −∇V

2006/9/18 57
6-4

Derivation of Equations for Potentials


∂D
∇×H = J +
∂t
B = µH , D = ε E

∂E
∇ × B = µ J + µε
∂t
∂A
B = ∇× A , E = −∇V −
∂t
∂ ∂A
∇ × ∇ × A = µ J + µε (−∇V − )
∂t ∂t

⎛ ∂V ⎞ ∂ 2
A
∇(∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ A = µ J − ∇ ⎜ µε
2
⎟ − µε 2
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
2006/9/18 58
6-4

Lorentz Condition
∂2A ⎛ ∂V ⎞
∇ A − µε 2 = − µ J + ∇ ⎜ ∇ ⋅ A + µε
2

∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
a coupled equation between the two unknowns A and V

The definition of a vector A requires the specification of both its curl


and divergence.
∇× A = B , ∇⋅A = ?
In order to simplify this equation, we can choose whatever the value
of ∇·A, as long as the choice will result in a simpler equation form.

∂V
∇ ⋅ A + µε =0
∂t
Lorentz condition, Lorentz gauge

2006/9/18 59
6-4

Wave Equation for Vector Potential

∂2A ⎛ ∂V ⎞
∇ A − µε 2 = − µ J + ∇ ⎜ ∇ ⋅ A + µε
2

∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂V
∇ ⋅ A + µε =0
∂t

∂ 2
A
∇ A − µε 2 = − µ J
2

∂t

2006/9/18 60
6-4

Wave Equation for Scalar Potential


∇ ⋅ D = ρv
∂A
E = −∇V −
∂t

⎛ ∂A ⎞
−∇ ⋅ ε ⎜ ∇V + ⎟ = ρv
⎝ ∂t ⎠

∂ ρ
∇ V + (∇ ⋅ A) = −
2

∂t ε
∂V
∇ ⋅ A + µε =0
∂t

∂ 2V ρv
∇ V − µε 2 = −
2

∂t ε
2006/9/18 61
6-4.1

Solutions of Wave Equations


‹ Maxwell’s equations give a complete description
of the relation between electromagnetic fields
and sources (charge and current distributions).
¾ Wave equations for potentials are derived from
Maxwell’s equations.
‹ Solutions for wave equations provide the
answers to all electromagnetic problems.
¾ However, in most cases the solutions are difficult to
obtain.
¾ Special analytical and numerical techniques may be
devised to aid in the solution procedure; but they do
not add to or refine the fundamental structure.

2006/9/18 62
6-4.1

Solutions of Wave Equations for Potentials


∂ 2
V ρv
z ∇ V − µε 2 = −
2

∂t ε
∂ ∂
R =0 , =0
θ ∂φ ∂θ

ρ v (t )dv′ y
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂V ⎞ ∂ 2V
φ ⎜R ⎟ − µε 2 = 0
x
R ∂R ⎝ ∂R ⎠
2
∂t
for an elemental point charge
ρv(t)dv' located at the origin change of variable

1
symmetry
V ( R, t ) = U ( R, t )
V depends only on R
R
and t but not θ and φ 1-D homogeneous
wave equation
∂ 2U ∂ 2U
∂ ∂ − µε 2 = 0
∂φ
=0 ,
∂θ
=0 ∂R 2
∂t
2006/9/18 63
6-4.1

Solution of Wave Equation

∂ 2U ∂ 2U
− µε 2 = 0 non-physical, to
∂R 2
∂t be proved later

U ( R, t ) = C1 f (t − R µε ) + C2 g (t + R µε )
C1 , C2 : integration constant
f , g : any twice-differentiable function

a wave traveling in U ( R, t ) = f (t − R µε )
the +R direction with
a velocity u p = 1/ µε

2006/9/18 64
6-4.1

Proof of the Solution

∂U df (t − R µε ) ∂ (t − R µε )
= ⋅ = f ′(t − R µε )
∂t d (t − R µε ) ∂t
∂ 2U
= f ′′(t − R µε )
∂t 2

∂U df (t − R µε ) ∂ (t − R µε )
= ⋅ = − µε f ′(t − R µε )
∂R d (t − R µε ) ∂R
∂ 2U
= µε f ′′(t − R µε )
∂R 2

∂ 2U ∂ 2U
− µε 2 = 0
∂R 2
∂t

2006/9/18 65
6-4.1

Wave Function
U ( R + ∆R, t + ∆t ) = f [t + ∆t − ( R + ∆R ) µε ]
= f [(t − R µε ) − (∆t − ∆R µε )]

if ∆t = ∆R µε = ∆R / u p

U ( R + ∆R, t + ∆t ) = f (t − R µε ) = U ( R, t )
the function U(R, t) : wave function
retains its form
if ∆t = ∆R/u u p = 1/ µε : velocity of propagation

1
V ( R, t ) = f (t − R / u p )
R
2006/9/18 66
6-4.1

The Function Form of f

for a static point charge ρv(t)∆v' at the origin

ρv (t )∆v′
∆V ( R ) =
4πε R
1
from comparison V ( R, t ) = f (t − R / u p )
R

ρv (t − R / u p )∆v′
∆f (t − R / u p ) =
4πε

1 ρv (t − R / u p )
4πε ∫
V ( R, t ) = dv′
V′ R

2006/9/18 67
6-4.1

Retarded Potentials

1 ρv (t − R / u p )
4πε ∫
V ( R, t ) = dv′
V′ R
V(R, t ) : retarded scalar potential

V at a distance R from the source at time t depends


on the value of ρ at an earlier time t – R /up

g (t + R µε ) can not be a physically meaningful solution

following the same procedure

µ J (t − R / u p )
A ( R, t ) =
4π ∫V ′ R dv′
2006/9/18 68
6-5

Time-Harmonic Fields
„ use of phasor
„ time-harmonic electromagnetics
„ vector phasor
„ Helmholtz’s equation
„ simple media
„ classification of materials
„ the electromagnetic spectrum
6-5

Time-Harmonic Fields
‹ Maxwell’s equations and all the equations
derived from them hold for EM quantities with an
arbitrary time-dependence.
¾ The actual type of time functions of the field quantities
depends on the source quantities ρ and J.
‹ However, for real engineering problems, arbitrary
time dependence is very difficult to handle.
‹ In engineering, sinusoidal time functions occupy
a unique position and they are easy to generate.
¾ periodic time functions can be expanded into Fourier
series of harmonic sinusoidal components
¾ transient non-periodic time functions can be expressed
as Fourier integrals
2006/9/18 70
6-5

Principle of Superposition
‹ Since Maxwell’s equations are linear differential
equations, sinusoidal time variations of source
quantities of a given frequency will produce
sinusoidal variations of E and H with the same
frequency in the steady state.
‹ For source quantities with an arbitrary time
dependence, electrodynamic fields can be
determined in terms of those caused by the
various frequency components of the sources.
‹ Application of the principle of superposition will
give the total fields.

2006/9/18 71
6-5.1

The Use of Phasors – A Review


‹ time-harmonic fields sinusoidal time variation
‹ For time-harmonic fields, it is convenient to use a
phasor notation.
‹ The instantaneous (time-dependent) expression
of a sinusoidal scalar quantity, such as a current i,
can be written as either a cosine or sine function.
¾ If we choose a cosine function as the reference, then
all derived results will refer to the cosine function.
‹ The specification of a sinusoidal quantity requires
the knowledge of three parameters : amplitude,
frequency, and phase

2006/9/18 72
6-5.1

Inconvenience of cosine Function


angular frequency

i (t ) = I cos(ωt + φ )

amplitude phase

‹ To work with an instantaneous expression such


as the cosine (or sine) function is inconvenient
when differentiation or integration is involved.
d d
cos ωt = − sin ωt , sin ωt = cos ωt
dt dt
¾ combining cos and sin is very tedious

2006/9/18 73
Trouble of Dealing Directly with cosine or
6-5.1

sine Function
R L C

di 1
~ e(t)
i(t) L + Ri + ∫ idt = e(t )
dt C
i (t ) = I cos(ωt + φ )

⎡ 1 ⎤
I ⎢ −ω L sin(ωt + φ ) + R cos(ωt + φ ) + sin(ωt + φ ) ⎥ = E cos ωt
⎣ ωC ⎦

complicated!!

2006/9/18 74
6-5.1

Phasors Are Relatively Easy


e(t ) = E cos ωt = ℜe[( Ee j 0 )e jωt ] = ℜe( Es e jωt ) , Es = Ee j 0 = E

i (t ) = ℜe[( Ie jφ )e jωt ] = ℜe( I s e jωt ) , I s = Ie jφ

di I s jωt
dt
= ℜe( jω I s e jωt ) , ∫ idt = ℜe( jω e )
for the series RLC circuit,
di 1
L + Ri + ∫ idt = e(t )
dt C

⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
⎢R + j ⎜ωL − ⎟ ⎥ I s = Es easy!!
⎣ ⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎦
2006/9/18 75
Example 6-7
‹ Write the phasor expression Is for the following current function using a
cosine reference.
a) i(t) = – I0 cos(ωt – 30°)
b) i(t) = I0 sin(ωt + 0.2π)
‹ Solution :
for cosine reference,
i (t ) = ℜe( I s e jωt )
a)
i (t ) = − I 0 cos(ωt − 30°) = ℜe[(− I 0 e − j 30° )e jωt ]

I s = − I 0 e − j 30° = − I 0 e − jπ / 6 = − I 0 e j 5π / 6
b)
i (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt + 0.2π ) = ℜe[( I 0 e j 0.2π )e − jπ / 2 ⋅ e jωt ]

I s = I 0 (e j 0.2π )e − jπ / 2 = I 0 e − j 0.3π
2006/9/18 76
Example 6-8
‹ Write the instantaneous expression v(t) for the following phasors using a
cosine reference.
a) Vs = V0 e jπ / 4
b) Vs = 3 – j4
‹ Solution :
a)

v(t ) = ℜe(Vs e jωt ) = ℜe[(V0 e jπ / 4 )e jωt ] = V0 cos(ωt + π / 4)


b)
j tan −1 ( −4 / 3)
Vs 3 − j 4 = 3 + 4 e
2 2
= 5e − j 53.1°

v(t ) = ℜe(Vs e jωt ) = ℜe[(5e − j 53.1° )e jωt ] = 5cos(ωt − 53.1°)

2006/9/18 77
6-5.2

Time-Harmonic Electromagnetics

E( x, y, z , t ) = ℜe[E( x, y, z )e jωt ]

∂E( x, y, z , t )
∂t
= jω E( x, y, z ) , ∫ E( x, y, z, t )dt = E( x, y, z ) / jω
∂B
∇×E = − ∇ × E = − jωµ H
∂t
∂D
∇×H = J + ∇ × H = J + jωε E
∂t in a simple medium

∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∇ ⋅ E = ρv / ε

∇⋅B = 0 ∇⋅H = 0
2006/9/18 78
6-5.2

Helmholtz’s Equations and Solutions


Helmholtz’s equations
ρv
∇ 2V + k 2V = − , ∇2A + k 2A = −µJ
ε
ω
2π f 2π
k = ω µε = = = : wave number
up u λ
Lorentz condition

∇ ⋅ A + jωµεV = 0

phasor solutions of Helmholtz’s equations

1 ρv e − jkR µ Je − jkR
V ( R) =
4πε ∫
V′ R
dv′ , A( R ) =
4π ∫V ′ R dv′

2006/9/18 79
6-5.2

Complete Solution Procedure


‹ Find phasors V(R) and A(R)

1 ρv e − jkR µ Je − jkR
V ( R) =
4πε ∫
V′ R
dv′ , A( R ) =
4π ∫V ′ R dv′
‹ Find phasors E(R) and B(R)

E( R ) = −∇V ( R) − jω A( R) , B( R ) = ∇ × A( R )

‹ Find instantaneous E(R,t) and B(R, t)

E( R, t ) = ℜe[E( R )e jωt ] , B( R, t ) = ℜe[B( R )e jωt ]

2006/9/18 80
6-5.3

Source-Free Wave Equations


‹ For problems of wave propagation, we are
concerned with the behavior of an EM wave in a
source-free region where ρ and J are both zero.
‹ In other words, we are often not interested at
how an EM wave is originated (antenna problem),
but how the EM wave propagates (propagation
problem).

2006/9/18 81
6-5.3

Homogeneous Wave Equations


in a simple (linear, isotropic, and homogeneous) non-conducting
medium
∂H ∂E
∇ × E = −µ ∇×H = ε
∂t ∂t
∇⋅E = 0 ∇⋅H = 0

∂ ∂ 2E
∇ × ∇ × E = − µ (∇ × H ) = − µε 2
∂t ∂t
∂ ∂2H
∇ × ∇ × H = ε (∇ × E) = − µε 2
∂t ∂t
∇ × ∇ × H = ∇(∇ ⋅ H ) − ∇ 2 H = −∇ 2 H ∇ × ∇ × E = ∇(∇ ⋅ E) − ∇ 2E = −∇ 2E
0 0
∂ 2E 1 ∂ 2E ∂ 2
H 1 ∂ 2
H
∇ E − µε 2 = ∇ E − 2 2 = 0 , ∇ 2 H − µε 2 = ∇ 2 H − 2 2 = 0
2 2

∂t u p ∂t ∂t u p ∂t
2006/9/18 82
6-5.3

Time-Harmonic Source-Free Fields

1 ∂ 2
E 1 ∂ 2
H
∇ E− 2 2 = 0 , ∇ H− 2 2 = 0
2 2

u p ∂t u p ∂t

⇒ jω
∂t
ω2 ω2
∇2Es + 2
Es = 0 , ∇ 2 H s + 2
Hs = 0
u p u p
ω
k=
up

∇2Es + k 2Es = 0 , ∇ 2 H s + k 2 H s = 0

2006/9/18 83
6-5.3

Electromagnetic Spectrum
‹ Maxwell’ equations, and therefore the wave and
Helmholtz’s equations, impose no limit on the
frequency of the waves.
‹ All electromagnetic waves in whatever frequency
range propage in a medium with the same
velocity u = 1/ µε
¾ c ≈ 3 x 108 m/s in air

2006/9/18 84
6-5.3

Electromagnetic Spectrum
2006/9/18 85
6-5.3

Band Designations for Microwaves


Old New Frequency Ranges (GHz)

Ka K 26.5 – 40
K K 20 – 26.5
K J 18 – 20
Ku J 12.4 – 18
X J 10 – 12.4
X I 8 – 10
C H 6–8
C G 4–6
S F 3–4
S E 2–3
L D 1–2
UHF C 0.5 – 1

2006/9/18 86

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