Metal Science and Heat Treatment
11 - 12, 1998
SCIENTIFIC HERITAGE OF A. P. GULYAEV
A. P Gulyaev belongs to the category of scientists who
possess a universal knowledge in the field of metal science. In
fact his thought worked in virtually any direction the science
developed. He has equally mastered the problems of diffusion
in solid bodies, alloying, strength and fracture, toughness
and brittleness, plasticity and superplasticity, deformation,
and heat and chemical heat treatment. He had a rare girl of
foreseeing the results, determining the essence of the prob-
lems, and making an optimum experiment. Therefore, virtu-
ally all his works present undoubted scientific and methodo-
COLD T R E A T M E N T OF STEEL
A . P. G u l y a e v
Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 11, pp. 19 - 26, November, 1998.
INTRODUCTION
It had been shown over 30 years ago that cooling of a
quenched steel to a negative temperature causes an additional
formation o f martensite at the expense of retained austenite.
However, this concept has been doubted quite often. For ex-
ample, the known researchers Nilsen and Dowdell [1]
showed in 1934 that high-speed steels do not experience this
transformation.
In 1936 I undertook a study of the transformation below
0~ The obtained purely theoretical dependences allowed
me in 1937 to pose a question of how expedient it is to apply
cold treatment to tool steels.
In [2] a standard high-speed steel of grade R was shown
to experience a transformation of retained austenite into
martensite in cooling to a negative temperature which was
determinable by magnetic and dilatometric analyses and
measurement of the hardness hut undeterminable at the mi-
crostructural level.
It has been shown in the same work that it is not neces-
sary to use a treatment to - 183~ a sufficient temperature is
about - 70~ which is easier to provide. This obstacle deter-
mined the possibility of a wide-range application of cold
treatment.
At the same time, it was noted that "the growth of the
hardness (in cold treatment) is a very advantageous prospect
for practice and the heat treatment connected with cooling to
a temperature below 0~ which can he used as a new method
for tool steels" [2].
It was then shown that the application of the method can
be extended to other steels, i.e., ball bearing (ShKh-15) and
carbon (U-12) steels.
449
Vol. 40, Nos.
logical interest. During his 70-year scientifu: activity he pub-
lished over 400 works devoted to various problems of metal
science. Below we present three of them which characterize
his research for almost 40 years, namely, "Cold treatment of
steel" (Vestnik Inzhenerov i Tekhnikov, No. 4 - 5, pp. 1 4 0 -
147, 1946), "'The theory of high-speed steel" (Stanki i In-
strument, No. 2 - 3, pp. 14 - 19, 1946), and "Fundamentals
of the science of powder alloys" (Metallovedenie i Ter-
micheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 11, pp. 25 - 33, 1988).
For the first time the use of cold treatment was shown to
have a practical importance, namely, it was shown that:
(a) cooling to a negative temperature causes a transfor-
mation of retained austenite in widely used tool steels (high-
speed, carbon, ball-bearing, etc.), which increases the hard-
ness; this circumstance makes it possible to recommend the
new method of heat treatment, and
(b) the actual kinds o f steel do not require exceedingly
low temperatures (for example, the use of liquid oxygen hav-
ing a temperature -183~ it is sufficient to use dry ice
(fi'om - 70 to - 80~
Thus, the conduction of heat treatment moves to a new
temperature range down the temperature scale.
However, we were still short o f data on the transforma-
tions at negative temperatures. It was obvious for us that the
problem required a detailed study [2].
In the end of 1937 and in the middle of 1938 two more
works appeared on the transformations at a sub-zero tempera-
ture.
A study of three high-carbon alloys made by Bigeev [3]
showed that at a temperature below 0~ austenite transforms
into martensite. A novel moment of the work consisted in that
a hold at a room temperature created a certain hysteresis pro-
portionai to this hold.
In 1938 N. Minkevich, O. Ivanov, and Ya, Dovgalevskii
[4] established that cooling to a negative temperature causes a
transformation ofaustenite into martensite in standard steel of
.grade R and in high-chromium substitutors (in steels 1~I-173 and
EI-184).
The main theoretical data requisite for practical use were
published in 1939 in [5] by the author of the present paper.
0026-0673/98/I 112-0449520.00 9 1999 Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers
450
The transformation of austenite into martensite at nega-
tive temperatures was studied in detail for three high-alloy
steels, namely, high-speed steel R, high-chromium steel
(Kh- 12), and silchrome (SKh- 12) [5].
It was shown in this work that:
(a) the martensite transformation in steel develops in a
specific temperature range. Starting from the point of the be-
ginning of marten.site transformation it occurs to the point of
the end of the martensite transformation. Today these points
are denoted as follows (as suggested by American scientists):
the point at which the martensite transformation starts is de-
noted Ms and the point when it finishes is denoted My. At
that time it was shown for the first time that in addition to the
point of the end of the martensite transformation a steel pos-
sesses a critical point lying below 0~
(b) the temperature of the end of martensite transforma-
tion (My) depends on the composition of the steel (austenite)
and, for the majority of actual steels, is equal from - 100~
to - 70~ For the transformation to be the most complete,
cooling to this temperature is enough; a deeper cooling be-
low the point Mf does not increase the fullness of the trans-
formation;
(c) the transformation of austenite into martensite occurs
only in cooling; a hold at a low temperature or a repeated
cooling do not cause an additional formation ofmartensite af-
ter the steel acquires a temperature corresponding to the
point My;
(d) only an immediate cooling after quenching promotes
the maximum possible transformation of austenite. Stabiliza-
tion of austenite observed in aging at a room temperature
does not affect the temperature of the end of martensite trans-
formation but diminishes the effect of cooling to negative
temperatures.
In 1937 I suggested [6] testing cold treated tools and es-
tablished that their cutting properties improved, especially in
operation in finishing turnings.
After 1939 cold treatment was used in the industry but
not at a large scale.
At the present time, many plants have turned to using this
method which has largely been stimulated by data obtained
recently in the USA.
The cited works [5, 6] began to be known in America in
1940- 1941.
On getting acquainted with my works [3, 6] the known
American researchers Gordon and Cohen studied the trans-
formation of austenite in high-speed steel below 0~ On the
whole, their data published in 1942 [7] confirmed my conclu-
sions fully.
The vice-president of the American Metals Society, Jill,
wrote in [8] that the first work on the problem made in the
USA was that of Gordon and Cohen in 1942. They wrote in
their work that the data obtained by them in measuring the
hardness, the volume changes, and the magnetic permeability
confirm the conclusions of engineer Gulyaev.
Starting from 1943- 1944 American technical journals
presented much data on the use of cold treatment in this or
A. E Gulyaev
that area. As a rule, they mentioned that the method began to
be used in the Soviet Union after experiments on the transfor-
mation in steels below 0~
For example, Berlien [9] writes, "works on transforma-
tions below 0~ have been conducted by Gordon and Cohen
in the Technological Institute and Gulyaev in Russia. Their
results were used for treating numerous steel parts."
Cold treatment (sub-zero treatment) had found wide ap-
plication in the USA. In April, 1944 De-Poit wrote that the
range of the process seemed to be unlimited and a cooling in-
stallation would soon be in every heat treatment shop.
As a rule, the priority of Soviet scientists was acknow-
ledged in public by Americans.
It is natural that the wide use o f sub-zero treatment o f
steel in America could not but be noticed by Soviet engineers
and practical specialists, especially since the problem had
been well studied in the country. In the beginning of
1946 most of large machine building plants (for example,
ZIS, GAZ, aircraft plants) used the method for a wide range
of parts and tools.
It turned out that the application range o f the method was
much wider that had been expected by the author in 1937 [2].
Since the cold treatment of high-speed steels had been stud-
ied well, it could be expected that it would be applied not
only to tools, but also to cemented parts from carbon and al-
loy steels.
MARTENSITE TRANSFORMATION
In cooling from the gamma-region which should be so
rapid that the eutectoid transformation ofaustenite did not oc-
cur, a special transformation begins at a specific temperature
which is now known as martensite transformation.
In martensite transformation carbon does not segregate
from the iron lattice and the iron gamma-lattice transfers into
an alpha-lattice. The transformation occurs without the mo-
tion of atoms, rather only by displacement o f iron atoms to a
distance not exceeding the interatomic distances; therefore
the transformation can be called a d i f f u s i o n I e s s one.
Consequently, martensite is a s o I i d s o I u t i o n o f
c a r b o n i n a I p h a - i r o n having the spacings o f the lat-
tice of the alpha-iron distorted in direct proportion to the
carbon content in the solution. The carbon concentration in
martensite is equal to that in austenite.
The temperature at which martensite begins to be formed
(the point Ms ) depends solely on the composition of the in-
itial austenite and on the content of carbon and alloying ele-
ments in it and in the formed martensite.
The beginning of the martensite transformation is charac-
terized by the formation of the first portions of martensite
"needles." In fact, I established that the existing opinion in
which martensite has a needle structure is far from being true.
A martensite "needle" is a plate and has the shape of a needle
only in the plane of the cross section. Ifmartensite formation
begins at a temperature at which martensite tempering o c c u r s
slowly (i.e., virtually at a temperature below 100~ it turns
out that, isothermally, the process of martensite formation
Cold Treatment of Steel 451

does not occur, i.e., martensite is formed only in cooling from

point M, to point Mr.
The amount of martensite formed in cooling is described 80 "~
bythemartensite c u r v e presented in Fig. 1.
70 f
We can see from the curve that in cooling the transforma-
0~ 6o
tion begins at M (Ar"), the temperature of which determines
'~ 50
that o f the beginning o f the austenite-to-martensite transfor-
marion in the given steel and is called the point of the marten-
site transformation 21,/,. 30
As the temperature diminishes, the transformation pro- 21)
gresses and the amount of martensite grows. The transforma- 10
tion stops at a temperature t " (the point My). At this tem- I

perature a certain amount of austenite is still retained (,4' %). 20

FF

Cooling below the point My does not make the transforma- Temperature, ~
tion develop further and does not decrease the amount of re- Fig. I. Martensite curve.
tained austenite. If My lies below normal room temperature,
A - A ' % of retained austenite can be transformed in cooling
below 20~ (from 20~ to t " ). 90O

The composition of the steel affects most substantially 8ot? Illll

* Esser, Eilender a n d Speckle
the temperature points of the martensite transformation. The 700 - - ~ - * Weffer a n d Engel
growth of the carbon content diminishes the points of the be- 600 ! * H a n n e m a n a n d Wister
v Gulyaev
ginning and end of the martensite transformation increasing,
8 Steinberg
the amount of retained austenite. 500'
For example, f o r a c a r b o n steel (0.3% C)we ~ ,00K 1 -
have
b e g i n n i n g o f m a r t e n s i t e transformation . . . . . . . + 350~
end o f m a r t e n s i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . + 200~ 2oo M ~o
a m o u n t o f retained austenite (at 0~ ......... 2 - 3%

Forsteel with 1.17% C wehave 0 %

b e g i n n i n g o f m a r t e n s i t e transformation . . . . . . . + 180~
e n d o f m a r t e n s i t e transformation . . . . . . . . . . - 140~ -I00 '~
a m o u n t o f retained austenite at 0 ~ . . . . . . . . . . . 20~ - 200
" " at- I40~ ........... 10% 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
C,%
Since in carbon steel having 0.3% C the end ofmartensite Fig. 2. Martensite diagram. The temperature o f the b e g i n n i n g o f martensite
transformation lies above 0~ cooling below 0~ does not transformation d e p e n d s on the carbon contenL
cause the formation o f martensite. In steel having 1.17% C
the point o f the end o f martensite transformation lies below
- 140~ and cooling to this temperature causes the formation For steels having over 0.6% carbon the range of the
of martensite which should have a corresponding effect on martensite transformation goes to the region of negative tem-
the properties. peratures and cooling below 0~ will cause the formation of
The general law o f the influence of carbon on the tem- martensite.
peratures of the beginning and end of martensite transforma- It can be seen from the martensite curve in Fig. 1 that be-
tion is presented in Fig. 2. Data on the temperature of the be- low the point Mf the curve transforms into a horizontal line,
ginning of martensite transformation and on the effect of i.e., cooling below this temperature does not cause the forma-
carbon on it have been obtained in numerous experiments. tion of martensite. Consequently, cooling to the temperature
Data on the effect of carbon content on the temperature of the My is necessary and sufficient for cold treatment. A deeper
end ofmartensite transformation are still quite scarce. cooling is useless.
A graphically plotted dependence of the effect of the
composition on the position of martensite points will be E F F E C T OF A L L O Y I N G ADDITIVES
called m a r t e n s i t e diagram. ON MARTENSITE TRANSFORMATION
It follows from the martensite diagram in Fig. 2 that
when the carbon content in the steel is below 0.6%, the range The alloying elements dissolved in austenite affect the
of the martensite transformation lies above room temperature. temperature of martensite transformation. Most of the alloy-
For such steels cold treatment is no good, because cooling be- ing elements diminish the temperature of the beginning of the
low 0~ will not cause the growth of the martensite phase. transformation.
452 A.P. Gulyaev

The following data characterize the effect of an additive 300

\
of 1% alloying element on the temperature of the beginning
of martensite transformation in steels containing 0 . 9 - 1 % o 200 %
carbon [ 11].

Alloying element C h a n g e in the t e m p e r a t u r e

I00
o f m a r t e n s i t e point

Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vanadium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
However, the effect of the alloying elements depends on
the carbon content. The higher the content of carbon, the
more intense the decrease in the temperature of martensite
transformation. For example, this can be inferred from the
data on the effect of chromium [12]:
C a r b o n c o n t e n t in steel C h a n g e in the marten.site point
when adding 1% chromium
0.4% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.8% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 10~
1.0% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 17~
1.2% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 25~
The data on the effect of alloying elements on the tem-
perature of the end of martensite transformation are still lack-
ing, but in accordance with [5] we can consider it possible
that with the growth of the content of the alloying elements
the martensite point of the end of the transformation should
fall more intensely than the point of the beginning of the
transformation.
Therefore, the more alloying elements which diminish
the martensite point are present in the steel, the lower should
be the carbon content in it for cold treatment to be expedient,
and the more effective should be the cold treatment, because
it causes the formation of large amounts of martensite in
cooling to a negative temperature.
TRANSFORMATIONS AT SUB-ZERO
TEMPERATURES IN HIGH-SPEED STEELS
For the first time cold treatment has been applied to tools
from high-speed steels [2, 6] and today it is more often used
for high-speed steels. It is natural, therefore, that the sub-zero
transformations have been studied better for this kind of steel.
It should be noted once more that the transformation be-
low 0~ does not at all differ from that above 0~ as has
been shown in [13]. In a high-speed steel it has the same na-
ture as in other steels which has been described in general
above.
The special feature of transformations in high-speed
steels, like in other high-alloy steels, consists in that a change
- 55~ 18 35 •
- 35~ o
- 30~
- 17~
- 15~ " -I00
- 12~ 10 I1 20 24 %
- 10~
I000 II00 1200 1300
0~
Quenching temperature, ~
+ 12~
+ 30~ F i g . 3. P o s i t i o n o f m a r t e n s i t e p o i n t s (start a n d f i n i s h o f t h e t r a n s f o l m a t i o n ) in
steel R.
in the temperature of heating for quenching causes the disso-
lution of carbides in austenite and a change in its composi-
tion. Therefore, the temperature o f martensite transformation
in a high-speed steel depends on that o f prior heating or on
the quenching temperature.
The dependence o f the position ofmartensite points at the
- 4~ beginning and at the end o f the transformation on the quench-
ing temperature for high-speed steel o f grade R is presented
in Fig. 3 [5].
It can be seen from the diagram that with the growth of
the quenching temperature both Ms and Mf diminish and
the range of the martensite transformation widens.
The numbers in the diagram indicate the amount o f re-
tained austenite determined after cooling to + 20~ and after
cooling to - 183~
In quenching from 900~ the marteusite points lie at a
temperature below 20~ Consequently, cooling to a tempera-
ture below the room one to - 183~ does not cause the trans-
formation and the amount of retained austenite does not
change either after quenching or after cooling to a negative
temperature. Therefore, in this case cold treatment is not ex-
pedient in quenching from this temperature. In quenching
from a higher temperature the temperature range of marten-
site transformation goes to the region o f negative tempera-
tures. The martensite point o f the end o f the transformation
falls below room temperature and cooling to a negative tem-
perature diminishes the amount of retained austenite. The
growth of martensite is the more substantial the higher the
quenching temperature. Since the normal quenching tempera-
ture for a high-sped steel of this composition corresponds to
1280-1300~ it is obvious that cold treatment after a
normal heating for quenching should cause a change in the
properties.
Cooling to a negative temperature and the growth of
martensite in a quenched steel cause an increase in the hard-
ness and a change in other mechanical properties, a volume
expansion, and a change in the magnetic properties.
Cold Treatment of Steel
180
160
, H
140
120
~ so
~ ,
~ 4o
20
l , , , . i
+200 -40 -80 -120
Temperature, ~
Fig. 4. Effect of the hold at room temperature on the transformation in cool-
ing steel Kh-12 in liquid oxygen. The hold time is: 1) 2 - 3 rain; H) 24 h;
/11) 60 days.
For example, in [2] the Rockwell hardness of steel R after
quenching from 1280~ was 6 4 - 65 (scale C) and the Vi-
ckers hardness was 8 1 6 - 826. After a cold treatment the
same steel acquired a Rockwell hardness of 6 6 - 67 and a
Vickers hardness o f 8 8 9 - 891. The specific volume changed
from 0.11550 cm3/g to 0.11588 - 0.11589 cm3/g [7].
The mechanical properties changed as follows [7]: for
steel quenched conventionally and tempered at 565~ for
2.5 h the Rockwell hardness was 65, the proportionality limit
was 195 kg/mm 2, and the ductility was 0.07%. For the same
steel treated similarly, but with cooling to a negative tempera-
ture after quenching, the Rockwell hardness was 66, the pro-
portionality limit was 225 k g / m m 2, and the ductility was
O. 15%. Thus, the cold treatment improved the set of mechani-
cal properties (though some data are contradictory [13]).
P H E N O M E N O N O F STABILIZATION
OF AUSTENITE
The work of Bigeev carried out under the guidance of
Shteinberg [3] has shown one interesting fact.
If the cooling is conducted continuously from the marten-
site point to a temperature below 0~ the martensite transfor-
mation develops continuously along with the fall of the tem-
perature. If a stop is made at room temperature, the transfor-
mation develops again after a certain hysteresis.
However, it turns out that the hold of the steel at room
temperature not only creates a transformation hysteresis, but
also diminishes the susceptibility to subsequent transforma-
tion in cooling in the region of negative temperatures.
This is illustrated by the martensite curves taken from my
work [5] for steel Kh-12 (Fig. 4).
Curve I characterizes the martensite transformation at
negative temperatures. The low hysteresis is a consequence
of the fact that the cooling to the negative temperature was
conducted 2 - 3 h after quenching from 1100~ Curve H de-
453
I scribes the transformation in cooling to a negative tempera-
ture conducted a day after quenching. Here we see a great
hysteresis. However, the most important fact is that the curve
is less steeply ascending; in this case the amount of marten-
site formed at negative temperatures is less. A similar but
more pronounced picture characterizes the two-month hold at
room temperature.
Consequently, f o r t h e e f f e c t o f c o l d t r e a t -
ment to be the most effective it s h o u l d
be conducted immediately after quench-
i n g. It is more effective when cooling to a negative tempera-
ture continues the quenching cooling.
The following data taken from [5] show that the amount
I i
o f austenite retained after a cold treatment is the higher the
more time passes between the quenching and the cooling to
the negative temperature.
Tune of the hold at room temperature Amount ofaustenite retained after
between the quenching and the cooling cooling to negative temperatures, %
to a negative temperature ( - 183~ Steel Kh-12 Steel SKh-12
2 - 3 min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 36.5
24 h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 54.5
45 days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 55
60 days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
It is interesting that the hold at room temperature dimin-
ishes the capacity o f the austenite to transform but does not
affect the temperature at which the transformation finishes.
It can be seen from the martensite curves presented in
Fig. 4 that whatever the hold time, the temperature of the end
o f the martensite transformation corresponds to about - 90~
in all the cases.
This phenomenon, i.e., the stabilization of austenite at
room temperature has been studied in [15]. The study has
shown that various grades of steel obey the same laws discov-
ered earlier in [3, 5]. Therefore, it can be assumed that the
earlier discovered phenomenon o f the reduction o f the sus-
ceptibility of austenite to transformation at a negative tem-
perature after a hold at room temperature is a general rule for
all steels.
E F F E C T OF COLD T R E A T M E N T ON CU'I~ING
PROPERTIES OF HIGH-SPEED STEELS
The presence of retained austenite in tools from high-
speed steel worsens the cutting properties (due to the low
thermal conductivity of the austenite as compared to other
structures). Therefore, it seems natural to expect that the cold
treatment should improve the cutting properties. However, it
should be remembered that the retained austenite can be
transformed into martensite by tempering, that is, the differ-
ence between the tempered martensite and the quenched one
consists in that the secondary martensite obtained in temper-
ing is depleted of carbon and alloying elements because of
the carbide segregation from the austenite at the tempering
temperature which has been established in [16].
It has been established in early research in this direction
devoted to the cutting properties of cutters from a high-speed
454
steel [6] that the cutting properties improved when the cutters
were used for finish turning.
Much data on the efficiency of this method of treatment
for improving the cutting properties of high-speed steels was
published in the USA.
A critical review o f various data inevitably shows their
similar features. Various regimes of heat treatment are recom-
mended for providing what seems to be the best results in im-
proving the cutting properties. Data showing the growth o f
the endurance due to sub-zero treatment are presented, and
various sources give a scattering ranging from 40 to 400%.
Research at the All-Union Research Tool Institute was
made in 1945 by A. A. Badaeva under the guidance of
P. P. Grudov [17] in order to establish what actual gain in the
cutting properties is provided by cold treatment.
For example, the following two variants were compared.
Cutters from steel RF-1 quenched from 1280~ were tem-
pered three times at 560~ In variant H the cutters were "fro-
zen" at - 78~ immediately after quenching (in dry ice).
The tests were conducted in semi-roughing (a feed of
0.48 mm at a cutting depth of 2 mm) and in finishing (a feed
of 0.15 mm at a cutting depth of I ram).
The cold treatment increased the cutting rate by 4% (for
semi-roughing turnings) and by 5% (for finishing turnings),
which corresponded to a 50% increase in the endurance.
The cold treatment after tempering turned out to be inef-
fective and did not improve the cutting properties. Therefore,
the recommendations o f some American journals to conduct
sub-zero treatment after tempering (in order to transform the
small amount of austenite retained after the tempering) seem
inappropriate.
The results were compared after a single tempering. The
cutters cold treated with a single tempering exhibited a 10%
improvement in the cutting capacity (hourly cutting rate) than
the cutters tempered once without a cold treatment which cor-
responds to an almost triple growth of the endurance. The
cold treated and once tempered cutters were equivalent and
even better than conventionally treated cutters having under-
gone triple tempering. Therefore, a cold treatment of high-
speed steel can substitute two tempering operations.
A still more important result was that the cutters
quenched from an obviously diminished temperature
(1240~ instead of 1280~ and cold treated exhibited cut-
ting properties equivalent to those of normally quenched cut-
ters. This means that the value of the sub-zero treatment does
not consist in the improvement of the cutting properties after
laboratory tests of the tools, but rather consists in the fact that
high-quality tools are obtained despite the deviations from
the optimum heat treatment regime (established in a labora-
tory) under conditions of an actual plant (insufficient temper-
ing, insufficient heating for quenching, etc.).
The experience of in aircraft plant (the chief metallurgist
is Borzov) deserves a special mention. They have applied
cold treatment to cast tools. Cutters from steel RF-1 arrive at
the refrigerator immediately after casting into molds. After
the casting the Rockwell hardness of the tools is 56, whereas
A.P. Gulyaev
after the cold treatment it increases to 63 - 65. In this case an-
nealing and quenching of the cutters are not required, and
double tempering is quite enough. By the data o f the plant the
service life of such tools is quite satisfactory. The manufac-
turing cycle of cast cutters is simplified considerably with the
use of cold. The cycle consisting o f casting- annealing-
quenching-tempering is replaced by c a s t i n g - f r e e z i n g -
tempering, freezing being a much simpler operation than an-
nealing and quenching. Thus, the use o f the cold solves the
problem o f cast tools, at least from the standpoint o f improv-
ing their quality and simplifying the manufacturing process.
COLD T R E A T M E N T C A R B U R I Z I N G PARTS
Cold treatment o f carburizing steels is a recent method
but is even more widely used in industry than cold treatment
of high-speed steels.
In carburizing alloy steels, especially chromium-nickel
ones (like 12Kh2N4A or 18KhNVA), the carburized layer af-
ter quenching preserves an elevated content o f retained
austenite which diminishes the Rockwell hardness to 50 - 45
instead of the requisite 60 - 6 2 .
The phenomenon is encountered very often and attempts
have been made to counteract it by decreasing the quenching
temperature, using intermediate quenchings, and other me-
thods which complicated the heat treatment process, in-
creased the deformation o f the part, and worsened the proper-
ties of the core.
Cold treatment eliminates these drawbacks and provides
a stable hardness o f 60 - 64 Rc .
The use of gas carburizing with quenching after an in-
terim cooling from the carburizing furnace without cold treat-
ment always results in a low hardness due to the high quench-
ing temperature and a large content o f retained austenite. In
this case the cold treatment should be a necessary operation
in the heat treatment cycle.
Using double quenching, the second quenching being
conducted from a relatively low temperature (on the order of
780~ not all the cemented parts exhibit a diminished sur-
face hardness. A considerable percentage o f rejected parts
used are unrecoverable, but today the drawbacks can be
eliminated by cold treatment.
We see that the use of cold is a normal operation in the
technological process of cemented parts from alloy steels.
Cold can be used for increasing the hardness of rejected parts
to the requisite values. The experience o f the Stalin Automo-
bile Plant on cold treatment of carburized parts is described in
the paper ofA. D. Assonov [18].
COOLING DEVICES
We do not intend to describe the structures used for cool-
ing parts; the problem of designing refrigerators for treating
metals has not yet been solved fully.
The USSR uses various methods for providing sub-zero
temperatures, which are listed below.
Cold Treatment of Steel
(a) Dry carbonic acid (dry ice) is placed into a wooden
box. The parts to be frozen are placed on top of the ice (the
device differs from the boxes used for selling ice-cream only
by their size). The temperature is measured by a thermometer.
The provided temperature ranges from - 65 to - 75~
(b) Solid carbonic acid is used to cool alcohol or acetone.
The liquids are cooled by throwing pieces of dry ice into
them until the ice floats on the surface. This corresponds ex-
actly to a temperature o f - 78~ The parts to be cooled can
be kept in the acetone for a certain time or placed into a ves-
sel immersed into the acetone. The amount o f dry ice is re-
plenished from time to time.
(c) The parts are cooled directly in liquid air, oxygen, or
nitrogen. Here a deeper cooling is obtained (from - 180 to
- 190~ which is not needed for many grades of steel. It
should be noted that of the three media, only nitrogen is in-
flammable.
(d) A special device with thermal insulation where liquid
air or oxygen circulates over a coil is used for the cooling.
The temperature in the cooler is controlled by the amount of
oxygen.
(e) The parts are cooled in ammonia or other refrigerators
initiated by electric current. Depending on the degree of com-
pression o f the ammonia a temperature ranging from - 30 to
- 120~ can be provided. This device does not require special
design and its advantage over the other mentioned methods
consists in that the shop does not have to be permanently sup-
plied with dry ice or compressed gas.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF COLD T R E A T M E N T
(1) This kind o f treatment is applicable only to quenched
steels in which the point of the end of martensite transforma-
tion lies below the shop temperature; for carbon steels having
at least 0.6% C and alloy steels with a lower carbon content it
can be applied if they contain elements that diminish the
points of martensite transformation.
(2) The cooling in cold treatment should be conducted to
the temperature of the end o f martensite transformation; a
deeper cooling is useless because it does not cause an addi-
tional formation of martensite.
(3) A second cooling and a hold in the region of the
martensite transformation is useless because it does not make
the transformation fuller.
(4) Cooling to negative temperatures does not cause the
transformation of the whole of austenite. When the whole of
the martensite range is passed, some austenite is still pre-
served and its content depends on the composition of the steel
and the quenching temperature.
(5) Cooling to negative temperatures having the aim of
increasing the amount of martensite should follow immedi-
ately after the quenching cooling. A delay diminishes the
amount of the formed martensite in cooling below 0 ~ C, i.e.,
diminishes the effect o f the sub-zero cooling; tempering con-
ducted between the quenching and the sub-zero cooling has a
similar effect.
455
FIELDS OF APPLICATION OF SUB-ZERO C O O L I N G
At the present time we can name the following fields of
application of the new method for treating steel:
(I) for tools from high-speed steel in order to improve
their cutting properties (because the decrease in the amount
of retained austenite improves the machinability);
(2) for providing tempering of some high-alloy steels
where a large amount of austenite is retained atter quenching
(for example, Kh 12M, I~I-184) and tempering without soften-
ing of the primary martensite does not cause transformation
o f the retained austenite, i.e., the tempering does not provide
the requisite high hardness;
(3) for restoring worn calibers, because the sub-zero cool-
ing and the growth of the amount of retained austenite in-
crease the sizes;
(4) for accelerating the aging of calibers and other meas-
uring tools. It seems that the changes in the proportion of
martensite-to-austenite promote a more rapid transformation
of tetragonal martensite into cubic one in aging;
(5) for increasing the hardness of cemented layers and
carburizing alloy steels; especially when quenching from a
high temperature results in a large amount of retained
austenite which diminishes the hardness below the admissible
limit;
(6) for increasing the thermal stability o f heat-resistant
steels;
(7) for increasing the hardness o f surgical and other in-
struments fabricated from austenite or semi-austenite stain-
less steels;
(8) for parts of cooling machines which stabilize their
sizes and prevent transformations in them during operation;
and
(9) for improving the magnetic properties (residual in-
duction) of magnetic steels (EMK5, EMKI 5, etc.).
As the cold treatment is introduced into the industry, new
and novel areas of its use are discovered.
REFERENCES
1. Nilson and Dowdell, Transact. Am. Soc. for Metals, No. 9
(1934).
2. Gulyaev, Vestnik Inzh. Tekhn., May (1937).
3. Bigeev, Trudy Ural. Filial Akad. Nauk, Issue 9, I.X (1937).
4. Minkevich, Ivanov, and Dovgalevskii, Stal', No. 4 (1938).
5. Gulyaev, Metallurg, No. 3 (1939).
6. Gulyaev, Metallurg, No. 12 (1937).
7. Gordon and Cohen, Transact. Am. Soe. Met., No. 3 (1942).
8. Roberts and Jill, lronAge, March (1944).
9. Berlien, Steel, January (1944).
I 0. De-Poit, Metals and Alloys, Sept. (1944).
11. Zyuzin, Sadovskii, and Baranchuk, Metallurg (1940).
12. Gulyaev, From an Unpublished Study [in Russian].
13. Gulyaev, Kaches~ Stal', No. 1 (1937).
14. Kennedy, Transact. Am. Soc. Met., 34 (1945).
15. Fletcher and Cohen, Transact. Am. Soc. Met., 34 (1945).
16. Gulyaev, Metallurg, No. 12 (1936).
17. Gulyaev, Grudov, and Badaeva, From VNII Works [in Russian]
(1945).
18. Assonov, Vestnik Mashinostr, No. 8 (1944).