21 January Gis

Basics of Geographic
g p Information
Systems
Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

What is GIS?
• GIS is a set of tools that allow for the processing of
spatial data into information.
• This set of tools is open ended, but will include
data input, data storage, data manipulation,
and a reporting system.
system
Geographic Information System (GIS) is defined as
an information system that is used to
input, store, retrieve, manipulate, analyze and
output
t t
geographically referenced data or geospatial
data in order to support decision making for
data,
planning and management of land use, natural
resources, environment, transportation, urban
f ili i
facilities, h
health
l h services
i so on.
Geographic Information Technologies
• Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

– a system of earth
earth-orbiting
orbiting satellites which can provide precise
(100 meter to sub-cm) location on the earth’s surface (in lat/long
coordinates or equiv)
• Remote Sensing (RS)
– use of satellites or aircraft to capture information about the earth
earth’ss
surface
– Digital
g ortho images
g a keyy pproduct ((map p accurate digital
g pphotos))
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
– at a minimum,, comprises
p a capability
p y for input,
p , storage,
g ,
manipulation and output of geographic information
- GPS andd RS are sources off input

i data
d for
f a GIS.
GIS
- A GIS a systems for storing and manipulating GPS and RS data.
How GIS differs from Related Systems
• DBMS--typical MIS data base contains implicit but not explicit locational
information
– city,
city county
county, zip code
code, etc
etc. but no geographical coordinates
• Automated Mapping (AM) --primarily two-dimensional display devices
– thematic mapping
pp g unable to relate different ggeographical
g p layers
y ((e.gg zip
p codes
and counties)
– automated cartography--graphical design oriented; limited database ability
• F ilit M
Facility Managementt (FM) Systems--
S t
– lack spatial analysis tools
• CAD/CAM (computer aided design/drafting)--primarily
design/drafting) primarily 33-DD graphic creation
(engineering design) & display systems
– not referenced via geographic location
– limited (if any) database ability (especially for non-spatial data)
• Scientific Visualization Systems--sophisticated multi-dimensional graphics, but:
– lack database support
– lack two-dimensional spatial analysis tools
Why GIS is unique?
• GIS handles Spatial information

– Information referenced by its location in space
• GIS makes connections between activities based on
spatial proximity
• GIS can integrate data and models to generate
iinformation
f i andd scenarios
i
• GIS can penetrate to user group with strong
presentation skills

Geographic Information Systems
M
Management t Perspective
P ti
Define
Decision
problem
p ob e
GIS Define GIS

Output
Process criteria
GIS Import or
analysis build datasets
?
Problem defining:
Management Perspective Analysis:
Define strategies:
• What would happen if . . .
A chemical leaked into a river?
• Where does . . .
Future flood occurrences and population vulnerability?
• Has . . .
Population changed over the last ten years? Where?
• Is there any changes in river discharge. . .
What is the status off watershed, sediment in upstream?
p

Planning & GIS

Interpretation of Real World in GIS Terms
Villages
Roads
Land Parcels
Land Use
Elevation
Disintegrate
Real World
Identify location for New
Health Facility
What are the geophysical needs?
How far from present facility locations?
What are the conflicts land uses?
What are the infrastructure needs?
What will be the future?

What is the service area?
What will be the size?
Real World space or location related?

Plan for a New Health facility
¾Identify location with suitable geo-physical conditions
¾Topography,
p g p y, land use,, water,, accessibility,
y, etc.
¾Identify the serviceable area and the population
¾Evaluate the ease of access by the serviceable population
¾Availability of infrastructure
¾Investigate conflict areas and conflict in land use
¾Inquire industries in the vicinity
¾C fli t for
¾Conflict f resources andd any threat
th t to
t operation
ti
¾Are there similar operations in the vicinity and conflict
¾Wh is
¾What i the
h market
k size
i
¾Land prices (Land usage – restrictions)
¾Potential for disasters (floods, typhoon, earthquakes etc.)
Map: Scale
• Mapsps aree made

de too scale;
sc e; that is,
s, there
e e iss a direct
d ec connection
co ec o
between a unit of measurement on the map and the actual
distance.
• For example, 1: 1 mile map, each inch on the map represents
one mile on Earth. So if you have 2 inches on a map, then it
represent 2 miles
il ini the
h real-world
l ld
• usually recorded as a ratio, such as 1:100,000, or a fraction,
such as 1/100:000
• Large scale maps, such as 1:10,000, show finer detail
• Small
S ll scale l maps, suchh as 1:500,000,
1 500 000 show h greater t areas

1mm = 50,000mm
50 000mm
50 meter

1mm = 500,000mm
500 000mm
500 meter

Map:
p Grid and Coordinates
• Shows the placement of the parallels and meridians

on maps
• Used to determine latitude and longitude
• Maps with no grid recorded cannot be used to
determine coordinates – only to determine extents

Latitude and Longitude
• The earth is divided into lots of lines called latitude and

longitude.

Lines
• Longitude lines run north and south.

• Latitude lines run east and west.
• The lines measure distances in degrees.
Latitude
Longitude

Where is 0 degree
g Latitude?
.• The equator is 0 degree latitude.

• It is an imaginary belt that runs halfway point
between the North Pole and the South Pole.
Northern Hemispheres
Southern Hemispheres

Where is 0 degree Longitude?
.• The prime meridian is 0 degrees longitude. This

imaginary line runs through the Greenwich of United
Kingdom
Prime Meridian

Map Legends

Time Zones
• The Earth is divided into 24 time zones, corresponding

to 24 hours in a day.
• As the earth rotates, the sun shines in different areas,
movingg from east to west duringg the course of a day.y
• Places that have the same longitude will be in the same
time zone.

GIS components:
In Technological Perspective
Spatial
data
GIS
Computer hardware / Specific applications/
?
software tools decision making objectives

Hardware Environment
Input Output

Software Environment
Data Input Data Output
• Enter coordinate information – Creation of map layouts
• Enter attribute information – Printing maps
– Creating digital maps
• Import data from other sources – Writingg data to different
• Detect error in data input formats
Data Analysis
– Attribute queries
– Spatial queries
– Spatial interpolation
– Network analysis
– Buffer analysis
– Terrain analysis
– Spatial overlay
– G
Geographic
hi Visualization
Vi li ti
– Mathematical functions
Software – Input
• Just as GIS required hardware to enter data, software must also be

available to interface with the devices.
devices GIS software includes
modules that allow users to:
– Enter coordinate information: software interfaces with a
digitizer allow a user to point and click on locations (digitize) to
create the appropriate representation of geographic objects.
– Enter attribute information: software
soft are interfaces allow
allo a user
ser
to enter information about a geographic object.
– Import data from other sources: software interfaces allow a
user to import data from GPS units, satellite data, digital photos,
scanned maps, or even from other systems.
– Detect error in data input: When entering coordinate data into
a GIS, errors will abound. Therefore, GIS software includes
features to detect and fix errors.

Software – Data Analysis
• Data Analysis: GIS software allows us to perform multiple operations on
geographic data. Following is a list of the more popular GIS analysis performed
by the software:
– Spatial queries: allow us to ask where things are in relation to other things
– Attribute queries: allow us to ask questions about the attributes of
geographic features
– Spatial interpolation: allow us to predict some value at a geographic location
that we have not measured.
– Network analysis: allow us to find a path from one point to another
– Buffer analysis: allow us to analyze the relationship of objects based on
distance
– Terrain analysis: allow us to perform three dimensional analysis.
– Spatial overlay: allow us to determine the relationship between different
ggeographic
g p features
– Geographic Visualization: allow us to visualize geographic data in three
dimensions, or through charts and graphs
– Mathematical functions: allow us to apply algebraic
algebraic, geometric
geometric, or statistical
functions to geographic features.
Software – Database Management
• Database
b se Management:
ge e : GISG S allows
ows us to
o integrate
eg e
information and geography. This requires software to actually
store and retrieve information. The most common methods for
storing geographic information is in a database. Database
technology allows the software to efficiently store and quickly
retrieve information.
information
• More advanced database management systems within GIS
allow us to keep track of updates,
updates manage simultaneous users
accessing the data, and provide documentation of the data.

Software – Data Output
• Finally, GIS software has the ability allow users to prepare
GIS data for output. Some of the functions for data output
include:
– Creation of map layouts:
– Printing maps:
– Creating digital maps:
– Writing data to different formats:
– Web Mapping and Internet Mapping

Geographic Information System & Data
Spatial Data Features that have a known location on
earth (Vector structure and Raster structure).
structure)
Attribute Data The information linked to the geographic
features (spatial data) describing them
Data Layers Result of combining spatial and attribute
ddata.. Essentially
sse y adding
dd g thee attribute
bu e database
d b se
to the spatial location
Layer
y Types
yp Layer
y type
yp refers to the wayy spatial
p and
attribute information are connected. There are
two major layer types, vector and raster.
Topology This define how geographic features are
related to one another, and where they are in
relation to one another
Data types
The data model represents a set of guidelines to convert the real world
(called entity) to the digitally and logically represented spatial objects
consisting of the attributes and geometry.
Th are two
There t major
j types
t off geometric
t i data
d t model
d l
a. Vector Model
Vector model uses discrete points, lines and/or areas corresponding to
discrete objects with name or code number of attributes.
b. Raster Model
Raster model uses regularly spaced grid cells in specific sequence. An
element
l t off the
th grid
id cell
ll is
i called
ll d a pixel
i l which
hi h contains
t i a single
i l value
l
of attributes.

Representing Spatial Elements
• RASTER
• VECTOR
• Real World
Vector Data Structures
The method of representing geographic features by the
b i graphical
basic hi l elements
l t off points,
i t lines
li and
d polygon
l i
is
said to be the vector method, or vector data model
Raster Data Structures

A raster is a tesselation of a surface.
(A tesselation is defined as the process to cover a surface
through the repeated use of a single shape.)

Raster and Vector Data Models
Real World
600
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 S G Trees
500
2 S G G
3 S
400
4 S G G Trees
Y-AXIS
5 S G G 300
6 S G U House
7 S 200
8 S S G River
9 S 100
10 S 100 200 300 400 500 600
X-AXIS
Raster Representation Vector Representation
Source: Defense Mapping School

National Imagery andGeographical
Mapping Agency
Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon
Structure of Vector Data
• There is a certain amount of relationship between vector
data types.
types When representing geographic data in vector
format, data is typically stored as: Point
• Points: points are zero dimensional objects, and
represent geographic features such as wells
wells, sample
locations, or trees.
• Lines: lines represent one dimensional objects, or linear
features such as road and stream centerlines
features, centerlines. Lines are
made up of a series of interconnected points. A line
typically starts and end with a special point called a Line
node and the points that make up the rest of a line are
node,
called vertices.
• Polygons/Area: polygons represent two dimensional
objects such as the boundaries of a field,
field or property,
property or
the outline of a building or lake. Polygons are made up
of a series of connected lines where the starting point of Area
a polygon is the same as the ending point.
point

Structure of Vector Data
Points are zero dimensional objects, which have
locations and attribute information but are too small to
be represented as areas.
Nodes are special type of point on line features
p
representingg a jjunction or end point
p of a line.
Lines are one dimensional objects which have length
but no area
area. Each line must begin and end at a node.
node
Areas or Polygons are closed mathematical figures of
any shape or size. They are formed by a series of
connected lines.

Attribute Data
Attribute data are the information linked to the geographic
features (spatial data) that describe them. That is, attribute data
are the
h ““non-graphic
hi iinformation
f i associated
i d with
i h a point,
i line,
li
area, or raster elements in a GIS.”
Data Layers
Data layers are the result of combining spatial and attribute data.
Essentially adding the attribute database to the spatial location.
Vector Data Layers
A layer type refers to the way spatial and attribute information are
connected. Vector data (point, Line, Polygon) data layers are
generatedd as separate ddata llayers. They
Th cant mix.
i
Vector: Points, lines and polygons (spatial data) associated with
databases of attributes (attribute data) are considered vector layer types.
2
O O O
0 2 1 1
1
1
1 O 2 1 1
1 O O 2 1 1
1 11 1 1 O 1
Points Features
• Soil Samples • Spill Locations
– Type – Accident Number
– PH – Type of Spill
– Contaminants – Extent
• Utility Poles • Village
– Owner – Village name
– Height – Population
– Attachments
• Fire Hydrant
– ?

Lines
L n s or Arcs
rcs
• Street Centerline • Stream

– Street Name – Depth
– Address Ranges – Quality
• Water Main – Flow Rate
– Pipe size – SS
– Pipe Material
– Date Installed
Lines do not have an area. How to represent
the area of a river or a road?

Areas - Polygon
• Land Use
– Land use type
yp
– Area
• So
Soil Boundaries
ou da es
– Type
– Permeability
• Flood Zones
– Depth
– Occurrence
– Risk
• Landslide Risk Area
– ?
– ?
Points are zero dimensional objects
How to represent area/size of a small dam if represented as a
point feature?
f ?
Lines do
d not have
h an area. How to represent the
h area off a
river or a road?
Representation of features in Point or Polygon is scale

depended Explain.
depended. Explain

What is a raster data?
• a raster based system stores data by using a grid of cells
• a unique
niq e reference coordinate represents each pixel
pi el either at a corner
or in the middle of the cell
• each cell or ppixel has discrete attributes assigned
g to it
• raster data resolution is dependent on the pixel or grid size and may
vary from sub-meter to many kilometres.
• raster data stores different information in layers; elevation,
elevation soil type,
type
geology, forest type, rainfall rate, etc.
• generally, raster data requires less processing than vector data, but it
consumes more computer storage space.
• remote sensors on satellites store data in raster format
• digital terrain models (DTM) and digital elevation models (DEM)
• continuous data (FIELD) suit a raster structure
© ESRI, Modeling Our World
Vector Data Layers
A layer type refers to the way spatial and attribute information are
connected. There are two major layer types, vector and raster.
Vector: Points, lines and polygons (spatial data) associated with

databases of attributes ((attribute data)) are considered vector layer
y
types.
O0 2 1 1
OO 2 1
1
1 O2 1 1
1 OO2 1 1
1 11 1 1 O 1
Raster: A row and column matrix (pixels) of X & Y space with

attribute information associated with each pixel is considered a raster
layer type.
O OO 2 1 1
0 : WATER
1 O2 1 1 1 1 : HIGHLAND
1 OO2 1 1 2 : WETLAND
1 11 1 O1
Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models
Raster Model Vector Model
Advantage: Advantage:
1. It provides a more compact data structure
1 It is a simple data structure
1. structure.
than the raster model.
2. Overlay operations are
2. It provides efficiently encoding of
easily
il and
d efficiently
ffi i tl iimplemented.
l t d topology and as result more efficiently
3.High spatial variability is efficiently implementation of operations that require
represented in raster format. t

topological
l i l iinformation,
f ti such
h as network
t k
analysis.
4.The raster format is more or less
3 The vector model is better suited to
3.The
required for efficient manipulation
supporting graphics that closely approximate
and enhancement of digital images. p
Hand-drawn maps.

Map Projections
A map projection is any method of representing the
surface
su face of a sphere
sphe e or
o other
othe three-dimensional
th ee dimensional body
on a plane (Wikipedia)
• all map projections are attempts to portray the
surface of the earth on a flat surface
• distortions of shape, distance, direction, scale, and
area result from this process
• some projections minimize certain distortions while
maximisingg others
• other projections are attempts to moderately distort
all of the above properties.
properties
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
• UTM projection is used to define horizontal,

horizontal positions
world-wide by dividing the surface of the Earth into 6o
zones, each mapped by the Transverse Mercator projection
with a central meridian in the center of the zone.
• UTM zone numbers designate 6 degree longitudinal strips
extending
t di fromf 80 degrees
d S th latitude
South l tit d to
t 84 degrees
d
North latitude.
• UTM zone characters designate 8 degree zones extending
north and south from the equator
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Coordinate Systems
a coordinate system is a system which uses one or more
numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of a
point or other geometric element. The order of the coordinates is
significant and they are sometimes identified by their position in
an ordered
d d list
li t off elements
l t andd sometimes
ti by
b a letter,
l tt as in
i 'the
'th x-
coordinate’ (Wikepedia). There could be many systems such as
Cartesian, Polar ..

Geographic Coordinate Systems
One off th
O the mostt common
coordinate systems in use is the
Geographic Coordinate System,
System
which uses degrees of latitude and
longitude to describe a location on
the earth’s surface.
In the northern hemisphere degrees of latitude are measured from

zero at the equator to 90 at the north pole. In the southern
hemisphere it is zero at the equator 90 at the south pole. Lines of
longitude run perpendicular to the equator and converge at the
poles No uniformity in the grid system
poles.

Latitude, Longitude,
g Height
g
• the most commonly used coordinate system
• the Prime Meridian and the Equator are used to define
latitude and longitude
• latitude and longitude are defined as:
– degrees, minutes, seconds
– 360o around the earth
– each degree is divided into 60 minutes
– each minute is divided into 60 seconds
– decimal degrees
– a degree expressed as a decimal (in degree units)
Geographic Coordinate Systems
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) geographic coordinate
system is a grid-based method of specifying locations on the surface
of the Earth that is a practical application of a 2-dimensional
2 dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system. It differs from the traditional method of
latitude and longitude
g in several respects.
p
The UTM system is not a single map projection. The system instead
employs a series of sixty zones, each of which is based on a
specifically defined secant transverse Mercator projection.
Each of the 60 longitude zones in the UTM system is based on a transverse Mercator
projection, which is capable of mapping a region of large north-south extent with a
low amount of distortion. By using narrow zones of 6° (up to 800 km) in width, and
reducing the scale factor along the central meridian by only 0.0004 to 0.9996 (a
reduction of 1:2500), the amount of distortion is held below 1 part in 1,000 inside
each zone. Distortion of scale increases to 1.0010 at the outer zone boundaries along
the equator (Wikepedia).
Data acquisition
As data
d acquisition
i i i or data
d input
i off geospatial
i l data
d in i digital
di i l format
f is
i
most expensive and procedures are time consuming. In GIS, the data
sources for data acquisition should be carefully selected considering
the application and scale.
The following data sources are widely used:
Analog maps
Elevation, soil, landuse, climate, etc.
Aerial photographs
DEM, landuse (Urban)
S t llit image
Satellite i
Landuse (regional), vegetation, temperature, DEM
Ground survey with GPS
Detailed information
Reports and publications
Attributes, statistics
Choice of data acquisition method

Vector data input (map digitizing)
Step 1 : affix a map to a digitizing table
Step 2 : add control points or tics at four corners and input
coordinates
Step 3 : digitize map contents according to the map layers
Stepp 4 : edit the errors and clean the data set
Step 5 : convert from digitizer coordinate to map coordinate and store
in a spatial database

Data Creation
© Peter A. Burrough et al
Scanning
g & Vectorization
• Selection of Paper Map

• Define scanningg accuracyy (DPI)
( )
• Scanner quality
• Software for vectorizing
• Separating coverages (layers)
• Rasterization where necessary

Scanning Maps
Urban
Color?
DPI? Forest Marsh
Ti k marks?
Tick k?
Crop lands

End Product: Vector Polygon of Land Use

End Product: Vector Lines of Roads

End Product: Vector Lines of Contours

End Product: Vector Points of Villages
etc.
etc

Point Coverage and Attribute Tables

Polygon Coverage and Attribute Tables

Line Coverage and Attribute Usage

Problems in digitizing
Silver Polygon

Problems in digitizing
undershoot
Over shoot

Conversion of Polygon Vector to Raster
Size 19 x 23
Software provides the facility

User defines the are and cell size

Comparison of Raster & Vector data
Size 19 x 23

Comparison of Raster Cell Size
Size 10 x 12
Twice the size

Comparison of Raster & Vector data
Size 10 x 12

(Polygon) Raster & Vector Attribute Tables

Conversion of Line Vector to Raster
Size 19 x 23
What is No Data?

Converted Line Raster Attribute Table
Si 19 x 23
Size

Conversion of Point Vector to Raster

(Point) Raster & Vector Attribute Tables

Direct input
• Built from attribute data e.g. GPS points

• Use software extensions for add to GIS database

Aerial Photographs

Software
•ESRI product:ArcView, ArcInfo, ArcGIS
•IDRSI
•MapInfo
•LIWIS
•GRASS
•Intergraph
•PAMAP
•GRAM++
•ERDAS
•R2V
•Ermapper
appe
•ENVI

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Basics of Geographic

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

- GPS andd RS are sources off input

• GIS handles Spatial information

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

GIS Define GIS

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

What are the geophysical needs?

How far from present facility locations?

What are the conflicts land uses?

What are the infrastructure needs?

What will be the future?

Real World space or location related?

• Mapsps aree made

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• Shows the placement of the parallels and meridians

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• The earth is divided into lots of lines called latitude and

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• Longitude lines run north and south.

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

.• The equator is 0 degree latitude.

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

.• The prime meridian is 0 degrees longitude. This

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• The Earth is divided into 24 time zones, corresponding

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• Just as GIS required hardware to enter data, software must also be

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Raster Data Structures

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Source: Defense Mapping School

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• Street Centerline • Stream

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Representation of features in Point or Polygon is scale

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Vector: Points, lines and polygons (spatial data) associated with

Raster: A row and column matrix (pixels) of X & Y space with

Raster Model Vector Model

represented in raster format. t

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• UTM projection is used to define horizontal,

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

In the northern hemisphere degrees of latitude are measured from

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

• Selection of Paper Map

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon

Geographical Technologies for Disaster Risk Management IN84.22, Lal Samarakoon