INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: DETERMINING

THE STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE CROSS-CULTURAL TRAINING

RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

The internationalization of human resource management has increased the scope

of traditional HRM. Today, HR practitioners not only manage people from their home

country, but one that involve managing many diverse nationalities, with which the culture

of staff and employees are already well-known or predicted. Companies start business

within their country of origin and staff are hired from within that country. However, with

the arrival of globalization and the shift from industrial to information technology, a new

problem for HR practitioners emerged as employees become more diversified and hard to

manage. Companies expand to other countries, or moreover participate in joint ventures

or mergers and acquisitions. This move has many implications including the limited

choice of hiring employees from the country which the company expanded. Basically,

this gives HR practitioners a new challenge as they are faced with a diverse cross-cultural

workforce that they are not yet familiar with. For instance, a UK or an American

company expanded or having joint ventures in China would have to integrate their own

HR practice in that country. However, the Chinese and Western managers have different

beliefs and practices in terms of managing employees. Thus, a cross-cultural conflict

might arise, which could affect the productivity and culture of the company as a whole,

most especially in the branch they invested in China. Western expatriates might not be

able to adapt with the Chinese way of working or any Asian way of working for that
matter if they don't have proper training or knowledge about them. This gives the HR

team a huge responsibility in making sure that cross-cultural relationship within the

company is going well. An HRM expatriate might have problems having the best local

staff when they do not have enough knowledge about the foreign culture. Furthermore,

productivity might also be affected if their way of human management is not compatible

with the working nature of the local staff.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The study will address the following three key objectives:

1. To determine the different cross-cultural training strategies of multinational

companies in the UK that employs expatriates from other countries.

2. To determine the advantages and disadvantages of their cross-cultural

training programmes and determine which approaches are highly

recommendable.

3. To build theories of effective cross-cultural training programmes for

international human resource managers.

CONTRIBUTION OF EXISTING LITERATURES

Human Resource Management

Human resource management (HRM) is known and accepted in the broadest sense of the

term, as a form of management that includes "all management decisions and actions that

affect the nature of the relationship between the organization and the employees – its

human resources" (Beer et al., 1984, p. 1). It is defined as the process of coordinating an

organization's human resources, or employees, to meet organizational goals. As can be

observed based on the definition, the tasks of those belonging in HRM can be complex as

it involves all issues that encompasses employee and firm relationship. Believing that the

most important asset of a business is the people in order to achieve sustained business

success is the core philosophy of human resource management (HRM). Realizing this

leads to a strategic management of people within the organization. Its philosophy is based

on the simple belief that human resources are the most important asset in achieving and

sustaining business success. This realization became the driving force behind the creation

of human resource management resulting in organizations taking a strategic approach to

the management of their people.

Human resource professionals basically deal with such areas as employee recruitment

and selection, performance evaluation, compensation and benefits, professional

development, safety and health, forecasting, and labor relations, as well as management

of diversity, job analysis and job design (Lipiec, 2001).

The Internationalization of HRM

In the current age of global economy, worldwide interdependence of resources, markets

and business competition thrives (Schermerhorn, 2001). The onset of globalisation has

prompted businesses and its leaders to think and act globally to be able to gain

competitive advantage. There are two opposing views: some view globalisation as an

opportunity for limitless growth and prosperity for both developed and developing

countries; while others see it as a threat to further the extent of inequality because of

increased competition and the dominance of market forces seen in multinational

companies (MNCs) (Johnson & Turner, 2003).

The implications of these changes in international business are far-reaching because of

the emphasis on interdependence which prompts a discussion of the different

collaborative arrangements between MNCs. As national boundaries have increasingly

been blurred, it has become imperative that MNCs take advantage of forming

collaborative arrangements or cooperative strategies which are believed to be a

productive method to promote growth. This trend has affected even companies directly

competing with each other as Hitt, Ireland & Hoskisson (2003) has given the example of

FedEx and the US Postal Service (USPS) forming an a seven-year alliance which benefits

both companies.

One of the areas of business organization that is affected by the internationalization of

business is the area of human resource management. Because business has become

internationalized, the process and factors that make up the HRM concept have also
become global. Thus, out of HRM, a new field has been formed – that is International

Human Resource Management or IHRM. The field of IHRM refers to the: "…

understanding, researching, applying and revising all human resource activities in their

internal and external contexts as they impact the process of managing human resources

in enterprises throughout the global environment to enhance the experience of multiple

stakeholders, including investors, customers, employees, partners, suppliers,

environment and society (Briscoe and Schuler, 2004, p,20).

Briscoe and Schuler (2004) explained that there are many forms of IHRM. These are: the

operation of parent-country firms overseas; and the operation of foreign firms in the

home country. The first one involves the situation of working as a parent-country HR

professional in the main or regional headquarters of the traditional multinational

enterprise (MNE). This may involve working as an expatriate HR manager in a foreign

subsidiary of an MNE (Briscoe and Schuler, 2004). Typical headquarters IHRM

responsibilities include selecting and preparing employees for and transferring them

between the various country locations of the firm, determining and administering

compensation and benefit packages for these international assignees, and establishing

HRM policies and practices for the firm's foreign operations (Briscoe and Schuler, 2004).

On the other hand, the second situation involves the HR manager working at home in the

foreign subsidiary of a foreign MNE (Briscoe and Schuler, 2004). The possibilities

include: working for a home-country firm that has been purchased by a foreign firm and

thus is now a foreign-owned firm; and working with a foreign headquarters (and, often,
expatriate managers sent from the foreign - now parent - company) and typically will

involve having to integrate into the local operations - the HR manager's home country - a

philosophy and organizational culture and practices that are different and/or unfamiliar

(Briscoe and Schuler, 2004).

The Need for Cross-Cultural Management

The situations that IHR managers might face involve dealing with different people with

different culture. Managing culture is one of the tasks that an international human

resource manager has to deal with. Culture is defined as a set of beliefs and values widely

shared in a specific society at a particular point in time (McGuire et al, 2002).

Furthermore, culture encompasses a set of fundamental values that distinguishes one

group from another (Hofstede and Bond, 1988) and these values can act as a strong

determinant of managerial ideology that consequently affects both HR practice and

performance (Laurent, 1983).

Culture is basically a combination of shared beliefs, social norms, organizational roles

and values, emphasizing a cross-cultural socio-economic perspective in industrial and

management research (Wang, 1993). One example is that the Eastern style of

management is different from that of the West. The Chinese approach is usually based

from historical leaders and philosophical figures such as Confucius, Sun Tzu, Mencius

and Han Fei (Satow and Wang, 1994), which involves anddepends on the connections, on

circumstances, on the level of affinity (who you know and what family you come from).

Here, there is no consistent legal framework and, even within the regulations that do
exist, the exception is the rule rather than the rare occurrence. On the other hand, the

management in America is objective and driven by data and rational models. Deployment

of statistics and financial modelling is the key in decision-making and strategic planning.

These differences alone can create problems. Chinese employees may not function well

with the Western management style and vice-versa. Thus, foreign expatriates should

obviously be trained, as making themselves familiar with the new culture can help them

create the appropriate management style that will make employees in the country perform

at their best.

Cultural Dimensions

One of the ways to assess culture is to take heed of its value dimensions. As explained by

Hofstede (1980), there are four cultural value dimensions:

Ø Large versus small power distance. Large power distance is the extent to which

the members of a society accept that power in institutions and organisations is

distributed unequally; while small power distance is the extent to which members

of a society or organization accept that power is distributed fairly (Adler, 1997).

Ø Strong versus weak uncertainty avoidance. Strong uncertainty avoidance means

the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty

and ambiguity, which leads them to support beliefs promising certainty and to

maintain institutions protecting conformity; while weak uncertainty avoidance is

the degree to which members tend to be relatively tolerant of uncertainty and

ambiguity and require considerable autonomy and lower structure (Rodriguez,

1995).
 Ø Individualism versus collectivism. Individualism is the preference for a loosely

knit social framework in society; collectivism stands for a preference for a tightly

knit social framework.

Ø Masculinity versus femininity. Masculinity is the preference for achievement,

heroism, assertiveness and material success; whilefemininity refers to a preference

for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak and the quality of life.

Related Studies

Sadri and Lees (2001) stated that there are key elements to determine a positive culture.

They are: the development of a corporate vision; the development of corporate values;

valuing and maintaining communications with employees; adaptability; and perpetuation

of the culture through tangible symbols, slogans, stories, or ceremonies that highlight

corporate values. However, these positive characteristics can be easier said than achieved

as the workplace involves different nationalities that do not share the same pattern of

beliefs. An incompatible management approach brought and implemented by foreign

expatriates can result in the development of a negative corporate culture. Expatriates who

have poor performance in their cross-country assignments cost multinational enterprises

(MNE's) billions of dollars, damage firm reputation, disrupt relationships with local

nationals (Harvey, 1996; Welch and Welch, 1994), and often precise a cost on

expatriates' psychological state (Solomon, 1996). Expatriates are proposed to gain

intercultural communication skills and, consequently, intercultural effectiveness through

a cultural learning process.

Fischer and Hartel (2003) conducted a study that tries to determine comparatively how

Thai and Western managers conceptualize intercultural effectiveness and to identify the

extent to which perceptions of socio-biographical characteristics are important to Thai

managers' perceptions of the effectiveness of a Western manager and vice versa. The

qualitative study found that both considered religion, age and gender, nationality as

important; while they have different views on the importance of stereotypes, linguistic

abilities, intercultural abilities and identifying task and contextual performance.

Hutchings (2002) investigated the need for careful selection and in-post support of

expatriates in China and argues that expatriates should be those who possess realistic pre-

departure expectations and cultural awareness and knowledge, and whom are provided

with in-post support, including work-related skill development, mentoring and

consultative groups. Through semi-structure interviews of Australian organizations

in China, the research found that that expatriate selection is very much ad hoc in nature

and that expatriate preparation and cross-cultural adaptability skills need to be improved

in a number of important aspects. Hutchings (2002) suggested that "there is a clear need

for expatriates to be fully briefed prior to being sent on overseas postings and that careful

selection should be balanced with goal-setting, performance expectations, and awareness

of socio-cultural limitations of operating from a business and social perspective in the

host environment" (p.46).

METHODOLOGY

The research design to be used is the descriptive approach. This type of research presents

facts concerning the nature and status of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study

(Creswell, 1994). This also believes that the relationships and practices that exist, beliefs

and processes that are ongoing, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing.

(Best, 1970) Furthermore, such approach tries to describe present conditions, events or

systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research

(Creswell, 1994).

Quantitative approach will be used in collecting data. Quantitative method is compatible

with the study because it allows the research problem to be conducted in a very specific

and set terms (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias, 1992). Besides, a quantitative research

plainly and distinctively specifies both the independent and the dependent variables under

investigation (Matveev, 2002). It also follows resolutely the original set of research goals,

arriving at more objective conclusions, testing hypothesis, determining the issues of

causality and eliminates or minimises subjectivity of judgment (Kealey and Protheroe,

1996). Further, this method allows for longitudinal measures of subsequent performance

of research subjects (Matveev, 2002). Finally, it provides achieving high levels of

reliability of gathered data due to i.e. controlled observations, laboratory experiments,

mass surveys, or other form of research manipulations (Balsley, 1970).

Data Collection

The data for the study will be collected through survey. Survey is the chosen method to

collect data because its function is to generalize results from a sample to a larger

population. (Commonwealth ofLearning, 2000) The primary purpose and advantage of

surveys is generalization of the results (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). Usually,

surveys are interested in gathering data from many than in obtaining intensive, detailed

information from a few individuals; therefore, it is seldom for a survey to consist of one

or very few individuals (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). Consequently, in designing

a survey research study, one has to take into consideration the sample and the sampling

procedure: the sample size should be adequate to allow generalization of the results, and

the sampling procedure should also be such that small sub-groups within the population

(such as landless farmers) are properly represented in the sample

(Commonwealth ofLearning, 2000). This is because errors in sampling procedures may

not justify generalization of the results, thus lowering the value of the survey

(Commonwealth of Learning, 2000).

A semi-structured questionnaire will be used to collect data. This survey-questionnaire

will have two sections. The first part will intend to acquire the demographic profile of the

respondents, while the other section will contain a set of attitude statements. The purpose

of the set of attitude statements is to determine the level of agreement or disagreement

using a five-point Likert scale. In the Likert technique, the degree of agreement or

disagreement) is given a numerical value ranging from one to five, thus a total numerical
value can be calculated from all the responses. (Underwood, 2004) The equivalent

weights for the answers will be:

Range Interpretation

4.50 – 5.00 Strongly Disagree

3.50 – 4.00 Disagree

2.50 – 3.49 Uncertain

1.50 – 2.49 Agree

0.00 – 1.49 Strongly Agree

Sampling

The respondents to be surveyed are MNCs in the UK that have joint ventures or direct

investments in Asian countries such as China,Japan, or Southeast Asian nations. Potential

respondents will be first chosen from the DTI list of MNCs, and then emails will be sent

for their approval on the survey. Questionnaires will also be submitted through emails

and will also be returned to the researcher through emails.

The formula suggested by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) will be used to

determine the actual sample size required in the study. First, the total population of a

particular online MBA school and a traditional MBA school will be acquired. The

estimated total response rate will be estimated with the formula that was suggested:

Total response rate = Total No. of Responses

Total No. in Sample ineligible

 Then, the actual sample size will be calculated with the following formula:

nª = n X 100

Re%

In the formula, nª is the actual sample size required; n is the minimum sample size, and;

re% is the estimated response rate expressed as a percentage.

Systematic sampling will be used to calculate the valid number of respondents needed. A

probability sampling approach was chosen to avoid the bias of non-probability sampling.

Data Analysis

Data will be analyzed through percentage and mean analysis. SPSS software will be used

to compute the data gathered. Determining the mean and percentage on the level of

response of the respondents on the items in the Likert-type questionnaire will statistically

show the relationship between lack of cross-cultural training and learning, and poor

performance of the HRM expatriate.

Potential Limitations

The study is limited only to MNC's headquartered in Europe that has expansions in

mainland China. However, persuading companies to participate in the study may be

difficult because it will involve setting up appointments with the managers of the

company.

Another potential limitation of the study is that respondents may not take the

questionnaires seriously since it is only structured; meaning answer choices are already

provided. So, in order to promote participation among respondents, the study's purpose

will be clearly explained on the survey questionnaire.

 TIMEFRAME

5-April 15-May 1-June 25-July 10-Aug 25-Sept 5-Oct 25-Nov

PROPOSAL
INTRODUCTORY

CHAPTER
LITERATURE

REVIEW
RESEARCH

DESIGN
SURVEY-

QUESTIONNAIRE
CONDUCTING

THE SURVEY
CONDUCTING

INTERVIEW
DATA

COLLECTION
PRELIMINARY

ANALYSIS

FINAL ANALYSIS
SUBMISSION OF

PROJECT
Table 1: Timetable

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