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c 


    




    
 include , and .



      


 was originally specified in RFC 1058. It has the following key
characteristics:
Hop count is used as the metric for path selection.
If the hop count for a network is greater than 15, RIP cannot supply a route to that network.
Routing updates are broadcast or multicast every 30 seconds, by default.



       


 is a proprietary protocol developed by Cisco. IGRP has the
following key design characteristics:
Bandwidth, delay, load and reliability are used to create a composite metric.
Routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds, by default.
IGRP is the predecessor of EIGRP and is now obsolete.



 
 is a Cisco proprietary distance vector routing protocol. EIGRP has these key
characteristics:
It can perform unequal cost load balancing.
It uses Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to calculate the shortest path.
There are no periodic updates as with RIP and IGRP. Routing updates are sent only when there is a
change in the topology.

The    used for the routing protocols defines the following processes:

Mechanism for sending and receiving routing information.


Mechanism for calculating the best paths and installing routes in the routing table.
Mechanism for detecting and reacting to topology changes.

Distance vector routing protocols typically implement a technique known as !" # . Split horizon
prevents information from being sent out the same interface from which it was received.

 uses $   %!  that are:

& '  
because they are not sent out on a regular basis.
Partial updates sent only when there is a change in topology that influences routing information.
$   , meaning the propagation of partial updates are automatically bounded so that only those
routers that need the information are updated.



(  !  are sent when one of the following occurs:

An interface changes state (up or down)


A route has entered (or exited) the "unreachable" state
A route is installed in the routing table

Using only    updates would be sufficient if there were a guarantee that the wave of updates
would reach every appropriate router immediately. However, there are two problems with triggered
updates:

Packets containing the update message can be dropped or corrupted by some link in the network.
The triggered updates do not happen instantaneously. It is possible that a router that has not yet
received the triggered update will issue a regular update at just the wrong time, causing the bad route
to be reinserted in a neighbor that had already received the triggered update.

A   ( ! is a condition in which a packet is continuously transmitted within a series of routers
without ever reaching its intended destination network. A routing loop can occur when two or more
routers have routing information that incorrectly indicates that a valid path to an unreachable
destination exists.

The   ( ! may be a result of:

Incorrectly configured static routes


Incorrectly configured route redistribution (redistribution is a process of handing the routing
information from one routing protocol to another routing protocol and is discussed in CCNP-level
courses)
Inconsistent routing tables not being updated due to slow convergence in a changing network
Incorrectly configured or installed discard route.

There are a number of mechanisms available to     ( !, primarily with distance vector
routing protocols. These mechanisms include:

Defining a ) 


to prevent count to infinity
"    
! # 
Route        *  owned byc
and used by 
(  ! 

c  (    is a condition that exists when inaccurate routing updates increase the metric value to
"  " for a network that is no longer reachable.

To eventually stop the incrementing of the metric, "  " is defined by setting a maximum metric
value. For example, RIP defines infinity as +, !' -%  
. -/ 
. Once the routers "c  
   ," they mark the route as unreachable.






0!! 

Routers using 

    
 also send periodic updates. Let's imagine that a
particular network is unstable as a router interface resets as %, then 12&, then % again in rapid
succession. "   (  are used to prevent regular update messages from inappropriately
reinstating a route that may have gone bad.

"   (  work in the following way:

1. A router receives an update from a neighbor indicating that a network that previously was accessible
is now no longer accessible.

2. The router marks the network as possibly down and starts the holddown timer.

3. If an update with a better metric for that network is received from any neighboring router during the
holddown period, the network is reinstated and the holddown timer is removed.

4. If an update from any other neighbor is received during the holddown period with the same or worse
metric for that network, that update is ignored. Thus, more time is allowed for the information about
the change to be propagated.

5. Routers still forward packets to destination networks that are marked as possibly down. This allows
the router to overcome any issues associated with intermittent connectivity. If the destination network
truly is unavailable and the packets are forwarded, $
3"  routing is created and lasts until the
holddown timer expires.

      is used to mark the route as unreachable in a routing update that is sent to other
routers and the following occurs,

Network 10.4.0.0 becomes unavailable due to a link failure.


R3 poisons the metric with a value of 16 and then sends out a triggered update stating that 10.4.0.0 is
unavailable.
R2 processes that update. Because the metric is 16, R2 invalidates the routing entry in its routing table.
R2 then sends the poison update to R1, indicating that route is unavailable, again by setting the metric
value to 16.
R1 processes the update and invalidates the routing entry for 10.4.0.0 in its routing table.

The    !" # with    *  states when sending updates out a specific interface,
designate any networks that were learned on that interface as unreachable.

( ( (* ((( is an 4'. field in the IP header that limits the number of hops a packet can traverse
through the network before it is discarded.

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