1 EnglishGrammarlessons

ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Contents
Table of contents…………………………………………………………………..………………..……… 1
1.Simple Present Tense
Where do we use the Simple Present? In what ways? Learn this tense…………...……………………3
2.Present Continuous Tense
Situations that the Present Continuous apply………………………………………………………………7
3.Simple Past Tense
How to use the Simple Past to tell about past events.. ……………………………………………….…13
4.Past Continuous Tense
Expressing on-going activities in the past………………………………………...…………………….…17
5. Simple Future (will - be going to)
How to use this tense and where? …………………………………………………………….…..……..19
6. Future Continuous Tense
Where and how to use the Future Continuous?...................................................................................21
7. Present Perfect
Form and function of the present perfect tense……………………………………….…………………..22
8. Past Perfect
Past Perfect & Simple Past?.................................................................................................................28
9. Future Perfect
What is Future Perfect?........................................................................................................................30
10. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Analyze the situations where the Present Perfect Continuous applies………………………..…………31
11. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
See the specific areas where this tense is used………………………………………………….………33
12. Future Perfect Continuous
What is Future Perfect Continuous?.....................................................................................................35
13. Comparison of English Tenses
See and analyze all tenses in a chart………………………………………………….……...…...………..36
14. MODALS
 Modals (One by one) ……………………………………………………………...……………..….40
 Modals (Chart)……………………………………………………………………..………..……….42
 Modals (Difficult Cases)………………………………………………………….……………….....45
15. THE PASSIVE
 Simple Passive……………………………………….……………………..……..………………..48
 Uses of the Passive ………………………………………………………………...……..……….51
16. CONDITIONALS - IF CLAUSES
 Type Zero ……………………………………………………………….…………………………….53
 Type One ………………………………………………………………..…………………………….54
 Type Two ……………………………………………………………………………………..……….55
 Type Three ……………………………………………………………………………………..……..56
 Other Conditionals ……………………………………………………………………..…………..…57
 Wish Clauses ……………………………………………………………………..……………….....58
17. NOUN CLAUSES
 Noun Clauses ………………………………………………………………………………………..60
 Functions of the Noun Clauses ……………………………………………………………………63
 Reported Speech………………………………………………………………………………….….67
 Reporting Verbs …………………………………………………………………………………….71
18. CONJUNCTIONS
 Coordinating Conjunctions ..........................................................................................................75
 Correlative Conjunctions ………………………………………………………………………………78
 Subordinating Conjunctions…………………………………………………………………………..80
 Transitions ……………………………………………………………………………………………..82
 Sentence Structure ……………………………………………………………………………………..84
19. ADJECTIVES
 Form and Function …………………………………………………………………………………….87
 Comparatives-Superlatives …………………………………………………………………………..89
 Comparatives-Superlatives 2 ……………………………………………………………………...…93
20. ADVERBS
 Adverbs (Function) …………………………………………………………………………………….95
 Adverbs of Degree …………………………………………………………………………………....97
 Adverbs of Duration ………………………………………………………………………………..…100
 Adverbs of Frequency …………………………………………………………………………….…102
 Adverbs of Manner ……………………………………………………………………………………104
 Adverbs of Time ……………………………………………………………………………………....106
21. GERUND & INFINITIVE
 Gerunds ………………………….………………….………………………………………………..109
 List of Verbs-Phrases………………………………………………………………………………..110
 Comparison of Participles-Gerunds-Infinitives……………………………………………………112
22. RELATIVE CLAUSES
 Defining Relative Clause …………………………………………………………………..……..117
 Non-Defining Relative Clause …………………………………………………………………….122
 Reduction Of Relative Clauses …………………………………………………………………...123
23. DETERMINERS & QUANTIFIERS & ARTICLES
 A-AN …………………………………………………………………………………………………124
 THE ……………………………………………………………………………………………….....127
 All-Most-No ………………………………………………………………………………………...131
 Some-Any-Every-Each …………………………………………………………………………...133
 Much-Little & Many-Few …………………………………………………………………………..135
 All Determiners ……………………………………………………………………………………..137
 Indefinite Pronouns………………………………………………………………………..………..140
 Reflexive Pronouns ………………………………………………………………………………142
24. PREPOSITIONS & PHRASAL VERBS
 Prepositions of Place …………………………………………………………………..……………144
 Prepositions: At-In-On ……………………………………………………………………………....146
 Prepositions of Transport …………………………………………………………………………..148
 All Prepositions ………………………………………………………………………………………149
 Phrasal Verbs ………………………………………………………………………………….…….156
 Prepositional Phrases-1 …………………………………………………………………………….163
 Phrases-2 …………………………………………………………………………………………….169
25. OTHER SUBJECTS
 Tag Questions ………………………………………………………………………………………175
 The Subjunctive …………………………………………………………………………………….177
 Subject Verb Agreement …………………………………………………………………………..179
1.THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

a. Use:
The simple present is used to describe a present situation:

--> I work in Valencia (I do now and will do for the forseeable future).
--> The Simons sisters are both very talented; Virginia writes and Vanessa paints.
--> I am English (and I always will be English).
The simple present is used to express general truths such as scientific fact, as in the
following sentences:
--> The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
--> The moon circles the earth once every 28 days.
--> New technology makes it easier to learn English.
The simple present is used to indicate a habitual action, event, or condition, as in the
following sentences:
--> I don’t wear white shoes (it’s my habit not to).

--> My grandmother sends me new clothes each spring.
--> Jesse polishes the menorah on Wednesdays.
The simple present is also used when writing about works of art, as in the following
sentences.
--> Lolly Willowes is the protagonist of the novel Townsend published in 1926.
--> The play ends with an epilogue spoken by the fool.
The simple present can also be used to refer to a future event when used in conjunction with
an adverb or adverbial phrase, as in the following sentences.
--> Classes end next week.

--> The publisher distributes the galley proofs next Wednesday.
--> The lunar eclipses begins in exactly 43 minutes.
2. Spelling rules for adding s in the third person singular

Some verbs change their spelling when s is added in the third person singular.
a. Verbs ending in y
The English letters a, e, i, o and u are generally referred to as vowels. The other English letters
are generally referred to as consonants.
When a verb ends in y immediately preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to ie before the
ending s is added. In each of the following examples, the consonant immediately preceding the
final y is underlined.
Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular

study studies
fly flies
carry carries
However, when a verb ends in y immediately preceded by a vowel, the y is not changed
before the ending s is added. In each of the following examples, the vowel immediately preceding
the final y is underlined.

say says
enjoy enjoys
Buy buys
b. Verbs ending in o
When a verb ends in o, the letter e is added before the s ending. For example:

do does
echo echoes
go goes
c. Verbs ending in ch, s, sh, x or z

When a verb ends in a sibilant sound such as ch, s, sh, x or z, the letter e is added before the s
ending. For example:

pass passes
push pushes
watch watches
fix fixes
buzz buzzes
3. Pronunciation of the -es ending
A syllable is a unit of pronunciation, usually consisting of a vowel sound which may or may not be
accompanied by consonants.
When a verb ends in a sibilant sound such as ch, s, sh, x or z, the es ending of the third person
singular is pronounced as a separate syllable. The reason for this is that these sounds are so
similar to the sound of the es ending, that the ending must be pronounced as a separate syllable
in order to be heard clearly.
In each of the following examples the bare infinitive consists of one syllable, whereas the form of
the verb used in the third person singular consists of two syllables.

pass passes
push pushes
catch catches
mix mixes
Similarly, when s is added to verbs ending in ce, ge, se or ze, the final es is usually pronounced
as a separate syllable. In each of the following examples the bare infinitive consists of one
syllable, whereas the form of the verb used in the third person singular consists
of two syllables.

race races
rage rages
praise praises
doze dozes
However, when s is added to a verb ending in e preceded by a letter

other than c, g, s or z, the final es is not pronounced as a separate syllable. In each of the
following examples, both the bare infinitive and the form of the verb used in the third person
singular consist of one syllable.
make makes
smile smiles
dine dines
Save saves
4. The auxiliary Do
With the exception of the verb to be, verbs in modern English use the auxiliary do to form
questions and negative statements in the Simple Present.
The Simple Present of the verb to do is conjugated as follows:
I do we do
You do you do
He/she/it does they do
Auxiliaries are verbs which are combined with other verbs to form various tenses. It should be
noted that when an auxiliary is combined with another verb, it is the auxiliary which must agree
with the subject, while the form of the other verb remains invariable.
When the auxiliary do is combined with another verb, the other verb always has the form of the
bare infinitive.
a. Questions
In order to form a question in the Simple Present of any verb other than the verb to be, the
Simple Present of the auxiliary do is added before the subject, and the bare infinitive of the verb
is placed after the subject. For example:
Affirmative Statement Question

I work. Do I work?
You work. Do you work?
He works. Does he work?
She works. Does she work?
It works. Does it work?
We work. Do we work?
They work. Do they work?
b. Negative statements
In order to form a negative statement, the Simple Present of the auxiliary do followed by the word
not is placed before the bare
infinitive of the verb. For example:
Affirmative Statement Negative Statement

I work. I do not work.
You work. You do not work.
He works. He does not work.
She works. She does not work.
It works. It does not work.
We work. We do not work.
They work. They do not work.
In spoken English, the following contractions are often used:
Without contractions With contractions

do not don't
does not doesn't
c. Negative questions
To form a negative question, the Simple Present of the auxiliary do is placed before the subject,
and the word not followed by the bare infinitive is placed after the subject. However, when
contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the Simple Present of
the auxiliary do. For example:
Without contractions With contractions

Do I not work? Don't I work?
Do you not work? Don't you work?
Does he not work? Doesn't he work?
Does she not work? Doesn't she work?
Does it not work? Doesn't it work?
Do we not work? Don't we work?
Do they not work? Don't they work?
2.THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1. Use of the present continuous:
The Present Continuous tense is usually used to express continuing, ongoing actions which are
taking place at the moment of speaking or writing. [In the examples given below, the verbs in the
Present Continuous tense are underlined.]
--> Right now I am cooking supper.

--> At the moment the plane is flying over the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The Present Continuous tense is often used in conversation.
--> "What are you doing?"

--> "I am working on my English assignment."
Occasionally, the Present Continuous tense is used to refer to a future event.
--> We are leaving tomorrow.
The Present Continuous tense is often used to give descriptions:
--> People are sitting on the café terrace.

--> The traffic is making a lot of noise.
--> She's wearing a red dress.
The Present Continuous tense is often used to express temporary situations:
--> I'm sleeping in the spare room this week because I'm decorating my bedroom.
2. Formation of the present continuous:
The Present Continuous tense of any verb is formed from the Simple Present of the auxiliary to
be, followed by what is generally referred to as the present participle of the verb.
The present participle of a verb is formed by adding ing to the bare infinitive. For instance, the
present participle of the verb to work is working.
Thus, the Present Continuous tense of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:
I am working
you are working
he is working
she is working
it is working
we are working
they are working
3. Spelling rules for the formation of the present participle:
Some verbs change their spelling when the ending ing is added to form the present participle.
a. Verbs ending in a silent e

When a verb ends in a silent e, the silent e is dropped before the ending ing is added. For
example:
Infinitive Present Participle
to close closing
to dine dining
to leave leaving
to move moving
However, when a verb ends in an e which is not silent, the final e is not dropped before the
ending ing is added. For example:

to be being
to see seeing
b. Verbs ending in ie
When a verb ends in ie, the ie is changed to y before the ending ing is added. For example:

to die dying
to lie lying
When a verb ends in y, no change is made before the ending is added. For example:

to fly flying
to play playing
c. One-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel

Except in the case of the final consonants w, x and y, when a one-syllable verb ends in a single
consonant preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant must be doubled before the ending
ing is added. The reason for this is to reflect the fact that the pronunciation of the single vowel
does not change when the ending ing is added.
English vowels have a variety of pronunciations. For instance, each English vowel has two
contrasting pronunciations, which are sometimes referred to as short and long. Vowels which
are followed by two consonants, and vowels which are followed by a single consonant at the end
of a word, are generally pronounced short. In contrast, vowels which are followed by a single
consonant followed by another vowel are generally pronounced long.
In the table below, the underlined vowels in the left-hand column are pronounced short;
whereas the underlined vowels in the right-hand column are pronounced long. For example:
Short Vowels Long Vowels

fat fate
tapping taping
let delete
win wine
filling filing
not note
hopping hoping
flutter flute
Thus, in the case of most one-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a
single vowel, the vowel is pronounced short. In order to reflect the fact that the vowel is also
pronounced short in the corresponding present participle, except in the case of w, x and y, the
final consonant must be doubled before the ending ing is added.
In the following examples, the consonants which have been doubled are
underlined. For example:

to nod nodding
to dig digging
to run running
to clap clapping
to set setting
When a verb ends in w, x or y preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is not doubled
before the ending is added. For example:

to draw drawing
to fix fixing
to say saying
It should also be noted that when a verb ends in a single consonant preceded by two vowels, the
final consonant is not doubled before the ending is added. The reason for this is that two vowels
together are generally pronounced long. For example:

to rain raining
to read reading
to meet meeting
to soak soaking
d. Verbs of more than one syllable which end in a single consonant preceded by a
single vowel
When a verb of more than one syllable ends in a single consonant other than w, x or y preceded
by a single vowel, the final consonant is doubled to form the present participle only when the last
syllable of the verb is pronounced with the heaviest stress.
For instance, in the following examples, the last syllables of the verbs have the heaviest stress,
and the final consonants are doubled to form the present participles. In these examples, the
syllables pronounced with the heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

to expel expelling
to begin beginning
to occur occurring
to omit omitting
When a verb of more than one syllable ends in w, x or y, the final consonant is not doubled
before the ending ing is added. In the following examples, the syllables pronounced with the
heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

to allow allowing
to affix affixing
to convey conveying
When the last syllable of a verb is not pronounced with the heaviest stress, the final consonant is
usually not doubled to form the present participle. For instance, in the following examples, the
last syllables of the verbs do not have the heaviest stress, and the final consonants are not
doubled to form the present participles. In these examples, the syllables pronounced with the
heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

to listen listening
to order ordering
to focus focusing
to limit limiting
If necessary, a dictionary can be consulted to determine which syllable of a verb has the heaviest
stress. Many dictionaries use symbols such as apostrophes to indicate which syllables are
pronounced with the heaviest stress.
It should be noted that British and American spelling rules differ for verbs which end in a single l
preceded by a single vowel. In British spelling, the l is always doubled before the endings ing
and ed
are added. However, in American spelling, verbs ending with a single l follow the same rule as
other verbs; the l is doubled only when the last syllable has the heaviest stress. In the following
examples, the syllables with the heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

American Spelling British Spelling
to signal signaling signalling
to travel traveling travelling

to compel compelling compelling
to propel propelling propelling
From these examples it can be seen that the American and British spellings for verbs ending in a
single l differ only when the last syllable does not have the heaviest stress.
4. Questions and negative statements
a. Questions
In the Present Continuous, the verb to be acts as an auxiliary. As is the case with other English
tenses, it is the auxiliary which is used to form questions and negative statements.
To form a question in the Present Continuous tense, the auxiliary is placed before the subject.
For example:

I am working. Am I working?
You are working. Are you working?
He is working. Is he working?
She is working. Is she working?
It is working. Is it working?
We are working. Are we working?
They are working. Are they working?
To form a negative statement, the word not is added after the auxiliary. For example:

I am working. I am not working.
You are working. You are not working.
He is working. He is not working.
She is working. She is not working.
It is working. It is not working.
We are working. We are not working.
They are working. They are not working.
To form a negative question, the auxiliary is placed before the subject, and the word not is
placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows
immediately after the auxiliary. Although there is no universally accepted contraction for am not,
the expression aren't I? is often used in spoken English. For example:
Without Contractions With Contractions

Am I not working? [Aren't I working?] - used in speaking
Are you not working? Aren't you working?
Is he not working? Isn't he working?
Is she not working? Isn't she working?
Is it not working? Isn't it working?
Are we not working? Aren't we working?
Are they not working? Aren't they working?
5. Comparison of the uses of the simple present and present continuous
The Simple Present tense may be used for stating general truths, habits, regular events,
timetables and procedures or recipes.
--> Nova Scotia is a Canadian province. (to be)

--> Geese fly south every winter.
In contrast, the Present Continuous tense is usually used to refer to ongoing actions
happening at the time of speaking or writing. In the following examples, the verbs in the Present
Continuous tense are underlined.
--> Right now, I am visiting the province of Nova Scotia.

--> At the moment, a flock of geese is flying overhead.
Use the present continuous if you consider the action or event to be temporary:
--> Are you getting on with your parents now? (you had an argument last week)
--> My brother’s being really nice at the moment (and this is not normal)
There are some verbs that you don't usually use in the continuous form. Generally speaking
they're verbs that describe states and not actions, such as these:
--> verbs describing thought and opinions: think, believe, remember, know, forget, agree,
disagree…
--> verbs describing emotions: want, like, love, hate, adore, detest…
--> verbs describing the senses: see, hear, taste, feel, smell…
This doesn't mean that it's impossible to use these verbs in the continuous. It just means that it's
unusual and would probably be very specific in a particular situation.
3.THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

a. Use :
The Simple Past Tense is used to talk about completed actions in the past:
--> My brother got a new job in Madrid last week.
--> How did he react when you told the truth?
--> Shakespeare died in 1616.
In addition, the Simple Past is used to describe situations which existed for a period of time in the
past.
--> Millions of years ago, dinosaurs inhabited the earth.
--> George Washington was the first president of the United States.
The Simple Past is also used to express non-continuous actions which occurred at a definite time
in the past.
--> Columbus reached America in 1492.
--> I graduated from school last year.
It is also used to talk about habits in the past:

--> We always had roast beef on Sundays when I was a boy.
--> We used to walk a mile in the morning when we were in London.
--> We never went abroad for our holidays until the 1970s
It is used to talk about events that happened one after the other:
--> He jumped out of bed, ran into the bathroom and slammed the door.
It is used in the second conditional

--> She would help him if she knew he was in trouble.
2. Formation of the simple past:

a. The verb To Be
The Simple Past of the verb to be is conjugated as follows:
I was we were
you were you were
He/ She /it was they were
Questions and negative statements

The Simple Present and Simple Past of the verb to be do not use auxiliaries to form questions
and negative statements. Instead, the verb itself is used.
The verb to be forms questions and negative statements in the same way in the Simple Past as
in the Simple Present. In order to form a question, the verb is placed before the subject. For
example:

I was awake. Was I awake?
They were ready. Were they ready?
In order to form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the verb. For example:

I was awake. I was not awake.
They were ready. They were not ready.
In spoken English, the following contractions are often used:

was not wasn't
were not weren't
In order to form a negative question, the verb is placed before the subject, and the word not is
placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not
immediately follows the verb. For example:

Was I not awake? Wasn't I awake?
Were they not ready? Weren't they ready?
In order to form tag questions, the verb itself is used. In the following examples, the negative tag
questions are underlined. Contractions are usually used in negative tag questions.
Affirmative Statement Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

I was awake. I was awake, wasn't I?
They were ready. They were ready, weren't they?
b. Other verbs
English verbs other than the verb to be have the same form in the Simple Past, regardless of the
subject.
In the case of regular English verbs, the Simple Past has the same form as the past participle.
For example, the Simple Past of the regular verb to work is conjugated as follows:
I worked we worked
You worked You worked
He/she/it worked they worked
In the case of irregular English verbs, the form of the Simple Past must be memorized. As
illustrated by the examples below, for some irregular verbs, the Simple Past is the same as the
past participle; whereas for others, the Simple Past differs from the past participle. For example:
Bare Infinitive Past Participle

Simple Past
begin began begun
find found found
go went gone
let let let
take took taken
Like the regular verbs, irregular verbs other than the verb to be do not modify in the Simple
Past, but have the same form, regardless of the subject. For example, the Simple Past of the
irregular verb to take is conjugated as follows:
I took
you took
he took
she took
it took
we took
they took
i. Questions and negative statements
In both the Simple Present and the Simple Past of verbs other than the verb to be, questions and
negative statements are formed using the auxiliary to do and the bare infinitive.
For questions and negative statements in the Simple Past, the Simple Past of the auxiliary to do
is used. The Simple Past of to do is conjugated as follows:
I did
you did
he did
she did
it did
we did
they did
In order to change an affirmative statement into a question, did is placed before the subject, and
the form of the verb is changed from the Simple Past to the bare infinitive. In the following
example, the regular verb to work is used. The verb to work has the Simple Past worked, and
the bare infinitive work.

I worked. Did I work?
You worked. Did you work?
He worked. Did he work?
She worked. Did she work?
It worked. Did it work?
We worked. Did we work?
They worked. Did they work?
In order to change an affirmative statement into a negative statement, did not is placed after
the subject, and the form of the verb is changed to the bare infinitive. In the following example,
the irregular verb to speak is used. The verb to speak has the bare infinitive speak and the
Simple Past spoke.

I spoke. I did not speak.
You spoke. You did not speak.
He spoke. He did not speak.
She spoke. She did not speak.
It spoke. It did not speak.
We spoke. We did not speak.
They spoke. They did not speak.
In spoken English, the following contraction is often used:
Without Contraction With Contraction

did not didn't
In order to change an affirmative statement into a negative Question, did is placed before the
subject, not is placed after the subject, and the form of the verb is changed to the bare infinitive.
However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows immediately after the
auxiliary did. For example:
Did I not work? Didn't I work?
Did you not work? Didn't you work?
Did he not work? Didn't he work?
Did she not work? Didn't she work?
Did it not work? Didn't it work?
Did we not work? Didn't we work?
Did they not work? Didn't they work?
4.THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
a. Use:
The Past Continuous tense is used to express continuous actions which took place in the past.
--> He was traveling in Europe last summer.
--> They were playing tennis yesterday afternoon.
The Past Continuous tense is frequently used to refer to an ongoing action which was taking
place when something else occurred in the past.
--> I was washing the dishes when the telephone rang.
--> We were entertaining friends when the parcel arrived.
In the first example, the use of the Past Continuous tense indicates that the action of washing the
dishes was taking place at the time when the telephone rang. In the second example, the use of
the Past Continuous tense indicates that the action of entertaining friends was taking place at the
time when the parcel arrived.
b. Formation:
The Past Continuous tense is formed from the Simple Past of the auxiliary to be, followed by the
present participle of the verb. For example, the Past Continuous of the verb to work is
conjugated as follows:
I was sleeping
you were sleeping
he was sleeping
she was sleeping
it was sleeping
we were sleeping
they were working
c. +/- /? Statements:
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Past
Continuous are formed using the auxiliary.
Questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject. For example:

I was working. Was I working?
They were working. Were they working?
Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the
auxiliary. For example:

I was working. I was not working.
They were working. They were not working.
In spoken English, the contractions wasn't and weren't are often used.
Negative questions are formed by placing the auxiliary before the subject, and the word not after
the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately
follows the auxiliary. The following are examples of negative questions with and without
contractions:

Was I not working? Wasn't I working?
Were they not working? Weren't they working?
5.THE SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
a. Use:
The Simple Future tense is used to express actions which will take place in the future;
--> They will finish the work tomorrow.
--> He will arrive next Saturday.
Will is used to talk about a future fact:

--> The Mayor will open the new musem next Tuesday.
Will can be used to make a prediction;

--> I think it will be hot and sunny tomorrow.
Will is also used to express an intention or decision made at the moment of speaking:
--> It's very hot in here. I'll open the window.
b. Formation:
The Simple Future of any verb is formed from the auxiliary will or shall, followed by the bare
infinitive of the verb.
In informal English, particularly in American English, the Simple Future is usually conjugated
entirely with the auxiliary will. The auxiliary will is a modal auxiliary. Modal auxiliaries do not
modify, but have the same form, regardless of the subject.
The auxiliary will is often contracted to 'll. Thus, in informal English, the Simple Future of the
verb to work is usually conjugated as follows:

I will work I'll work
you will work you'll work
he will work he'll work
she will work she'll work
it will work it'll work
we will work we'll work
they will work they'll work
Verbs used with the subjects I and we are generally referred to as being in the first person;
verbs used with the subject you are generally referred to as being in the second person; and
verbs used with the subjects he, she, it and they are generally referred to as being in the third
person.
For formal English, there is a rule which states that in the Simple Future, the auxiliary shall
should be used in the first person, and the auxiliary will should be used in the second person and
third person. Like the auxiliary will, the auxiliary shall is a modal auxiliary.
Thus, in formal English, the Simple Future of the verb to work may be conjugated as follows:
I shall work we shall work

you will work you will work
He/she/it will work they will work

Even in informal English, the auxiliary shall is usually used in the first person for questions in
which a request for permission is implied.
e.g. Shall I call the office?
Shall we go to the library?
However, the use of will for the first person of the Simple Future is beginning to be considered
acceptable in formal English. Thus, except for questions where a request for permission is
implied, either will or shall may be used for the first person of the Simple Future. In this chapter,
the alternative use of the auxiliary shall in the first person will be indicated by the word shall in
brackets.
The rules for the use of will and shall which apply to the Simple Future tense, also apply to the
other future tenses.
c. Questions and negative statements

As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Simple Future
are formed using the auxiliary.

It will work. Will it work?
They will work. Will they work?
Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the auxiliary. For example:

It will work. It will not work.
They will work. They will not work.

will not won't
The contracted form of will not is unusual, since it is not only the o of not which is omitted. In
addition, the ll of will is omitted, and the i of will is changed to o. The contracted form, won't, is
pronounced to rhyme with don't.
In addition, shall not is sometimes contracted to shan't. However, the word shan't is rarely used
in modern American English.
the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately
follows the auxiliary. The following are examples of negative questions with and without
contractions:

Will it not work? Won't it work?
Will they not work? Won't they work?
6.THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

a. Use:
The Future Continuous tense is used to express continuous actions which will take place in the
future.
--> Mr. Smith will be waiting for us.

--> They will be arriving tomorrow.
b. Formation
The Future Continuous of any verb is formed from the Simple Future of the auxiliary to be,
followed by the present participle of the verb. For instance, the Future Continuous of the verb to
work is conjugated as follows:
I will (shall) be working

you will be working
he will be working
she will be working
it will be working
we will (shall) be working
they will be working
It can be seen that the Future Continuous tense has two auxiliaries. The first auxiliary is will or
shall, and the second auxiliary is be.

As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Future
Continuous are formed using the first auxiliary.
Questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject. For example:

It will be working. Will it be working?
They will be working. Will they be working?
Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the first auxiliary. For example:

It will be working. It will not be working.
They will be working. They will not be working.
Negative questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject, and the word not
after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not immediately
follows the first auxiliary. For example:

Will it not be working? Won't it be working?
Will they not be working? Won't they be working?
7.THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

1. Use :
The English Present Perfect tense is used to express actions which have just or already been
completed at the time of speaking or writing.
--> I have done the work.
--> She has answered half the questions.
In the first example, the use of the Present Perfect tense emphasizes the fact that, at the time of
speaking or writing, the work has already been completed. In the second example, the use of the
Present Perfect indicates that, at the time of speaking or writing, half the questions have been
answered.
This tense epresses the very recent past:

--> They've just left.
It also tells of a state or situation which has started in the past and is continuing up to now:
--> I have lived there for a long time. (I am still living there.)
The event may be a finished state or activity but the period of time in which it has taken place is
not finished:
--> I have written a letter this morning. (the letter is finished and it is still morning)
It tells about an event with a present result :

--> I have lost my keys.
2. Formation of the present perfect: Regular verbs

The Present Perfect tense of any English verb is formed from the Simple Present of the auxiliary
to have, followed by what is generally referred to as the past participle of the verb.
Most English verbs form the past participle in a regular, predictable manner. These verbs are
commonly referred to as regular verbs.
The past participle of a regular English verb is formed by adding the ending ed to the bare
infinitive of the verb. For instance, the past participle of the verb to work is worked.
Thus, the Present Perfect tense of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:
I have worked
you have worked
he has worked
she has worked
it has worked
we have worked
they have worked
The following contractions are often used in spoken English:

I have I've
you have you've
he has he's
she has she's
it has it's
we have we've
they have they've
It should be noted that the contractions for he has, she has and it has are the same as the
contractions for he is, she is and it is.
3. Spelling rules for adding ed to form the past participle
Some regular verbs change their spelling when the ending ed is added to form the past participle.
a. Verbs ending in a silent e

When a regular verb ends in a silent e, only the letter d must be added in order to form the past
participle. For example:
Infinitive Past Participle

to close closed
to move moved
to please pleased
to receive received
b. Verbs ending in y
When a regular verb ends in y immediately preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i
before the ending ed is added. For example:

to study studied
to rely relied
to carry carried
However, when a regular verb ends in y immediately preceded by a vowel, the y is not changed
before the ending ed is added. For example:

to play played
to convey conveyed
to enjoy enjoyed
c. Verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel

The rules concerning the doubling of final consonants which apply when adding the ending ing to
form the present participle also apply when adding the ending ed to form the past participle.
Thus, when a one-syllable verb ends in a single consonant other than w, x or y immediately
preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant must be doubled before the ending ed is added
to form the past participle. In the following examples, the consonants which have been doubled
are underlined. For example:

to rub rubbed
to trim trimmed
to plan planned
to stop stopped
When a verb of more than one syllable ends in a single consonant other than w, x or y
immediately preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is doubled before the ending ed only
when the last syllable of the verb is pronounced with the heaviest stress. In the following
examples, the syllables pronounced with the heaviest stress are underlined. For example:

to control controlled
to infer inferred
to occur occurred
to permit permitted

to fasten fastened
to order ordered
to focus focused
to limit limited
In the first four examples, the last syllable of the verb is pronounced with the heaviest stress, and
the final consonant is doubled before ed is added. In the last four examples, the first syllable of
the verb is pronounced with the heaviest stress, and the final consonant is not doubled before ed
is added.
The final consonants w, x and y are never doubled when the ending ed is added. For example:

to follow followed
to box boxed
to portray portrayed
It should also be noted that final consonants immediately preceded by two vowels are not
doubled when the ending ed is added. For example:

to greet greeted
to rain rained
to soak soaked
to treat treated
4. Pronunciation of the ed ending

The ending ed is usually not pronounced as a separate syllable. For instance, in each of the
following examples, both the bare infinitive and the past participle consist of one syllable. For
example:

puff puffed
work worked
miss missed
watch watched
However, when the ending ed is added to verbs which end in d or t, the ed ending of the past
participle is pronounced as a separate syllable. The reason for this is that the sounds of d and t
are so similar to the sound of the ed ending, that the ending must be pronounced as a separate
syllable in order to be heard clearly.
In each of the following examples, the bare infinitive consists of one syllable; whereas the past
participle consists of two syllables. For example:

add added
land landed
hunt hunted
wait waited
Similarly, when d is added to verbs ending in a silent e preceded by d or t, the final ed of the past
participle is pronounced as a separate syllable. In each of the following examples, the bare
infinitive consists of one syllable; whereas the past participle consists of two syllables. For
example:

fade faded
glide glided
cite cited
note noted
5. Formation of the present perfect: Irregular verbs

In addition to regular English verbs, there are many irregular English verbs, which do not form
the past participle with the ending ed. The English irregular verbs are related to the strong verbs
of the German language. The following are examples of irregular English verbs. For example:

begin begun
find found
go gone
let let
take taken
The past participles of irregular English verbs are formed in an unpredictable manner, and
must be memorized.
Except for the irregularity of the past participle, the formation of the Present Perfect tense is the
same for an irregular verb as for a regular verb. In both cases, the Simple Present of the auxiliary
to have is followed by the past participle of the verb.
For instance, the irregular verb to take has the past participle taken. Thus, the Present Perfect of
the irregular verb to take is conjugated as follows:
I have taken
you have taken
he has taken
she has taken
it has taken
we have taken
they have taken
6. Questions and negative statements

As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Present
Perfect are formed using the auxiliary. In the case of the Present Perfect, the auxiliary is have or
has.
a. Questions
In order to form a question, the auxiliary is placed before the subject of the verb. For example:

I have worked. Have I worked?
You have worked. Have you worked?
He has worked. Has he worked?
She has worked. Has she worked?
It has worked. Has it worked?
We have worked. Have we worked?
They have worked. Have they worked?
In order to form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the auxiliary. For example:

I have worked. I have not worked.
You have worked. You have not worked.
He has worked. He has not worked.
She has worked. She has not worked.
It has worked. It has not worked.
We have worked. We have not worked.
They have worked. They have not worked.
The following contractions are often used in spoken English:

have not haven't
has not hasn't
In order to form a negative question, the auxiliary is placed before the subject, and the word not
is placed after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not
follows immediately after the auxiliary. For example:
Have I not worked? Haven't I worked?
Have you not worked? Haven't you worked?
Has he not worked? Hasn't he worked?
Has she not worked? Hasn't she worked?
Has it not worked? Hasn't it worked?
Have we not worked? Haven't we worked?
Have they not worked? Haven't they worked?
8.THE PAST PERFECT TENSE

A. Use:
The Past Perfect tense is used to refer to a non-continuous action in the past, which was
already completed by the time another action in the past took place. Notice that Simple past and
Past perfect are generally used together with conjuctions like when, after, before and until. The
Past perfect refers to the first action and Simple past to the second action.
--> She had heard the news before I saw her.

--> I had finished my work by the time the clock struck twelve.
In the preceding examples, the verbs had heard and had finished are in the Past Perfect tense,
and the verbs saw and struck are in the Simple Past. The use of the Past Perfect tense
indicates that the actions of hearing the news and finishing the work were already completed by
the time the actions expressed by the verbs in the Simple Past took place.
b. Formation:
The Past Perfect tense is formed from the Simple Past of the auxiliary to have, followed by the
past participle of the verb.
The Simple Past of to have is had. In spoken English, the auxiliary had is often contracted to 'd.
For example, the Past Perfect of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:

I had worked I'd worked
you had worked you'd worked
he had worked he'd worked
she had worked she'd worked
it had worked it'd worked
we had worked we'd worked
they had worked they'd worked
The contraction it'd is less frequently used than the other contractions, since it is more difficult to
pronounce.
c. Questions and negative statements:
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Past Perfect
tense are formed using the auxiliary.

I had worked. Had I worked?
They had worked. Had they worked?
Negative statements are formed by placing the word not after the auxiliary. For example:

I had worked. I had not worked.
They had worked. They had not worked.

had not hadn't
the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows
immediately after the auxiliary. For example:

Had I not worked? Hadn't I worked?
Had they not worked? Hadn't they worked?
9.THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
The Future Perfect tense is used to refer to a non-continuous action which will be completed
by a certain time in the future.
--> Helena will have finished the work by Wednesday.

--> I will have cleaned the room before the guests arrive.
--> They will have eaten breakfast by the time he gets up.
In these examples, the use of the Future Perfect indicates that the actions of finishing the work,
cleaning the room, and eating breakfast will have been completed before the coming of
Wednesday, the arrival of the guests, and his getting up take place.
The Future Perfect shows the time before which something will finish. For example:
--> Next Friday, I'll have worked here for 5 years.
(When next Friday comes, it will be 5 years since I started working here.)
We often use by to show the time before which something is completed, for example:
--> Can I borrow you book? - You can have it tomorrow, I'll have read it by then.
--> I'll have left by the time you arrive.
b. Formation
The Future Perfect of any verb is formed from the Simple Future of the auxiliary to have,
followed by the past participle of the verb. For instance, the Future Perfect of the verb to work is
conjugated as follows:
I will (shall) have worked we will (shall) have worked

You will have worked You will have worked
He/she/it will have worked they will have worked

As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Future Perfect
are formed using the first auxiliary.

It will have worked. Will it have worked?
They will have worked. Will they have worked?

It will have worked. It will not have worked.
They will have worked. They will not have worked.

Will it not have worked? Won't it have worked?
Will they not have worked? Won't they have worked?
10.THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

TENSE
a. Use :
1. The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to express continuous, ongoing actions
which started in the past and are still going on:
--> I have been cutting the grass.

--> The bus has been waiting for one hour.
The use of the Present Perfect Continuous tense in this example indicates that, at the time of
speaking or writing, the bus has completed one hour of waiting. "Waiting" is still on.
2- Present perfect progressive tense lets you show that an action began sometime in the past,
continued uninterrupted up to the present, but probably won't continue into the future.
--> I have been telling you all along that you need to brush up on your grammar.
--> She has been trying to get a quote from the mayor all morning.
 Both the telling and the trying began sometime in the past.
 Both actions continued up to the present, but may not continue any more.
b. Formation :
The Present Perfect Continuous tense of any English verb is formed from the Present Perfect of
to be, followed by the present participle of the verb. For instance, the Present Perfect Continuous
tense of the verb to work is conjugated as follows:
I have been working we have been working

You have been working You have been working
He/she/it has been working they have been working

Thus, it can be seen that the Present Perfect Continuous tense has two auxiliaries. The first
auxiliary is have or has, and the second auxiliary is been.
c. Questions and negative statementsWhen a verb has more than one auxiliary, it is the first
auxiliary which must change its form to agree with the subject of the verb. It is also the first
auxiliary which is used to form questions and negative statements.
Questions are formed by placing the first auxiliary before the subject of the verb. For example:

I have been working. Have I been working?
You have been working. Have you been working?
He has been working. Has he been working?
She has been working. Has she been working?
It has been working. Has it been working?
We have been working. Have we been working?
They have been working. Have they been working?

I have been working. I have not been working.
You have been working. You have not been working.
He has been working. He has not been working.
She has been working. She has not been working.
It has been working. It has not been working.
We have been working. We have not been working.
They have been working. They have not been working.
after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows
immediately after the first auxiliary. For example:
Have I not been working? Haven't I been working?
Have you not been working? Haven't you been working?
Has he not been working? Hasn't he been working?
Has she not been working? Hasn't she been working?
Has it not been working? Hasn't it been working?
Have we not been working? Haven't we been working?
Have they not been working? Haven't they been working?
11.THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

TENSE
a. Use:
1- The Past Perfect Continuous tense is used to refer to a continuous, ongoing action in the past
which was interrupted by a second action in Simple Past. What is important is the duration of the
action expressed through Past Perfect Continuous.
--> I had been waiting for two months by the time I received the reply.
--> He had been thinking about his friends shortly before they called.
In the preceding examples, the verbs had been waiting and had been thinking are in the Past
Perfect Continuous tense, and the verbs received and called are in the Simple Past. The use of
the Past Perfect Continuous tense indicates that the actions of waiting and thinking were
continuous, and were interrupted by the actions expressed in the Simple Past.
2- Past perfect progressive tense lets you show that two actions took place in the past, one an
ongoing action and the other a one-time action, and that the ongoing action preceded the one-
time action.
--> Police had been tracking him for years and finally caught him.
 The tracking went on for some time in the past.

 The catching was a one-time action that also occurred in the past.
 Furthermore, the tracking preceded the catching.
--> Jones, who had been running, arrived out of breath.
 The running went on for some time in the past.

 The arriving was a one-time action that also occurred in the past.
 Furthermore, the running preceded the arriving.
b. Formation:
The Past Perfect Continuous tense is formed from the Past Perfect of the auxiliary to be,
followed by the present participle of the verb. For example, the Past Perfect Continuous tense of
the verb to work is conjugated as follows:
I had been working

you had been working
he had been working
she had been working
it had been working
we had been working
they had been working
The auxiliary had is often contracted to 'd in spoken English.
c. Questions and negative statements:
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Past Perfect
Continuous tense are formed using the first auxiliary.

I had been working. Had I been working?
They had been working. Had they been working?

I had been working. I had not been working.
They had been working. They had not been working.
after the subject. However, when contractions are used, the contracted form of not follows
immediately after the first auxiliary. For example:

Had I not been working? Hadn't I been working?
Had they not been working? Hadn't they been working?
12.THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

a. Use
The Future Perfect Continuous tense is used to express a continuous, action which will be
completed by a certain time in the future.
--> By next January, she will have been living here for a year.
--> You will have been traveling a great deal by the time you return home.
--> He will have been working for ten months by the time he takes his vacation.
In these examples, the use of the Future Perfect Continuous indicates that the continuous,
ongoing actions of living, traveling, and working, will have been completed before the events of
the coming of January, your returning home, and his taking a vacation, take place.
b. Formation
The Future Perfect Continuous of any verb is formed from the Future Perfect of the auxiliary to
be, followed by the present participle of the verb. For instance, the Future Perfect Continuous of
the verb to work is conjugated as follows:
I will (shall) have been working

you will have been working
He will have been working
She will have been working
it will have been working
We will (shall) have been working
they will have been working
As is the case with other English tenses, questions and negative statements in the Future Perfect
Continuous are formed using the first auxiliary.

It will have been working. Will it have been working?
They will have been working. Will they have been working?

It will have been working. It will not have been working.
They will have been working. They will not have been working.

Will it not have been working? Won't it have been working?
Will they not have been working? Won't they have been working?
13.Comparison of English Tenses
(1) The PRESENT TENSES
You use the present tense to express something that happens in the present. The Present
Simple differs from the Present Continuous or Progressive in:
Present Simple Present Continuous or Progressive
1. a present habit or routine 1. a present and temporary activity
She smokes a lot. (She always She is smoking a lot. (She doesn’t normally.)
smokes a lot.)
2. a general truth 2. an on-going activity of limited duration
Water is wet. He is watching television at the moment.
3. a present situation (not temporary) 3. a future arrangement
He lives in Dendermonde. He is seeing his dentist tomorrow. (an

appointment)
4. always with STATE VERBS:
4. repeated actions that irritate the speaker
a. verbs of the senses
He is always telling other people what to do.
Do you hear anything?
b. verbs of opinion and

understanding
He doesn't understand Japanese.
c. verbs of emotions and feelings
She hates classical music.
5. in the first conditional
He will come to the party, if you invite

him.
(2) The PERFECT and PAST tenses
All these tenses describe actions in the past. The Present Perfect differs from the Simple
Past in:
Present Perfect Simple Past
1. you know that the action took place 1. you know precisely when the action took place
in the past, but don't know when precisely. in the past.
-I have seen her three times. (when? you -I saw her last week. (when? last week)
don't know)

2. very recent past 2. a past habit which is now finished
-They've just left. -She smoked a lot. (not anymore now)
3. to announce news 3. in the second conditional
-A new president has been elected in -She would help him, if she knew he was in
Italy. troubles.
4. a state or situation which has 4. a state or situation which started in the past
started in the past and is continuing up to
now. and is now finished.
-I have lived there for a long time. (I am -I lived there for a long time. (I am living
still living there.) somewhere else now.)
5. a finished state or activity but the 5. a finished state or activity and the period of
period of time in which it has taken place time in which it has taken place is finished.
is not finished.
-I wrote a letter this morning.
-I have written a letter this morning.
(the letter is finished and it is no longer morning)
(the letter is finished and it is still
morning)
6. a present result
-I have lost my keys.
The Present Prefect Simple differs from the Present Prefect Continuous in:
Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous
1. a one-moment action 1. an on-going activity
I have cut my finger. I have been cutting the grass.
2. the activity stops after the moment 2. the activity started in the past and is continuing
of speaking and you are speaking about a
result. after the moment of speaking a(so not finished).
I have painted the room. (finished) I have been painting the room. (still to finish it)
3. to express irritation
I have been waiting for hours.
(3) The PAST Perfect
You use the Past Perfect instead of the Simple Past or Present Perfect when an action has
taken place before another action in the past.
She found feathers everywhere. The cat had caught a bird.
(4) Expressing the FUTURE
There is no one future tense in English. Instead, several verb forms and auxiliaries might be
used to express the future.

4.1 will + infinitve: (shall after I and we in formal English)
1.) a prediction without proof and which is based upon your own opinion
I think Labour will win the elections. (That is my opinion.)
2.) in the First Conditional but never after if
If you aren’t careful, you’ll break that glass.
3.) a decision or an intention made at the moment of speaking
Someone is knocking at the door. I’ll open it.
4.2 - to be going to + infinitive:
1.) a prediction based on a present fact or some evidence
Look at the sky. It ‘s going to be a lovely day. (The sky proves this.)
2.) a decision or an intention made before the moment of speaking
When she grows up, she is going to be a ballet dancer.
4.3 the Present Progressive or Continuous
1.) a future arrangement (made an appointment)
I’m seeing Aïda next month. (You have bought the tickets already.)
4.4 the Present Simple
1.) the certain future of a timetable or calendar
My flight leaves at 10.00.
It is my birthday tomorrow.
2.) after if, when, before and so on in the First Conditional
If the weather turns bad, the picnic will be cancelled.
4.5 the Future Continuous: will + be + -ing form

1.) an activity that will be in progress before and after a time in the future
Don’t phone at 8.00, because we will be having dinner.
2.) a future event that will happen in he natural course of events
Don’t worry about our guests. They’ll be arriving any minute now.
4.6 the Future Perfect
1.) an action that will be completed before a definite time in the future.
I’ll have done all my work by this evening.
14. MODALS
Modals one by one

They are verbs which 'help' other verbs to express a meaning: it is important to realise that
"modal verbs" have no meaning by themselves. A modal verb such as would has several varying
functions; it can be used, for example, to help verbs express ideas about the past, the present
and the future. It is therefore wrong to simply believe that "would is the past of will": it is many
other things.
A few basic grammatical rules applying to modal verbs

Modal verbs are NEVER used with other auxiliary verbs such as do, does, did etc. The
negative is formed simply by adding "not" after the verb; questions are formed by inversion of the
verb and subject:
-You should not do that.
-Could you pick me up when I've finished?
Modal verbs NEVER change form: you can never add an "-s" or "-ed", for example.
Modal verbs are NEVER followed by to, with the exception of ought to.
What sort of meanings do modals give to other verbs?
The meaning are usually connected with ideas of DOUBT, CERTAINTY, POSSIBILITY and
PROBABILITY, OBLIGATION and PERMISSION (or lack of these). You will see that they are not
used to talk about things that definitely exist, or events that definitely happened. These meanings
are sometimes divided into two groups:
DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: certainty; probability; possibility; impossibility
OBLIGATION/FREEDOM TO ACT: permission,lack of permission; ability; obligation.
Let's look at each modal verb separately, and the functions they help to express:
Will
Making personal predictions
-I don't think the Queen will ever abdicate.
-I doubt if I'll stay here much longer.
Talking about the present with certainty (making deductions)
-I'm sure you will understand that there is nothing the Department can do
-There's a letter for you. It'll be from the bank: they said they'd be writing.
Talking about the future with certainty
-I won't be in the office until 11; I've got a meeting.
-Don't bother ringing: they'll have left for their 10 o'clock lecture.
Talking about the past with certainty
-I'm sure you will have noticed that attendance has fallen sharply.
Reassuring someone
-Don't worry! You'll settle down quickly, I'm sure.
-It'll be all right! You won't have to speak by yourself.
Making a decision
-For the main course I'll have grilled tuna.
-I'm very tired. I think I'll stay at home tonight.
Making a semi-formal request
-Will you open the window, please? It's very hot in here.
-Sign this, will you?
Offering to do something
-You stay there! I'll fetch the drinks.
Insistence; habitual behaviour
-I'm not surprised you don't know what to do! You will keep talking in class.
-Damn! My car won't start. I'll have to call the garage.
Making a promise or a threat
-You can count on me! I'll be there at 8 o'clock sharp.
-If you don't finish your dinner off, you'll go straight to bed!
Shall
is a form of will, used mostly in the first person. Its use, however, is decreasing, and in
Shall
any case in spoken English it would be contracted to "-ll" and be indistinguishable from will.
Modals (Chart)
MODAL VERBS
ABILITY
For an ability in the present we can use CAN or BE ABLE TO. There is no difference in meaning
but CAN is more common.
-> She can play the piano
For an ability in the past we can use COULD or WAS/WERE ABLE TO. There is a difference in
meaning:
(a) COULD is used for a general ability in the past

-> She could play the piano when she was six.
(b) WAS/WERE ABLE TO is used for a particular ability in the past

-> I didn't forget my keys so we were able to unlock the door.
(c) COULD can be used for a particular ability in the past when the sentence is negated, or when
the lexical verb is a verb of perception
I forgot my keys so we weren't able to/couldn't unlock the door.
COULD HAVE + past participle is used to talk about an action that we had the ability to perform
in the past, but that we didn't perform.
-> She could have arrived earlier.
CAN and COULD do not have non-finite forms (infinitive, -ing or participles) so they cannot we
used in tenses or constructions that require those forms. Instead we have to use BE ABLE TO
-> You will be able to speak fluent Englsih in a few years.
PERMISSION
To ask for permission we may use CAN (more common, more direct), COULD (more common,
less direct, more polite), MAY (more formal), or MIGHT (more formal, less direct).
-> Can she play your piano?
-> Could I use your phone?
-> May I erase the blackboard?
To give permission we may use CAN (more common, more direct),or MAY (more common, less
direct, more polite)
-> Can she play your piano? Yes, she can.
-> Could I use your phone? Of course you can.
-> May I erase the blackboard? No, you can't.
To TALK ABOUT having permission we may use CAN, COULD or BE ALLOWED TO
(a) We use CAN or AM/ARE ALLOWED TO to talk about a permission we have in the present
-> The children are allowed to/can stay up late on Saturdays.
(b) We use COULD or WAS/WERE ALLOWED TO to talk about a general permission we had in
the past
-> We were allowed to/could stay up late on Saturdays.
(c) To talk about a particular permission we had in the past we use WAS/WERE ALLOWED TO
-> We were allowed to stay up late last Saturday.
OBLIGATION AND NECESSITY
To express an obligation or necessity for an action in the present or the future we can use MUST or
HAVE TO. There is a difference in meaning:
(a) MUST is used when the authority comes from the speaker
-> You must eat your vegetables, I insist.
(b) HAVE TO is used when the authority comes from outside the speaker
-> You have to eat your vegetables. The doctor said you need more vitamins.
MUST does not have a past tense or non-finite forms (infinitive, -ing or participles) so it cannot we used in
tenses or constructions that require those forms. Instead we have to use HAVE TO.
-> Peter had to speak with his teacher after his exams.
To say that it is obligatory or necessary NOT TO DO something we use MUST NOT (MUSTN'T)
-> You mustn't eat that plant. It is poisonous.
To say that it is NOT obligatory or necessary to do something we use DON'T HAVE TO, NEEDN'T or
DON'T NEED TO.
-> You don't have to eat your vegetables. Leave them if you want.
-> You don't need to come if you'd rather stay at home.
To say that something was NOT obligatory or necessary in the past we use NEEDN'T HAVE + past
participle or DIDN'T NEED TO + infinitive.There is a difference in meaning.
(a) NEEDN'T HAVE indicates that something was not necessary or obligatory but that it happened
anyways.
-> You needn't have come. You could have stayed at home.
(b) DIDN'T NEED TO only indicates that something was not necessary or obligatory (we do not know
whether it happened or not)
-> You didn't need to come to class yesterday. Did any of you come?
POSSIBILITY, PROBABILITY, AND CERTAINTY
To that something is theoretically possible in the present or future we use CAN. For theoretical possibility
in the past we use COULD.
-> Anyone can learn how to speak French.
-> My brother can be annoying. (= My bother is sometimes anoying)
To imply that something is factually possible in the present or future (that is, that perhaps something is
happening or will happen) we use MAY, MIGHT or COULD. They indicate different degrees of possibility
(may more likely, COULD less likely.)
-> Peter may speak with his teacher after his exams.
-> Peter might speak with his teacher after his exams.
In the negative we use MAY NOT or MIGHT NOT. In questions we rarely use MAY.
-> You may not be able to speak to him. I think he was about to leave.
To say that something is factually possible in the past (that is, that perhaps something has happened) we
use MAY/MIGHT/COULD HAVE + Past participle. Tosay that something was possible in the past but did
not happen we use MIGHT/ COULD + HAVE + Past participle
-> They may have arrived by now. (=Maybe they have already arrived)
-> They could have arrived by now, but they haven't.
To say that something is probable in the present or future we use SHOULD or OUGHT TO. To say that
something was probable in the past we use SHOULD/ OUGHT TO + HAVE + Past participle.
-> We should be there by tomorrow morning. (=We'll probably be there tomorrow morning)
-> They ought to have arrived by now. (=Probably they have already arrived )
To say that you are sure that something will happen in the present or future we use MUST. To say that
you are sure that something has happened in the past we use MUST HAVE + Past participle.
-> She must be the doctor. (=I'm sure she is the doctor)
-> They must have arrived by now. (=I'm sure they have already arrived)
To say that you are sure that something will NOT happen in the present or future we use can't. To say that
you are sure that something has NOT happened in the past we use can't HAVE + Past participle.
-> She can't be the doctor. (=I'm sure she is not the doctor, it is impossible)
-> They can't have arrived by now. (=It's impossible that they have already arrived )
15.THE PASSIVE
SIMPLE PASSIVE VOICE
There are two voices in English, the active and the passive. The active tells us what the
subject does, for example:
- The secretary wrote a letter.
The passive tells us what is done to the subject. For example:

- The letter was written by the secretary.
Form
The passive is made with the verb "to be" and the past participle. Here are the main English
tenses used in the passive voice.
How to construct the passive.
1. Check to see if the active sentence contains an object.
John ate an apple. (S V O) Passive is possible.
John ate yesterday. (S V) Passive is not possible.
2. Move the object to the front of the sentence. Put the original subject in a “by”
phrase .
An apple (V) by John.
3. Put the verb in the form “be” +3 (of main verb)
An apple “ be ” eaten by John.
4. Put the “be” in the same tense as the original active sentence.
An apple was/were eaten by John. ( past tense)
5. Make the first verb agree with the new subject.
An apple was eaten by John.
Tense Subject Verb "to be" Past Participle
Simple present: Flowers are planted every year
Present continuous: Flowers are being planted now.
Simple past: Flowers were planted last year
Past continuous: Flowers were being planted last summer.
Present perfect: Flowers have been planted here for 10 years.
Past perfect: Flowers had been planted until last year.
Future: Flowers will be planted next year.
Future continuous: Flowers will be being planted during the summer.
Present conditional: Flowers would be planted if we had seeds.
Past conditional: Flowers would have been planted if we had had seeds.
By
To state what the cause of a passive action is, you can use by. For example:
- This photo was taken by my friend.
- I was given this by my brother.
It is often not necessary to statethe cause of a passive action, especially when clearly
understood or irrelevant. For example:
- The meeting was cancelled. (The meeting's cancellation is what is important, not who cancelled
it.)
- These boots were made in Italy. (The fact they were made in Italy is what's important, not who
made them.)
Born
When talking abut the birth of specific people of things we use the passive form "to be born".
For example:
- I was born in Iran.
- The twins were born just last year.
Get
Get can be used instead of to be in situations where something happens. For example:
- Our flight got cancelled = Our flight was cancelled.
- I got paid today = I was paid today.
Get can't be used with general situations and state verbs (verbs that express a state, not an
action). For example:
- He is liked by a lot of people. - OK

- He gets liked by a lot of people. - Incorrect.
- She is known to be a hard-working employee. - OK
- She gets known to be a hard-working employee.- Incorrect
Get is used more often in informal English.

PASSIVE VOICE 2
Events may be related in the active or the passive voice. In the passive, the person or thing
receiving the action becomes the grammatical subject.
For example (the entity receiving the action is in boldface):
 active voice: Eric Rohmer made this film.

 passive voice: This film was made by Eric Rohmer.
One forms the passive by conjugating the verb "to be" before the past participle of the
principal verb. the tense of the verb "to be" will determine the tense of action. When an agent of
the action (that is, the person or entity performing the action) must be described, one does so by
using the preposition "by":
 This industry will soon be developed in the third world.

 Sorry, but this car has been purchased by another customer.
English uses the passive voice frequently, although it is best to avoid it when possible. An
option is to use an impersonal subject, such as "one" or "someone"
 (passive voice): This job needs to be done.

 (active voice): Someone needs to do this job.
The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences an
action rather than the person or object that performs the action, e.g.
 The passive is used ...:

We are interested in the passive, not who uses it.
 The house was built in 1654:
We are interested in the house, not the builder.
 The road is being repaired:
We are interested in the road, not the people repairing it.
In other words, the most important thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence.
Sometimes we use the passive voice because we don't know or cannot express who or
what performed the action:
 I noticed that a window had been left open
 Every year people are killed on our roads.
If we want to say who or what performs the action, we use the preposition by:
 "A Hard Day's Night" was written by the Beatles

 ET was directed by Spielberg
The passive voice is often used in formal or scientific texts:
 A great deal of meaning is conveyed by a few well-chosen words.

 Our planet is wrapped in a mass of gases.
 Waste materials are disposed of in a variety of ways.
Infinitive form: infinitive of 'to be' + past participle: (to) be cleaned
This form is used after modal verbs and other verbs normally followed by an infinitive, e.g.
You have to be tested on your English grammar

John might be promoted next year.
She wants to be invited to the party.
Gerund or -ing form: being + past participle: being cleaned
This form is used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund
Examples:
a. Most film stars hate being interviewed.

b. I remember being taught to drive.
c. The children are excited about being taken to the zoo.
NOTE: Sometimes the passive is formed using the verb to get instead of the verb to be:
a. He got arrested for dangerous driving.

b. They're getting married later this year.
c. I'm not sure how the window got broken.
16.CONDITIONAL - IF CLAUSES
THE ZERO CONDITIONAL
In 'zero' conditional sentences, the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple
present:
'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION) MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present simple present

If you heat ice it melts.
If it rains you get wet
NOTE: The order of the clauses is not fixed - the 'if' clause can be first or second:
 Ice melts if you heat it.

 You get wet if it rains.
In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible.
They are used to make statements about the real world, and often refer to general truths, such as
scientific facts.
Examples:
a. If you freeze water, it becomes a solid.

b. Plants die if they don't get enough water.
c. If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.
d. If public transport is efficient, people stop using their cars.
e. If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
The structure below is often used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main
clause:
 If Bill phones, tell him to meet me at the cinema.
 Ask Pete if you're not sure what to do.
THE FIRST CONDITIONAL
In a Type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the
tense in the main clause is the simple future
'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION) MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present Simple future

If it rains you will get wet
If you don't hurry we will miss the train.
In these sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real. They refer to a
possible condition and its probable result. They are based on facts, and they are used to
make statements about the real world, and about particular situations. We often use such
sentences to give warnings:
 If you don't leave, I'll call the police.

 If you don't drop the gun, I'll shoot!
Examples:
 If you drop that glass, it will break.

 Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.
 If I have time, I'll finish that letter.
 What will you do if you miss the plane?
NOTE: We can use modals to express the degree of certainty of the result:
 If you drop that glass, it might break.

 I may finish that letter if I have time.
THE SECOND CONDITIONAL
In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense
in the main clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past Present conditional
If it rained you would get wet

If you went to bed earlier you wouldn't be so tired.
In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not
based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result.
The use of the past tense after 'if' indicates unreality. We can nearly always add a phrase
starting with "but", that expresses the real situation:
 If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park

(...but it is bad, so we can't go)
 If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone £100.
(...but I'm not, so I won't)
Examples of use:
1. To make a statement about something that is not real at present, but is possible:
I would visit her if I had time.

(= I haven't got time but I might have some time)
2. To make a statement about a situation that is not real now and never could be real:
If I were you, I'd give up smoking

(but I could never be you)
Examples:
a. If I was a plant, I would love the rain.

b. If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring.
c. If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her.
d. You wouldn't need to read this if you understood English grammar.
e. Would he go to the concert if I gave him a ticket?
f. They wouldn't invite her if they didn't like her
g. We would be able to buy a larger house if we had more money
NOTE:
It is correct, and very common, to say "If I were" instead of "If I was".
THE THIRD CONDITIONAL
In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in
the main clause is the perfect conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect Perfect conditional
If it had rained you would have got wet

If you had worked harder you would have passed the exam.
In these sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. The facts they
are based on are the opposite of what is expressed.
Type 3 conditional sentences, are truly hypothetical or unreal, because it is now too late for
the condition or its result to exist. There is always an unspoken "but..." phrase:
 If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam

(but I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass the exam).
 If I'd known you were coming I'd have baked a cake
(but I didn't know, and I haven't baked a cake).
NOTE:
Both would and had can be contracted to 'd, which can be confusing. Remember that you
NEVER use would in the IF-clause, so in the example above, "If I'd known" must be "If I had
known", and "I'd have baked" must be "I would have baked.."
Examples:
a. If I'd known you were in hospital, I would have visited you.

b. I would have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birthday.
c. If they'd had a better goalkeeper they wouldn't have lost the game.
d. If you had told me you were on the Internet, I'd have sent you an e-mail.
e. Would you have bought an elephant if you'd known how much they eat?
Other Conditionals
 If we defeat
them, we'll go to the
disco to celebrate! 'If' clauses express the conditions necessary
If  Jess would buy for the result. If clauses are followed by expected
a pc, if she had enough results based on the condition.
money.
In contrast to sentences with 'if' sentences with

 Even if she 'even if' show a result that is unexpected based on
saves a lot, she won't be the condition in the 'even if' clause. Example:
Even if
able to afford that house. COMPARE: If she studies hard, she will pass the
exam AND Even if she studies hard, she won't
pass the exam.
 They won't be
able to come whether or
'Whether or not' expresses the idea that
not they have enough
neither one condition or another matters; the result
Whethe money.
will be the same. Notice the possibility of inversion
r or not  Whether they
(Whether they have money or not) with 'whether or
have money or not, they
not'.
won't be able to come.
 Unless she
'Unless' expresses the idea of 'if not' Example:
hurries up, we won't
Unless she hurries up, we won't arrive in time.
arrive in time.
Unless MEANS THE SAME AS: If she doesn't hurry up,
 We won't go
we won't arrive in time. 'Unless' is only used in the
unless he arrives soon.
first conditional.
 In the case you
need me, I'll be at
In case Tom's. 'In case' and 'in the event' usually mean that
(that), in the  I'll be studying you don't expect something to happen, but if it
event (that) upstairs in the event he does... Both are used primarily for future events.
calls.
Only if  We'll give you 'Only if' means 'only in the case that something
your bicycle only if you happens - and only if'. This form basically means
do well on your exams. the same as 'if'. However, it does stress the
condition for the result. Note that when 'only if'
 Only if you do
well on your exams will
begins the sentence you need to invert the main
we give you your
clause.
bicycle.
WISH CLAUSES
You can use this structure when you would like things to be different from the way they
actually are.
Use the verb wish to refer to how you would like things to be in the present or to talk about
how you would like things to be in the future.
It can also be used to talk about the way things were in the past, but obviously the past can't
be changed.
The general concept is sometimes known as 'wishful thinking' and often coincides with the
use in Spanish of 'ojalá'.
Wishes about the present (and the future)
If you want to talk about your present situation, you can use the structure wish + past simple
or continuous. For example:
I haven't got any money. I wish I had some money.
I don't earn much money. I wish I earned a lot of money.
We're all living in a small flat. I wish we weren't living in a small flat. I wish we were living in a big
flat.
The same form can be used to talk about someone else's situation. However, there is
another structure that you use to talk about actions that take place in the present, but you want
them to change in the future. This structure is used to talk about another person, and generally
about things you don't like. The structure is wish + would/could + infinitive. For example:
Your friend is always borrowing money from you because he never seems to have his bank
card with him. You could say to him:
I wish you wouldn't keep borrowing money from me.
I wish you would remember to go to the bank from time to time.

Perhaps the same friend does lots of things that irritate you. Maybe he phones you early in
the morning when you're still in bed. He might arrange to meet you and then turn up late. You
could say to him:
I wish you wouldn't phone me so early in the morning.
I wish you would wait until later.
I wish you would tell me when you're going to be late.
Wishes about the future (and the present)
When you talk about the future, you use the same structure as you use to talk about present
states. Some examples:
I have to go to the dentist tomorrow. I wish I didn't have to go to the dentist tomorrow.
I'll have to do some extra work over the weekend. I wish I didn't have to do any extra work over
the weekend.
My brother is coming to stay with me next week. I wish my brother wasn't coming next week.
The future in these cases can't be changed (in theory), and so the situation is seen as unreal
and has to be referred to using past tenses.
Wishes about the past: regrets
When you think about a situation in the past, naturally you can't do anything to change it.
Therefore this is a way of expressing regret. The structure you use is wish + past perfect. For
example:
You were too slow getting ready to go out. I wish you hadn't been so slow getting ready.
Now we've missed the train. I wish we hadn't missed the train.
I promised our friends we'd arrive on time. I wish I hadn't promised we'd arrive on time, because
now they'll be waiting for us.
Notes
As mentioned above, the structure wish + would can't be used to talk about yourself. It is
used to refer to actions, and you should be able to stop any action you're doing.
Therefore when you talk about yourself, you're talking about states you have no control over
(I'm poor, I wish I was rich) or other people's actions that you have no control over either (I
haven't got any money. I wish you'd give me some).
If your wish might come true, you should use a different type of verb. For example:
I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow.
I'd like to go to the Caribbean for my holiday next year.
I hope you get well soon.
You don't need to repeat all the verbs all the time:
My flat is cold. I wish it wasn't.
You smoke. I wish you wouldn't.
She told him! I wish she hadn't.
17.NOUN CLAUSES
NOUN CLAUSES 1
A noun clause is a dependent clause and cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause, a main clause. A noun clause has its own subject and verb.
It can begin with a question word. It can begin with if or whether. And it can begin with that.
a) Noun clauses with question words:

The following question words can be used to introduce a noun clause: when, where, why,
how, who, whom, what, which, whose.
Example:
Answer this question using 'I don't know...'
Where does Maria live?
I don't know -------------.
It is incorrect to say, "I don't know where does she live."
Notice that "does she live" is a question form. Noun clauses cannot be in question form; it
has to be a statement.
"I don't know where she lives" is the correct answer.
You try it:
Respond to these questions using I don't know...

1- How old is Kate?
2- Where did Juan go?
3- Why did Maria leave?
4- What did she say?
5- When is she going to leave?
6- What country is Maria from?
7- What is that girl's name?
Now compare your sentences to mine.
1- I don't know how old she is.
2- I don't know where he went.
3- I don't know why she left.
4- I don't know what she said.
5- I don't know when she is going to leave.
6- I don't know what country she is from.
7- I don't know what her name is.
Noun clauses with who, what, whose + be:

A noun or pronoun that follows main verb 'be' in a question comes in front of 'be' in a noun
clause.
Example:
--> Who is that boy? I don't know who that boy is.
--> Whose pen is this? I don't know whose pen this is.
A prepositional phrase does not come in front of 'be' in a noun clause.

Example:
--> Who is in the office? I don't know who is in the office.
--> Whose pen is on the desk? I don't know whose pen is on the desk.
Notice that usual word order is not used when the question word is the subject of the
question as in 'who' and 'what'. In this case, the word order in the noun clause is the same as the
word order in question.
Be sure to complete the exercises in the assignments.
b) Noun clauses, which begin with if or whether:

When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, if is usually used to introduce the
clause.
Example:
--> Is Maria at home?
I don't know if Maria is at home.
--> Does this bus go to Los Angeles?
I don't know if this bus goes to Los Angeles.
--> Did Juan go to Mexico?
I wonder if Juan went to Mexico.
Frequently, speakers may add 'or not'. This comes at the end of the noun clause in sentences
with 'if' and immediately after 'whether' in sentences with 'whether'.
Example:
--> I don't know if Maria is at home or not.
--> I don't know whether or not Maria is at home.
Notice that we cannot use 'or not' immediately after 'if'.
c) Noun clauses which begin with that:
A noun clause can be introduced by the word 'that'.

--> I think that Ms. Weiss is a good teacher.
In the sentence above, 'Ms. Weiss is a good teacher' is a noun clause. It is the object of the verb
'think'.
That clauses are frequently used as the object of verbs which express mental activity. Here are
some common verbs followed by 'that clauses'.
Assume that believe that discover that dream that
Guess that hear that hope that know that
Learn that notice that predict that prove that
Realize that suppose that suspect that think that
There are many more verbs that can be followed by "that" clause.
Here is an exercise for you:

Complete the following with your own words. Use noun clauses.
1- I feel that ----
2- I wonder if -----
3- You are lucky that -----
4- It is a fact that ------
5- I doubt that --------
6- I am worried that ------
7- I don't know when ------
8- I don't know if -------
9- I regret that -------
10- I am amazed that -------
Possible completion:
1- I feel that she will do well on the test.
2- I wonder if she is coming to the part.
3- You are lucky that won the lottery.
4- It is a fact that Mr. Lopez is a good teacher.
5- I doubt that she will come today.
6- I am worried that they won't win the game.
7- I don't know when she will come.
8- I regret that she failed the test.
9- I don't know if she lives in New York or not.
10- I am amazed that we made it to the airport on time.
NOUN CLAUSES 2 (Function)
A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:
A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:
What Billy did shocked his friends.
A noun clause can be an object of a verb:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.
A noun clause can be a subject complement:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:
Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.
A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:
Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.
B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and
using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below)
depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:
To change a statement to a noun clause use that:
I know + Billy made a mistake =

I know that Billy made a mistake.
To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:
George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =

George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.
To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:
I don’t know + Where is George? =

I don’t know where George is.
C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of
the noun clause markers:
that
if, whether
Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why
Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever
D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but
it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:
correct:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.
correct:
Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.
correct:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
correct:
Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.
correct:
That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
not correct:
* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a
question:
not correct:
* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)

correct:
Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)
not correct:
* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)
correct:
Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)
F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun
clause is:
*future if its action/state is later

-He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.
-He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.
*present if its action/state is at the same time
-He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.
-past if its action/state is earlier
-He thinks that George took the exam yesterday.
*When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun
clause is:
*was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later
-He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.
-He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.
*past if its action/state is at the same time

-He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.
*Past perfect if its action/state is earlier
-He thought that George had taken the exam the day before.
*If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written
the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.
-The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.
*If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer
is writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple
present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.
-We learned that English is not easy.

-The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.
G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined)
and one independent clause:
Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:
That George learned how to swim is a miracle.

Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.
What Mary said confused her parents.
However you learn to spell is OK with me.
Noun clauses as objects of verbs:
We didn’t know that Billy would jump.

We didn’t know Billy would jump.
Can you tell me if Fred is here?
I don’t know where he is.
George eats whatever is on his plate.
Noun clauses as subject complements:
The truth is that Billy was not very smart.

The truth is Billy was not very smart.
The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.
The winner will be whoever runs fastest.
Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:
Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.

He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.
Noun clauses as adjective complements:
He is happy that he is learning English.

We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.
REPORTED SPEECH
Reported speech is often also called indirect speech. When we use reported speech, we are usually
talking about the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs
therefore usually have to be in the past too. For example:
"I'm going to the cinema".

He said he was going to the cinema.
Basic tense chart
The tenses generally move backwards in this way (the tense on the left changes to the
tense on the right):
present simple past simple

I'm a teacher. He said he was a teacher
past continuous
present continuous
He said he was having lunch with his
I'm having lunch with my parents.
parents.
past perfect simple
present perfect simple
He said he had been to France three
I've been to France three times.
times.
present perfect continuous past perfect continuous
I've been working very hard. He said he had been working very hard.
past simple past perfect
I bought a new car. He said he had bought a new car.
past continuous past perfect continuous
It was raining earlier. He said it had been raining earlier.
past perfect past perfect
The play had started when I arrived. NO CHANGE POSSIBLE
past perfect continuous
past perfect continuous
I'd already been living in London for five
NO CHANGE POSSIBLE
years.
Other verb forms
Other verb forms also sometimes change:
will would
I'll come and see you soon. He said he would come and see me soon.
can could
I can swim under water for two minutes. He said he could swim under water for two minutes.
must had to
All tickets must be bought in advance. He said that all tickets had to be bought in advance.
shall should
What shall we do about it? He asked what we should do about it.
may might
May I smoke? He asked if he might smoke.
Things are slightly more complicated with imperatives.
positive imperative tell + infinitive

Shut up! He told me to shut up.
negative imperative tell + not + infinitive
Don't do that again! He told me not to do it again.
imperatives as requests ask + infinitive
Please give me some money. He asked me to give him some money.
When verbs don't follow the rules
The verb tenses do not always follow the rules shown above. For example, if the
reporting verb is in the present tense, there is no change in the reported sentence. Also, a
sentence in direct speech in a present or future tense can remain the same if what is said
is still true or relevant. For example:
You've invited someone for dinner at your house, and the phone rings. It's them! They
say:
I'm sorry, but I think I'm going to be a bit late. There's a lot of traffic.
After you finish speaking on the phone, you say to someone else:
That was Juan. He said he thinks he's going to be late because there's a lot of traffic.
Another example:
A friend says to you:

María's ill. She's got chickenpox!
You say to someone else:

Laura said that María's ill. She's got chickenpox.
However, the following day you see María at the beach. You're surprised and say to
her:
Laura said that you were ill. She said you had chickenpox.
This has to change to the past because it isn't true. María obviously isn't ill.
Direct statements in a past tense do not always change either, because a change
might alter the meaning or just make it sound confusing. For example:
A friend is telling you about the horrible weather:

It started raining heavily when I left work.
This is where things get confusing:
He said it had started raining heavily when he had left work (it sounds horrible and the sentence
is almost nothing but verbs).
He said it had started raining heavily when he left work (is wrong because it means it was
already raining when he left work)
He said it started raining heavily when he left work (is the best version because it is
accurate, short, and there is no confusion because of the time context)
Generally speaking, the past simple and continuous don't always need to be changed if:
*there is a time context which makes everything clear,
and/or
*there is another action already using the past perfect, which might alter the meaning
or make things confusing.
Time and place references
Time and place references often have to change:
now then
today that day
here there
this that
this week that week
the following day
tomorrow the next day
the day after
the following week
next week the next week
the week after
the previous day
yesterday
the day before
the previous week
last week
the week before
previously
ago
before
2 weeks 2 weeks previously
ago 2 weeks before
tonight that night
the previous
last
Saturday
Saturday
the Saturday before
the following
Saturday
next
the next Saturday
Saturday
the Saturday after
that Saturday
Examples:
I went to the theatre last night.

He said he had gone to the theatre the night before.
I'm having a party next weekend.

He said he was having a party the next weekend.
I'm staying here until next week.

He said he was staying there until the following week.
I came over from London 3 years ago.

He said he had come over from London 3 years before.
Personal pronouns
You also need to be careful with personal pronouns. They need to be changed
according to the situation. You need to know the context. For example, there is possible
confusion when you try to change reported speech to direct speech:
She said she'd been waiting for hours.

(Is she one person or two different people?)
I told them they would have to ask permission.

(Are we talking about two groups of people or only one?)
REPORTING VERBS
The most important basic aspects of reported speech that you have to remember are:
changes in verb tenses
"I'm going home"

He said he was going home
changes in expressions of time
"I'm going home tomorrow"

He said he was going home the following day
changes in personal pronouns and possessive adjectives
"I'm going to my uncle's home tomorrow"

He said he was going to his uncle's home the following day
When you first learn reported speech these are the aspects you need to practise. The verbs
you use, therefore, are basic ones like say, tell, reply, and ask.
However, if you had to interview someone, for example, and then wrote about what the
person said, it would be very boring and repetitive if you used only these verbs.
There are a lot of other verbs you can use to describe or summarise what people say without
repeating the same thing over and over again. These verbs give us the meaning of the original
words without actually using them all.
The section below shows some of these 'reporting verbs' with their meanings and
grammatical structures. You can often use verbs you wouldn't normally associate with reported
speech, but if they describe the meaning of the original words then use them!
Some basic reporting verbs
The grammar structures I've shown with these verbs are not necessarily the only structures
possible. I've tried to show the ones I think are the most usual. The meaning of some verbs
changes according to the structure used, so I've only included structures that have the same
meaning.
accuse
to accuse someone of doing something
"It was you who ate my chocolate, Elvira, wasn't it?"

He accused Elvira of eating his chocolate.
admit
to admit doing something
to admit that...
"OK, it was me. I ate your chocolate"

Elvira admitted eating the chocolate.
Elvira admitted that she had eaten the chocolate.
advise
to advise someone to do something
"Well, if I were you I'd start saving for my retirement."

He advised me to start saving for my retirement
agree
to agree that...
"Yes, you're right, it's a terrible problem."

She agreed that it was a terrible problem.
announce
to announce that...
"I'm afraid I've got some bad news. The company's closing."
The manager announced that the company was closing.
apologise
to apologise (to someone) for doing something
"I'm sorry I didn't get to the meeting."

He apologised for not going to the meeting.
ask
to ask someone to do something
"It's very hot in here. Would you mind opening the window?"
She asked him to open the window.
blame
to blame someone for doing something
"We lost the match because you didn't save that penalty."
He blamed the goalkeeper for losing the match.
complain
to complain about something
"The electrician said he was coming at ten o'clock so I took time off work and waited in all
morning...."
She complained about the electrician.
congratulate
to congratulate someone on doing something
"Well done! I knew you'd pass your driving test this time."
She congratulated him on passing his driving test.
deny
to deny doing something
to deny that...
"It most certainly wasn't me that left the front door open."
He denied leaving the front door open.
He denied that he had left the front door open.
explain
to explain why...
to explain that...
"Sorry I'm late. The traffic was bad and then I couldn't find a parking space."
He explained why he was late.
He explained that the traffic was bad.
forget
to forget to do something
"Oh no, I haven't got any money. I didn't go to the bank."

He forgot to go to the bank.
invite
to invite someone to do something
"Would you like to come to our house for dinner on Friday?

He invited them to come to dinner on Friday.
offer
to offer to do something for someone
"Those bags must be heavy, John. Shall I take one?"

She offered to carry a bag for him.
promise
to promise to do something
"Yes, honest, I'll be there on time. I won't be late."

He promised not to be late.
refuse
to refuse to do something
"Well I'm not washing up. I did it last time."

He refused to do the washing-up.
remind
to remind someone to do something
"Remember you have to go to the bank. You forgot yesterday."

She reminded me to go to the bank.
suggest
to suggest that someone should do something
to suggest that someone do something
"Why don't you go to the dentist if your tooth hurts?"

She suggested that he should go to the dentist.
She suggested that he went to the dentist.
threaten
to threaten to do something
"If you're late again we'll start without you."

They threatened to start without him.
warn
to warn someone about something
to warn someone (not) to do something
"Don't drive too quickly. The streets are very icy."

He warned him about the ice.
He warned him not to drive too quickly.
18.CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a part of speech that (1) joins words, phrases, and clauses and (2) indicates
a relationship between the joined elements. There are four kinds of conjunctions.
Coordinating Conjunction
A coordinating conjunction is a single word that joins words, phrases, and clauses of equal
grammatical construction. Examples are knives and spoons (noun & noun), run or shout (verb &
verb), down the stairs and around the house (prepositional phrase & prepositional phrase).
Coordinating conjunctions also join complete sentences, i.e., independent clauses. These
conjunctions also imbue equal grammatical weight, or rank, to the joined elements.
Correlative Conjunction
A correlative conjunction is a paired conjunction that, like a coordinating conjunction, joins

elements of equal grammatical construction. Correlative conjunctions also imbue equal
grammatical weight to elements they join. However, they do not join independent clauses; these
paired conjunctions only join equal elements within an independent clause, forming compound
elements, i.e., subject & subject, verb & verb, object & object, etc.
Subordinating Conjunction
A subordinating conjunction is an adverb that introduces a subordinate adverbial clause and

joins the subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence. The idea, or proposition, expressed by
the subordinate clause has less grammatical weight (rank or importance) than the idea
expressed by the main clause. Subordinating conjunctions are not true conjunctions; their name,
however, derives from their ability to join clauses. Most subordinators are a single word, but
some are composed of two or more words, i.e., a phrase.
Conjunctive Adverb (Includes transitions & adverbial expletives)
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb or adverbial phrase that joins two independent clauses
(like a coordinating conjunction) and provides adverbial emphasis. However, conjunctive adverbs
are not considered true conjunctions.
Sometimes a conjunctive adverb can function as a connector, or bridge, a word or phrase

that helps to link entire sentences or paragraphs. Conjunctive adverbs that perform this function
are called transitional elements or transitions.
Finally, an adverbial word or phrase can function as an expletive, i.e., a function word. (See
below.) An expletive is an exclamatory word inserted into a sentence that adds nothing to the
meaning of the sentence.
† Usage Note
A function word, e.g., an article, preposition, or conjunction, is a word that has little semantic
meaning of its own and chiefly indicates a grammatical relationship. Also called a form word or
functor.
I. COORDINATING CONJUNCTION
(Joins words, phrases, clauses)
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so --> F-A-N-B-O-Y-S.
A coordinating conjunction joins elements of equal grammatical construction, e.g., two or more
nouns, verbs, phrases, or clauses. Additionally, coordinating conjunctions can join two or more
independent clauses into a single sentence. When joining independent clauses, a coordinating
conjunction also joins the propositions, or ideas, expressed in each independent clause.
Coordinating conjunctions lend equal weight, or importance, to the grammatical elements and the
ideas they join.
In the following examples, coordinating conjunctions appear in accentuated text; the joined
elements are underlined.
Jack and Jill went up the hill.
(Coordinating conjunction joins two grammatically equal elements: two nouns, Jack and Jill.
Additionally, the elements joined by the coordinating conjunction are equally important to the idea
of the sentence, i.e., the nouns Jack and Jill are equally important to sentence meaning.)
The fur of polar bears is often pure white, but sometimes one will find a bear with grey fur.
(A coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses. The conjunction gives equal weight to
the idea expressed by each clause.)
You'll find shampoo products on aisle two or on aisle three.
(Coordinating conjunction joins two prepositional phrases, grammatically equal elements. Also,
the coordinating conjunction gives equal weight to both phrases.)
The industrialists are monsters, so we believe their doctrine is monstrous.

(Two independent clauses are joined.)
The parish priest is desperate and anxious, for his congregation is nearly gone.
(Two nouns are joined; in addition, two independent clauses are joined by for.)
The Irish famine of 1846-50 took a million lives, nor was a single household spared hardship.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights seeks to protect humankind, yet abuses around the
world continue to rage unchecked.
Semantic Relationship of Coordinates
As we have seen, coordinating conjunctions, or coordinates, all share the same function of connecting
words, phrases, and clauses with equal emphasis to the joined elements. These same coordinates,
however, each express a specific semantic relationship between the joined elements. and • joins two
propositions (ideas) Ex: In 376 B.C.E., several Greek cities joined in a naval alliance against Sparta; and
Athens won back control of the sea. but • joins two contrastive propositions (ideas) Ex: The wine is
sweet, but the bread is moldy. or • joins two alternative propositions (ideas) Ex: Is that a distant oasis, or
do my eyes deceive me? so • first idea (the cause) results in second idea (the effect) Ex: The
honeymooners began quarreling, so now they sleep in different rooms. for • used to mean seeing that,
since, or because Ex: He went to the party alone, for I refused go with him. nor • used in negative
expressions Ex: He nor I plan to attend any social functions this year. yet • used to mean though, still,
and nevertheless Ex: The pudding is good, yet it could have been better. Usage Note
The conjunctions and, but, or, so, and nor can join words, phrases, or clauses. However, for and yet can
join only independent clauses. Consequently, some grammarians consider the former a preposition and
the latter a subordinating conjunction.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
A correlative conjunction is essentially a coordinate conjunction used in pairs. A correlative

conjunction gets its name from the fact that it is a paired conjunction that has a reciprocal or
complementary relationship. Correlative conjunctions always join grammatically equal elements
(e.g., noun & noun, adjective & adjective, phrase & phrase, clause & clause, etc.). They also lend
equal weight to the joined elements; which is to say, one joined element is always equal to but
never subordinate to the other. It's interesting to note that the second word of each conjunctive
pair is a coordinating conjunction.
Note
Correlative conjunctions usually precede the joined elements, or conjuncts, immediately.
Correlative conjunctions are essentially paired coordinating conjunctions. The meaning

expressed by a sentence with correlative conjunctions is basically the same as a sentence with a
coordinating conjunction. The difference is only a matter of emphasis, where the correlative
conjunction reinforces the fact that there are two equal elements or ideas in the sentence. Below
are five pairs of correlative conjunctions commonly used in English.
either ..... or
neither ..... nor
not only ..... but also
whether ..... or
both ..... and
In the following examples, note the placement of correlating conjunctions, which generally appear
immediately before the elements they join. Conjunctions appear in accentuated text; joined
elements are underlined.
Either you or Susan must remain with me.
(Correlative conjunction joins the pronoun you and the noun Susan, becoming the compound subject of the
sentence.)
Either help us in our struggle for égalité or step aside and let us pass.
(Conjunction joins two independent clauses.)
This job requires an ability possessed neither by Jack nor by John.
(Conjunction joins two prepositional phrases.)
In 1795 B.C.E., Babylon was not only the capital city of ancient Babylonia but also the world's
first metropolis.
(Two noun phrases are joined, forming a compound subject complement.)
Whether we meet in the park or at Enid's house is up to you.
(Sometimes a correlating conjunction does not immediately precede the joined element.)
Both the teacher and the principal were furious.
(Conjunction joins two noun phrases, which become the compound subject.)
When using paired conjunctions, be sure the joined elements are grammatically equal. Poor
grammatical constructions result when joining unequal elements. In the examples below, joined elements
appear in accentuated text; conjunctions are underlined.
When building Hoover Dam, laborers not only discovered silver but also gold.
(Construction is poor because the correlative conjunction does not join grammatically equal elements. Discovered
silver is a verb + object; gold is a noun. The conjunction pairs a phrase with a single noun.)
When building Hoover Dam, laborers discovered not only silver but also gold.
(The construction is correct because the paired conjunctions join two nouns, grammatically equal elements.)
Beth became angry both with our singing and our shouting.
(Grammatically unequal elements are joined: A prepositional phrase is joined with a gerund phrase.)
Beth became angry both with our singing and with our shouting.
(Two prepositional phrases, grammatically equal elements, are joined.)
Put your earnings either in a bank or in a treasury account.
Whether Jim sees a movie or watches a play is unimportant to me.
The hounds were neither smart enough to climb the ledge nor small enough to enter the cave.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
A subordinating conjunction is an adverb or adverbial phrase that introduces into a sentence a

subordinate adverbial clause, which functions to modify adverbially the main sentence clause or
a part of the main sentence clause, usually the main verb. Additionally, the subordinate clause
also introduces a new idea, or proposition, into the sentence. This new idea, or proposition,
expressed in the subordinate clause is said to carry less weight, or importance, than the idea
expressed in the main sentence clause.
We might also note that a subordinate adverbial clause modifies the main sentence clause by
introducing one of the following concepts into the main sentence clause: addition, cause & effect,
comparison, concession, contrast, emphasis, example, summary, or sequence. Many words and
phrases can function as subordinating conjunctions. Following is a list of those frequently used in
English. Note: many words that function as a subordinating conjunction can also function as other
parts of speech.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions

(These Adverbs Can Also Function as Conjunctions, Transitions & Expletives)
after although as as if
as long as as though because before
even though if in order that provided that
rather than since so that than
though unless until when
whenever where whereas wherever
whether while
Subordinating Conjunction Introduces Subordinate Clause
A subordinate, or dependent, adverbial clause functions within a sentence to modify the main
clause or a part of the main clause, usually the main verb. The idea, or what is sometimes called
the proposition, contained within a subordinate clause is said to be of lesser rank or importance
than the idea expressed in the main clause. Although their name suggests otherwise,
subordinating conjunctions are not true conjunctions; but the name derives from their ability to
incorporate into a sentence another idea in addition to the idea expressed by the main clause.
Because many of the words described as subordinating conjunctions can also function as other
parts of speech, a word functioning as a subordinate conjunction is identified by function alone.
All subordinating conjunctions are adverbs or adverbial phrases; but not all adverbs or adverbial
phrases are subordinating conjunctions. Some adverbs can, for instance, function as conjunctive
adverbs or adverbial expletives .
Note in each following example that the main sentence clause appears in unhighlighted text. This
is the main idea, or proposition, expressed in each sentence. Subordinate clauses appear in
accentuated text; the subordinating conjunction is underlined. Can you determine which one of
the several concepts (mentioned above) the subordinate clause introduces into the main
sentence clause?
Because Norman was constantly late, Mr. Russell cut him from band practice.
Take two tablets daily until the doctor tells you to stop.
If she's going, I will not go.
Although the carpet had been treated, it was stained by the red wine.
Sarah cooked our supper while I mowed the lawn.
Nebil sings opera as though he were Luciano Parvarotti.

TRANSITIONS, CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb or adverbial phrase that joins two independent clauses
(like a coordinating conjunction) and provides adverbial emphasis to the resulting construction.
The new construction always results in a compound or compound-complex sentence structure.
Conjunctive adverbs are also called adverbial conjunctions. Although their name suggests
otherwise, conjunctive adverbs are not considered true conjunctions, even though these adverbs
join independent clauses.
A conjunctive adverb modifies a word (usually a verb) in the second clause, answering
when? where? how? why? under what condition? or to what degree? an action occurred or a
situation existed. Additionally, as with other adverbs, e.g., subordinate conjunctions, which
introduce a subordinate adverbial clause, conjunctive adverbs typically express a relationship
between clauses, sentences, or paragraphs that involve the concept of addition, cause & effect,
comparison, concession, contrast, emphasis, example, summary, or sequence.
An adverb or adverbial phrase--whether a subordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverb,

transition, or adverbial expletive--is always identified and defined by function alone. For example,
the adverbs however, consequently, always, indeed, etc., to name only a few, commonly function
as conjunctive adverbs. However, these same words can also be transitions and/or expletives in
other sentences. To correctly identify an adverb, we must examine its position relative to the rest
of a sentence or paragraph.
Adverbs and adverbial phrases, in highlighted text, function as conjunctive adverbs in the
following examples.
-Dennis went to the symphony; consequently, he was suspended from the band.
-Barry seems very friendly; incidentally, he's the same sign as I am.
-Our horse is a great jumper; on the other hand, he isn't very good in the races.
-Max appears to be a level-headed guy; still, there's something about him that's just not right.
Transitional Elements
From the preceding we know that a conjunctive adverb (a word or phrase) appears between
independent clauses acting like a coordinating conjunction. In addition to this function, a
conjunctive adverb can appear between entire sentences, acting as a connector, or bridge,
between the sentences. Conjunctive adverbs can also appear between entire paragraphs acting
as a connector between these constructions. Adverbs functioning in either of these capacities are
called transitional elements, or simply, transitions. In the following examples, adverbs functioning
as transitions appear in highlighted text.
Most of us would like to believe that all persons are created equal. However, the real word isn't
based upon idealistic beliefs.
(An example of an adverb functioning as a connector between two sentences. We call these
adverbs transitions.)
It's unfortunate that many students resent our testing procedures because they most times seem
tedious, confusing, and psychologically taxing. Graduate students are wont to recall these times
with considerable horror.
Therefore, while I refrain from claiming that these tests are actually damaging, I submit that we
need to develop strategies that will help us to overcome false results.
(An example of an adverb functioning as a connector between two paragraphs.)
Adverbial Expletive
An adverb can function within a sentence as an expletive, or interrupter--a word or phrase that is
mildly or definitely parenthetical content. Adverbial expletives can appear nearly anywhere within
a sentence. Expletives do not introduce dependent clauses, join independent clauses, or act as a
bridge between sentences or paragraphs. They are empty words inserted into a sentence which
add nothing materially to the meaning of the sentence. Examples follow.
Her face, however, was spared the ravages of the fire.
Toni found that old sofa, by the way, lying in a vacant lot.
The new students, incidentally, don't have enough pencils.
Pamela will certainly win the match.
By the way, are you going to the dance?
Common Conjunctive Adverbs

(These Adverbs Can Also Function as Subordinators, Transitions & Expletives)
accordingly again also anyway

as a matter of
as a result at the same time besides
fact
certainly consequently finally for example
furthermore however incidentally in fact
indeed in other words in that in the first place
likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless
on the other
nonetheless now otherwise
hand
similarly still then therefore
thus
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
1. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a subject, a verb,
and a completed thought.
Examples of simple sentences include the following:
1. Joe waited for the train.

"Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb
2. The train was late.

"The train" = subject, "was" = verb
3. Mary and Samantha took the bus.

"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb
4. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.

"I" = subject, "looked" = verb
5. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon and left on the bus before I
arrived.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and "left" = compound verb
Tip: If you use many simple sentences in an essay, you should consider revising some of the
sentences into compound or complex sentences (explained below).
The use of compound subjects, compound verbs, prepositional phrases (such as "at the bus
station"), and other elements help lengthen simple sentences, but simple sentences often are
short. The use of too many simple sentences can make writing "choppy" and can prevent the
writing from flowing smoothly.
A simple sentence can also be referred to as an independent clause. It is referred to as

"independent" because, while it might be part of a compound or complex sentence, it can also
stand by itself as a complete sentence.
2. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or
complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating
conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN BOYS":
 For
 And
 Nor
 But
 Or
 Yet
 So
Examples of compound sentences include the following:
1. Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.
2. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at the station before
noon and left on the bus before I arrived.
3. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus
before I arrived.
4. Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see them at the bus
station.
Tip: If you rely heavily on compound sentences in an essay, you should consider revising
some of them into complex sentences (explained below).
Coordinating conjunctions are useful for connecting sentences, but compound sentences
often are overused. While coordinating conjunctions can indicate some type of relationship
between the two independent clauses in the sentence, they sometimes do not indicate much of a
relationship. The word "and," for example, only adds one independent clause to another, without
indicating how the two parts of a sentence are logically related. Too many compound sentences
that use "and" can weaken writing.
Clearer and more specific relationships can be established through the use of complex
sentences.
3. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more dependent

clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent clause, or complete
sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete sentence.
Examples of dependent clauses include the following:
 because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon
 while he waited at the train station
 after they left on the bus
Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they can be
added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.
Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the most
common subordinating conjunctions:
 after
 although
 as
 because
 before
 even though
 if
 since
 though
 unless
 until
 when
 whenever
 whereas
 wherever
 while
A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses.
The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent clause, as
in the following:
Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to separate the two
clauses.
1. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them
at the station.
2. While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.
3. After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train
station.
Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the dependent
clause, as in the following:
Tip: When the independent clause comes first, a comma should not be used to separate the
two clauses.
1. I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station
before noon.
2. Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train station.
3. Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station after they left on
the bus.
Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences because a complex
sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships between the main parts of the
sentence. The word "before," for instance, tells readers that one thing occurs before another. A
word such as "although" conveys a more complex relationship than a word such as "and"
conveys.
The term periodic sentence is used to refer to a complex sentence beginning with a
dependent clause and ending with an independent clause, as in "While he waited at the train
station, Joe realized that the train was late."
Periodic sentences can be especially effective because the completed thought occurs at the end
of it, so the first part of the sentence can build up to the meaning that comes at the end.
19.ADJECTIVES
FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES
1. Adjectives are invariable:

They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of the noun.
--> A hot potato & Some hot potatoes
2. To emphasise or strengthen the meaning of an adjective use 'very' or 'really':

--> A very hot potato & Some really hot potatoes.
3. Position of adjectives:
a) Usually in front of a noun: --> A beautiful girl.
b) After verbs like "to be", "to seem" , "to look", "to taste":
--> The girl is beautiful.
--> You look tired.
--> This meat tastes funny.
c) After the noun: in some fixed expressions: --> The Princess Royal --> The President elect
the adjectives involved, present, concerned :

--> I want to see the people involved/concerned (= the people who have something to do with
the matter)
--> Here is a list of the people present (= the people who were in the building or at the meeting)
Be careful! When these adjectives are used before the noun they have a different meaning:
--> An involved discussion = detailed, complex

FUNCTION
Adjectives tell us more about a noun. They can: Describe feelings or qualities:
--> He is a lonely man
--> They are honest people
Give nationality or origin:
--> Pierre is French
--> This clock is German
Tell more about a thing's characteristics:

--> A wooden table.
--> The knife is sharp.
--> He's a young man
Tell us about size and measurement:

--> John is a tall man.
--> This is a very long film.
Tell us about colour:

--> Paul wore a red shirt.
--> The sunset was crimson and gold.
Tell us about material/what something is made of:

--> It was a wooden table
--> She wore a cotton dress.
Tell us about shape:

--> A rectangular box.
--> A square envelope.
Express a judgement or a value:

--> A fantastic film
--> Grammar is boring .

ORDER:
Where a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function of the
adjective.
The usual order is: Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material
Value/opinion delicious, lovely, charming

Size small, huge, tiny
Age/Temperature old, hot, young
Shape round, square, rectangular
Colour red, blonde, black
Origin Swedish, Victorian, Chinese
Material plastic, wooden, silver
Examples:
--> a lovely old red post-box
--> some small round plastic tables
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
AS + ADJECTIVE + AS
To compare people, places, events or things, when there is no difference, use as + adjective +
as:
--> Peter is 24 years old. John is 24 years old. Peter is as old as John.
--> Moscow is as cold as St. Petersburg in the winter.
--> Ramona is as happy as Raphael.
--> Einstein is as famous as Darwin.
--> A tiger is as dangerous as a lion.
NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS
Difference can also be shown by using not so/as ...as:
--> Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest.
--> Norway is not as sunny as Thailand
--> A bicycle is not as expensive as a car.
COMPARATIVE + THAN
To compare the difference between two people, things or events.
--> Mt. Everest is higher than Mt. Blanc.

--> Thailand is sunnier than Norway.
--> A car is more expensive than a bicycle.
--> Albert is more intelligent than Arthur.
COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY
To show no difference: --> as much as , as many as, as few as, as little as
as many as / as few as countable nouns; as much as / as little as + uncountable nouns
With countable nouns:

--> They have as many children as us.
--> We have as many customers as them.
--> Tom has as few books as Jane.
With uncountable nouns:
--> John eats as much food as Peter.
--> Jim has as little food as Sam.
--> You've heard as much news as I have.
COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY
To show difference : more, less, fewer + than
To show no difference : as much as , as many as, as few as, as little as
With countable nouns: more / fewer

--> Eloise has more children than Chantal.
--> Chantal has fewer children than Eloise.
--> There are fewer dogs in Cardiff than in Bristol.
With uncountable nouns: more / less

--> Eloise has more money than Chantal.
--> Chantal has less money than Eloise.
--> I spend less time on homework than you do.
So, the rule is:

MORE + nouns that are countable or uncountable
FEWER + countable nouns
LESS + uncountable nouns
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

These adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative forms:
Adjective Comparative Superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
much more most
far further / farther furthest / farthest
 We add ‘-er’ for the comparative and ‘-est’ for the superlative of one-syllable adjectives
and adverbs.
 We use ‘-er’ and ‘-est’ with some two-syllable adjectives.
 We use ‘more’ for the comparative and ‘most’ for the superlative of most two-syllable
adjectives, all longer adjectives, and adverbs ending in ‘-ly’.
 Some common adjectives and adverbs have irregular forms.
1. We add ‘-er’ for the comparative form and ‘-est’ for the superlative form of one-syllable
adjectives and adverbs. If they end in ‘-e’, you add ‘-r’ and ‘-st’.
cheap cheaper cheapest

=> =>
safe safer safest
cold light rough young large

fast poor small ~ nice
hard quick weak close wide
They worked harder.
I've found a nicer hotel.

If they end in a single vowel and consonant (except ‘-w’), you double the consonant.
big => bigger => biggest
Fat, hot, sad, thin, wet
The day grew hotter.
Henry was the biggest of them.
2. With two-syllable adjectives ending in a consonant followed by ‘-y’,
you change the ‘-y’ to ‘-i’ and add ‘-er’ and ‘-est’.
happy => happier => happiest
angry dirty friendly heavy silly

busy easy funny lucky tiny
It couldn't be easier.
That is the funniest bit of the film.
3. We use ‘more’ for the comparative and ‘most’ for the superlative of most two-syllable
adjectives, all longer adjectives, and adverbs ending in ‘-ly’.
careful beautiful seriously

= =
more careful more beautiful more seriously
> >
most careful most beautiful most seriously
Be more careful next time.
They are the most beautiful gardens in the world.
It affected Clive most seriously.
Note that for ‘early’ as an adjective or adverb, you use ‘earlier’ and ‘earliest’, not ‘more’ and
‘most’.
4. With some common two-syllable adjectives and adverbs, we can either add ‘-er’ and ‘-est’,
or use ‘more’ and ‘most’.
common gentle likely pleasan simple

cruel handsome narrow polite stupid
Note that ‘clever’ and ‘quiet’ only add ‘-er’ and ‘-est’.
It was quieter outside.
He was the cleverest man I ever met.
5. We normally use ‘the’ with superlative adjectives in front of nouns, but you can omit ‘the’
after a link verb.
It was the happiest day of my life.
It was one of the most important discoveries.
I was happiest when I was on my own.
WARNING: When ‘most’ is used without ‘the’ in front of adjectives and adverbs, it often
means almost the same as ‘very’.
This book was most interesting.
I object most strongly.
6. A few common adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms.
good/
better best
well
= worse = worst
bad/badly
> farther/further > farthest/furthest
far
older/elder oldest/eldest
old
She would ask him when she knew him better.
She sat near the furthest window.
Note that you use ‘elder’ or ‘eldest’ to say which brother, sister, or child in a family you mean.
Our eldest daughter couldn't come.

MORE ON THE COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES
 Comparative adjectives are used to compare people or things.
 Superlative adjectives are used to say that one person or thing has more of a quality
than others in a group or others of that kind.
 Comparative adverbs are used in the same way as adjectives.
1. We use comparative adjectives to compare one person or thing with another, or with the
same person or thing at another time. After a comparative adjective, we often use ‘than’.
Bill was much older than Ted.
Mary is happier than she has ever been.
2. We use a superlative to say that one person or thing has more of a quality than others in a
group or others of that kind.
Istanbul is Türkiye's largest city.
He was the tallest person there.
3. We can use comparative and superlative adjectives in front of a noun.
I was a better writer than he was.
He had more important things to do.
It was the quickest route from Rome to Naples.
You can also use comparative and superlative adjectives after link verbs.
My brother is younger than me.
He feels more content now.
The sergeant was the tallest.
This book was the most interesting.
4. We can use adverbs of degree in front of comparative adjectives.

a bit a great/good deal a lot rather
far a little much slightly
This car's a bit more expensive.
Now I feel a great deal more confident.
It's a rather more complicated story than that.
You can also use adverbs of degree such as ‘by far’, ‘easily’, ‘much’, or ‘quite’ in front of ‘the’
and superlative adjectives.
It was by far the worst hospital I had ever seen.
She was easily the most intelligent person in the class.
Note that you can put ‘very’ between ‘the’ and a superlative adjective ending in ‘-est’.
It was of the very highest quality.
5. When we want to say that one situation depends on another, we can use ‘the’ and a
comparative followed by ‘the’ and another comparative.
The smaller it is, the cheaper it is to post.
The larger the organisation is, the greater the problem of administration becomes.
When we want to say that something increases or decreases, we can use two comparatives
linked by ‘and’.
It's getting harder and harder to find a job.
Cars are becoming more and more expensive.
6. We can use comparative and superlative adjectives in front of a noun.
After a superlative adjective, you can use a prepositional phrase to specify the group you are
talking about.
Henry was the biggest of them.
These cakes are probably the best in the world.
He was the most dangerous man in the country.
7. We use the same structures in comparisons using adverbs as those given for adjectives:
 ‘than’ after comparative adverbs
Prices have been rising faster than incomes.
 ‘the’ and a comparative adverb followed by ‘the’ and another comparative adverb
The quicker we finish, the sooner we will go home.
 two comparative adverbs linked by ‘and’
He sounded worse and worse.
He drove faster and faster till we told him to stop.
20.ADVERBS
FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADVERBS
 Adverbials are usually adverbs, adverb phrases, or prepositional phrases.

 Adverbials of manner, place, and time are used to say how, where, or when something
happens.
 Adverbials usually come after the verb, or after the object if there is one.
 The usual order of adverbials is manner, then place, then time.
1. An adverbial is often one word, an adverb.
Sit there quietly, and listen to this music.
However, an adverbial can also be a group of words:
 an adverb phrase
He did not play well enough to win.
 a prepositional phrase
The children were playing in the park.
 a noun group, usually a time expression
Come and see me next week.
2. We use an adverbial of manner to describe the way in which something happens or is

done.
They looked anxiously at each other.
She listened with great patience as he told his story.
You use an adverbial of place to say where something happens.
A plane flew overhead.
No birds or animals came near the body.

You use an adverbial of time to say when something happens.
She will be here soon.
He was born on 3 April 1925.
3. We normally put adverbials of manner, place, and time after the main verb.
She sang beautifully.
The book was lying on the table.
The car broke down yesterday.
If the verb has an object, you put the adverbial after the object.
I did learn to play a few tunes very badly.
Thomas made his decision immediately.
He took the glasses to the kitchen.
If you are using more than one of these adverbials in a clause, the usual order is manner,
then place, then time.
They were sitting quite happily in the car. (manner, place)
She spoke very well at the village hall last night. (manner, place, time)
4. We usually put adverbials of frequency, probability, and duration in front of the main verb.
She occasionally comes to my house.
You have very probably heard the news by now.
They had already given me the money.
A few adverbs of degree also usually come in front of the main verb.
She really enjoyed the party
5. When we want to focus on an adverbial, we can do this by putting it in a different place in

the clause:
 we can put an adverbial at the beginning of a clause, usually for emphasis
Slowly, he opened his eyes.
In September I travelled to California.
Next to the coffee machine stood a pile of cups.
Note that after adverbials of place, as in the last example, the verb can come in front of the
subject.
 we can sometimes put adverbs and adverb phrases in front of the main verb for
emphasis, but not prepositional phrases or noun groups
He deliberately chose it because it was cheap.
I very much wanted to go with them.
 we can change the order of adverbials of manner, place, and time when you want to
change the emphasis
They were sitting in the car quite happily. (place, manner)
At the meeting last night, she spoke very well. (place, time, manner)
ADVERBS OF DEGREE
 Adverbs of degree usually modify verbs.

 Some adverbs of degree can modify adjectives, other adverbs, or clauses.
1. We use adverbs of degree to modify verbs. They make the verb stronger or weaker.
I totally disagree.
I can nearly swim.
2. Some adverbs can come in front of a main verb, after a main verb, or after the object if
there is one.
great stro
badly
ly ngly
completely
seriously totally
Mr Brooke strongly criticized the Bank of England.
I disagree completely with John Taylor.
That argument doesn't convince me totally.
Some adverbs are mostly used in front of the verb.
almost largely nearly really quite
-He almost crashed into a lorry.
Note that ‘really’ is used at the beginning of a clause to express surprise, and at the end of a
clause as an adverb of manner.
-Really, I didn't know that!
-He wanted it really, but he was too shy to ask.

‘A lot’ and ‘very much’ come after the main verb if there is no object, or after the object.
-She helped a lot.
-We liked him very much.
‘Very much’ can come after the subject and in front of verbs like ‘want’, ‘prefer’, and ‘enjoy’.
-I very much wanted to take it with me.
3. Some adverbs of degree go in front of adjectives or other adverbs and modify them.
awfully fairly quite really

extremely pretty rather very
-...a fairly large office, with filing space.
Note that we can use ‘rather’ before or after ‘a’ or ‘an’ followed by an adjective and a noun.
-Seaford is rather a pleasant town.
-He told me a rather long and complicated story.
When ‘quite’ means ‘fairly’, you put it in front of ‘a’ or ‘an’ followed by an adjective and a
noun.
-My father gave me quite a large sum of money.
However, when ‘quite’ means ‘extremely’, you can put it after ‘a’. You can say ‘a quite
enormous sum’.
4. We use some adverbs of degree to modify clauses and prepositional phrases.
entirely just largely mainly partly simply
Are you saying that simply because I am here?
I don't think it's worth going just for a day.
5. We use ‘so’ and ‘such’ to emphasize a quality that someone or something has. ‘So’ can be
followed by an adjective, an adverb, or a noun group beginning with ‘many’, ‘much’, ‘few’, or
‘little’.
John is so interesting to talk to.
Science is changing so rapidly.
I want to do so many different things.

‘Such’ is followed by a singular noun group with ‘a’, or a plural noun group.
There was such a noise we couldn't hear.
They said such nasty things about you.
WARNING: ‘So’ is never followed by a singular noun group with ‘a’ or a plural noun group.
6. We use ‘too’ when you mean ‘more than is necessary’ or ‘more than is good’. We can use
‘too’ before adjectives and adverbs, and before ‘many’, ‘much’, ‘few’, or ‘little’.
The prices in that shop are too high.
I've been paying too much tax.
We use ‘enough’ after adjectives and adverbs.
I waited until my daughter was old enough to read.
He didn't work quickly enough.
Note that ‘enough’ is also a determiner.
We've got enough money to buy that car now.
7. We use emphasizing adverbs to modify adjectives such as ‘astonishing’, ‘furious’, and

‘wonderful’, which express extreme qualities.
absolutely entirely purely really totally

completely perfectly quite simply utterly
I think he's absolutely wonderful.

ADVERBS OF DURATION
 ‘Already’ is used to say that something has happened earlier than expected.
 ‘Still’ is used to say that something continues to happen until a particular time.
 ‘Yet’ is used to say that something has not happened before a particular time.
 ‘Any longer’, ‘any more’, ‘no longer’, and ‘no more’ are used to say that something has
stopped happening.
1. We use adverbials of duration to say that an event or situation is continuing, stopping, or is

not happening at the moment.
She still lives in London.
I couldn't stand it any more.
It isn't dark yet.
2. We use ‘already’ to say that something has happened sooner than it was expected to
happen. We put ‘already’ in front of the main verb.
He had already bought the cups and saucers.
I've already seen them.
The guests were already conning in.
We put ‘already’ after ‘be’ as a main verb.
Julie was already in bed.
We can also use ‘already’ to emphasize that something is the case, for example when
someone else does not know or is not sure.
I am already aware of that problem.
We do not normally use ‘already’ in negative statements, but we can use it in negative ‘if’-
clauses.
Show it to him if he hasn't already seen it.
We can put ‘already’ at the beginning or end of a clause for emphasis.
Already he was calculating the profit he could make.

I've done it already.
3. We use ‘still’ to say that a situation continues to exist up to a particular time in the past,
present, or future. You put ‘still’ in front of the main verb.
We were still waiting for the election results.
My family still live in India.
You will still get tickets, if you hurry.
You put ‘still’ after ‘be’ as a main verb.
Martin's mother died, but his father is still alive.
We can use ‘still’ after the subject and before the verb group in negative sentences to
express surprise or impatience.
You still haven't given us the keys.
He still didn't say a word.
It was after midnight, and he still wouldn't leave.
Remember that we can use ‘still’ at the beginning of a clause with a similar meaning to ‘after
all’ or ‘nevertheless’.
Still, he is my brother, so I'll have to help him.
Still, it's not too bad. We didn't lose all the money.
4. We use ‘yet’ at the end of negative sentences and questions to say that something has not
happened or had not happened up to a particular time, but is or was expected to happen later.
We haven't got the tickets yet.
Have you joined the swimming club yet?
They hadn't seen the baby yet.
Remember that ‘yet’ can also be used at the beginning of a clause with a similar meaning to
‘but’.
I don't miss her, yet I do often wonder where she went.
They know they won't win. Yet they keep on trying.
5. We use ‘any longer’ and ‘any more’ at the end of negative clauses to say that a past
situation has ended and does not exist now or will not exist in the future.
I wanted the job, but I couldn't wait any longer.
He's not going to play any more.
In formal English, we can use an affirmative clause with ‘no longer’ and ‘no more’. We can
put them at the end of the clause, or in front of the main verb.
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
 Adverbials of frequency are used to say how often something happens.
 Adverbials of probability are used to say how sure we are about something.
 These adverbials usually come before the main verb, but they come after ‘be’ as a main
verb.
1. We use adverbials of frequency to say how often something happens.
a lot frequently normally rarely

always hardly ever occasionally sometimes
ever never often usually
We often swam in the sea.
She never comes to my parties.
2. We use adverbials of probability to say how sure we are about something.
Certainly maybe Perhaps probably

definitely obviously possibly really
I definitely saw her yesterday.
The driver probably knows the quickest route.
3. We usually put adverbials of frequency and probability before the main verb and after an
auxiliary or a modal.
He sometimes works downstairs in the kitchen.
We are definitely wasting wer time.
I have never had such a horrible meal!
I shall never forget this day.
Note that we usually put them after 'be' as a main verb.
He is always careful with his money.
We are probably right.

‘Perhaps’ usually comes at the beginning of the sentence.
Perhaps the beaches are cleaner in the north.
Perhaps we need a membership card to get in.
‘A lot’ always comes after the main verb.
I go swimming a lot in the summer.
4. ‘Never’ is a negative adverb.
She never goes abroad.
I've never been to Europe.
We normally use ‘ever’ in questions, negative sentences, and ‘if’-clauses.
Have you ever been to a football match?
Don't ever do that again!
If you ever need anything, just call me.
Note that we can sometimes use ‘ever’ in affirmative sentences, for example after a
superlative.
She is the best dancer I have ever seen.
We use ‘hardly ever’ in affirmative sentences to mean almost never.
We hardly ever meet.

ADVERBS OF MANNER
 Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding ‘-ly’ to an adjective, but sometimes other
spelling changes are needed.
 We cannot form adverbs from adjectives that end in ‘-ly’.
 Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives.
 We do not use adverbs after link verbs, you use adjectives.
 Adverbials of manner are sometimes prepositional phrases or noun groups.
1. Adverbs of manner are often formed by adding ‘-ly’to an adjective.
2. Adverbs formed in this way usually have a similar meaning to the adjective.
She is as clever as she is beautiful.
He talked so politely and danced so beautifully.
‘We must not talk. We must be quiet,’ said Sita.
She wanted to sit quietly, to relax.
3. There are sometimes changes in spelling when an adverb is formed from an adjective.
Adjectives Adverbs
‘-le’ changes to ‘-ly’: gentle gently
‘-y’ changes to ‘-ily’: easy easily
‘-ic’ changes to ‘-ically’: automatic automatically
‘-ue’ changes to ‘-uly’: true truly
‘-ll’ changes to ‘-lly’: full fully
Note that ‘public’ changes to ‘publicly’, not ‘publically’.
WARNING: We cannot form adverbs from adjectives that already end in ‘-ly’. For example,
you cannot say ‘He smiled at me friendlily’. We can sometimes use a prepositional phrase
instead: ‘He smiled at me in a friendly way’.
4. Some adverbs of manner have the same form as adjectives and have similar meanings,
for example ‘fast’, ‘hard’, and ‘late’.
I've always been interested in fast cars. (adjective)
The driver was driving too fast. (adverb)
Note that ‘hardly’ and ‘lately’ are not adverbs of manner and have different meanings from
the adjectives ‘hard’ and ‘late’.
It was a hard decision to make.

I hardly had any time to talk to her.
The train was late as usual.
Have you seen John lately?
5. The adverb of manner related to the adjective ‘good’ is ‘well’.
He is a good dancer.
He dances well.
Note that ‘well’ can sometimes be an adjective when it refers to someone's health.
‘How are you?’- ‘I am very well, thank you.’
6. We do not use adverbs after I i nk verbs such as ‘be’, ‘become’, ‘feel’, ‘get’, ‘look’, and
‘seem’. You use an adjective after these verbs.
For example, you do not say ‘Sue felt happily’. You say ‘Sue felt happy’.
7. We do not often use prepositional phrases or noun groups as adverbials of manner.

However, we occasionally need to use them, for example when there is no adverb form
available. The prepositional phrases and noun groups usually include a noun such as ‘way’,
‘fashion’, or ‘manner’, or a noun that refers to someone's voice.
She asked me in such a nice manner that I couldn't refuse..
He did it the right way..
They spoke in angry tones.
Prepositional phrases with ‘like’ are also used as adverbials of manner.
I slept like a baby..
He drove like a madman.

ADVERBS OF TIME
 Adverbials of time can be time expressions such as ‘last night’.

 Adverbials of time can be prepositional phrases with ‘at’, ‘in’, or ‘on’.
 ‘For’ refers to a period of time in the past, present, or future.
 ‘Since’ refers to a point in past time.
1. We use adverbials of time to say when something happens. We often use noun groups
called time expressions as adverbials of time.
yesterday last year the day after tomorrow

today next Saturday last night
tomorrow next week the other day
Note that we do not use the prepositions ‘at’, ‘in’, or ‘on’ with time expressions.
One of my children wrote to me today..
So, you're coming back next week?
We often use time expressions with verbs in the present tense to talk about the future.
The plane leaves tomorrow morning.
They're coming next week.
2. We can use prepositional phrases as adverbials of time:
 ‘at’ is used with:

clock times: at eight o'clock, at three fifteen

religious festivals: at Christmas, at Easter
mealtimes: at breakfast, at lunchtimes
specific periods: at night, at the weekend, at weekends, at half-term
 ‘in’ is used with:

seasons: in autumn, in the spring

years and centuries: in 1985, in the year 2000, in the nineteenth century
months: in July, in December
parts of the day: in the morning, in the evenings
 Note that we also use ‘in’ to say that something will happen during or after a period of
time in the future.
 I think we'll find out in the next few days.
 ‘on’ is used with:

days: on Monday, on Tuesday morning, on Sunday evenings

special days: on Christmas Day, on my birthday, on his wedding anniversary
dates: on the twentieth of July, on June 21st
3. We use ‘for’ with verbs in any tense to say how long something continues to happen.
He is in Italy for a month..
I remained silent for a long time.
I will be in London for three months.
WARNING: We do not use ‘during’ to say how long something continues to happen. We
cannot say ‘I went there during three weeks’.
4. We use ‘since’ with a verb in the present perfect or past perfect tense to say when
something started to happen.
Marilyn has lived in Paris since 1984..
I had eaten nothing since breakfast..
5. We can use many other prepositional phrases as adverbials of time. We use:
 ‘during’ and ‘over’ for a period of time in which something happens
I saw him twice during the summer holidays.
Will you stay in Edinburgh over Christmas?
 ‘from...to/till/until’ and ‘between...and’ for the beginning and end of a period of time
The building is closed from April to May.
She worked from four o'clock till ten o'clock.
Can you take the test between now and June?
 ‘by’ when you mean ‘not later than’
By eleven o'clock, Brody was back in his office.
Can we get this finished by tomorrow?

 ‘before’ and ‘after’
I saw him before the match.
She left the house after ten o'clock.
‘Since’, ‘till’, ‘until’, ‘after’, and ‘before’ can also be conjunctions with time clauses.
I've been wearing glasses since I was three.
You use the adverb ‘ago’ with the past simple to say how long before the time of speaking
something happened. You always put ‘ago’ after the period of time.
We saw him about a month ago.
John's wife died five years ago.
WARNING: We do not use ‘ago’ with the present perfect tense. We cannot say ‘We have
gone to Spain two years ago’.
21.GERUNDS & INFINITIVES
GERUNDS
Gerunds are defined as the –ing form of a verb. They have several functions.
1. Used as subjects and complements
Skiing is my favorite sport.
Hiking can be very strenuous.
Seeing is believing
2. Used as objects following prepositions and prepositional expressions

Thanks for tending my children.
The job consists of typing, filing, and answering the phone.
3. Used as objects following certain verbs*.

The children enjoyed watching the parade.
Ms. Terrell avoided paying her taxes until it was too late.
Gerunds can sometimes take objects of their own:

Roland is afraid of making mistakes.
Sandy is considering leaving New York.
*These verbs are commonly followed by gerunds.
attempt
admit advise anticipate appreciate avoid
delay
begin can't help complete consider deny
forget
discuss dislike enjoy finish go
keep
hate hesitate imagine intend like
neglect
love mention mind miss postpone
recollec
practice prefer quit recall recommend
t
regret remember resent resist start
risk
stop suggest threaten tolerate understand
try
GERUNDS & INFINITIVES
Gerund-Infinitive Patterns:
Be
Verb
Verb + Verb +Preposition +Adjective Verb +
+Inifinitive or
Gerund +Gerund +Preposition Infinitive
Gerund
+Gerund
acknowledge adapt to be accustomed to agree attempt
admit adjust to be afraid of aim begin
advise agree (with) on be angry about afford can/can't bear
can/can't
anticipate apologize for be ashamed of appear
stand
appreciate approve of be capable of arrange cease
avoid argue about be certain about ask continue
consider ask about be concerned with care forget
defend believe in be critical of choose go on
be discouraged
defer blame for claim hate
from
be enthusiastic
delay care about consent like
about
deny complain about be familiar with dare love
detest consist of be famous for decide neglect
discuss decided on be fond of decline prefer
dislike depend on be glad about demand regret
endure disapprove of be good at deserve propose
enjoy discourage from be happy about desire remember
escape engage in be interested in expect see
excuse forgive for be known for fail start
feel like give up be nervous about guarantee stop
finish help with be perfect for happen try
go inquire about be proud of hope
imagine insist on be responsible for intend
involve interfere with be sad about know
keep keep on be successful in learn
mention look forward to be suitable for manage
mind (object
object to be tired of need
to)
miss participate in be tolerant of offer
need (passive) persist in be upset about plan
omit plan on be used to pledge
postpone prepare for be useful for prepare
practice profit from be worried about pretend
prevent prohibit from promise
quit put off refuse
recall result from resolve
recollect succeed in seem
recommend suffer from tend
regret talk about struggle
resent take part in swear
resist there's no point in volunteer
resume think about wait
risk warn about want
suggest work on wish
Tolerate
worry about would like
understand
PARTICIPLES-GERUNDS-INFINITIVES
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The
term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and
therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives,
participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and
past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in
the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.
 The crying baby had a wet diaper.

 Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
 The burning log fell off the fire.
 Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of
the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:
The participial phrase functions

as an adjective modifying Jack.
Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river. Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action
expressed in participle)
as an adjective modifying cousin.
Delores noticed her cousin walking along the
walking (participle)
shoreline.
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase
as adverb)
as an adjective modifying children.
Children introduced to music early develop strong introduced (to) (participle)
intellectual skills. music (direct object of action expressed
in participle)
early (adverb)
as an adjective modifying Lynn.
Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the Having been (participle)
importance of exercise. a gymnast (subject complement for
Lynn, via state of being expressed in
participle)
Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the
noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.
 Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *

 Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action
expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this
way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial
phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a
person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers
to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second
sentence. (For more information on dangling modifiers, see our handout at
Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after
the phrase.
 Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.

 Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off
with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
 Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.

 The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas
should be used:
 The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.
 The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase
if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it
modifies.
 The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
 Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
Points to remember:
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an
adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as
possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes at the beginning of a sentence, b)
interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element, or c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated
from the word it modifies.
Comparing Gerunds and Participles
Look at the following pair of sentences. In the first, the use of a gerund (functioning as a
noun) allows the meaning to be expressed more precisely than in the second. In the first
sentence the interrupting itself, a specific behavior, is precisely indicated as the cause of the
speaker's irritation. In the second the cause of the irritation is identified less precisely as Bill, who
just happens to have been interrupting. (In the second sentence, interrupting is actually a
participle, not a gerund, since it functions as an adjective modifying Bill.)
I was irritated by Bill's constant interrupting.
I was irritated by Bill, constantly interrupting.
The same pattern is shown in these other example pairs below: in the first of each pair, a
gerund (noun-function) is used; in the second, a participle (adjective-function). Notice the subtle
change in meaning between the two sentences in each pair.
Examples:
The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (The technique was extraordinary.)

The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (The person was extraordinary, demonstrating the
technique.)
He was not impressed with their competing. (The competing did not impress him.)
He was not impressed with them competing. (They did not impress him as they competed.)
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren's running and laughing.

Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren, running and laughing.* (Ambiguous: who is running and laughing?)
Comparing Gerunds and Infinitives
The difference in the form of gerunds and infinitives is quite clear just from comparing the
following lists:
Gerunds: swimming, hoping, telling, eating, dreaming

Infinitives: to swim, to hope, to tell, to eat, to dream
Their functions, however, overlap. Gerunds always function as nouns, but infinitives often
also serve as nouns. Deciding which to use can be confusing in many situations, especially for
people whose first language is not English.
Confusion between gerunds and infinitives occurs primarily in cases in which one or the other
functions as the direct object in a sentence. In English some verbs take gerunds as verbal direct
objects exclusively while other verbs take only infinitives and still others can take either. Many
such verbs are listed below, organized according to which kind of verbal direct object they take.
Verbs that take only infinitives as verbal direct objects
agree decide expect hesitate

learn need promise neglect
hope want plan attempt
propose intend pretend
Examples:
I hope to go on a vacation soon.

(not: I hope going on a vacation soon.*)
He promised to go on a diet.
(not: He promised going on a diet. *)
They agreed to sign the treaty.

(not: They agreed signing the treaty.*)
Because she was nervous, she hesitated to speak.

(not: Because she was nervous, she hesitated speaking.*)
They will attempt to resuscitate the victim

(not: They will attempt resuscitating the victim.*)
Verbs that take only gerunds as verbal direct objects
deny risk delay consider

can't help keep give up be fond of
finish quit put off practice
postpone tolerate suggest stop (quit)
regret enjoy keep (on) dislike
admit avoid recall mind
miss detest appreciate recommend
get/be through get/be tired of get/be accustomed to get/be used to
Examples:
They always avoid drinking before driving.

(not: They always avoid to drink before driving.*)
I recall asking her that question.

(not: I recall to ask her that question.*)
She put off buying a new jacket.

(not: She put off to buy a new jacket.*)
Mr. Allen enjoys cooking.

(not: Mr. Allen enjoys to cook.*)
Charles keeps calling her.

(not: Charles keeps to call her.*)

Verbs that take gerunds or infinitives as verbal direct objects
start begin continue hate

prefer like love try
remember
Examples:
She has continued to work at the store.
She has continued working at the store.
They like to go to the movies.

They like going to the movies.
Brent started to walk home.

Brent started walking home.
Forget and remember
These two verbs change meaning depending on whether a gerund or infinitive is used as the
object.
Examples:
Jack forgets to take out the cat. (He regularly forgets.)
Jack forgets taking out the cat. (He did it, but he doesn't remember now.)
Jack forgot to take out the cat. (He never did it.)
Jack forgot taking out the cat. (He did it, but he didn't remember sometime later.)
Jack remembers to take out the cat. (He regularly remembers.)

Jack remembers taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembers now.)
Jack remembered to take out the cat. (He did it.)

Jack remembered taking out the cat. (He did it, and he remembered sometime later.)
In the second of each pair of example sentences above, the past progressive gerund form
having taken can be used in place of taking to avoid any possible confusion.
22.RELATIVE CLAUSES
RELATIVE (ADJECTIVE) CLAUSES
An adjective clause is a subordinate, or dependent, clause. A subordinate clause, like the

independent clause, contains both a subject and a verb; however, a subordinate clause by itself
does not express a complete thought. Consequently, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone
as a complete sentence, i.e., it is not an independent clause. The entire subordinate adjective
clause functions within a sentence just like a single-word adjective. Like a single-word adjective,
an adjective clause modifies a noun or a pronoun.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS INTRODUCE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
An adjective clause is frequently introduced by a relative pronoun. A clause introduced by a relative

pronoun is always a subordinate adjective clause. In fact, you can be certain that any clause introduced
by a relative pronoun is a subordinate clause. In the following examples, adjective clauses appear in
accentuated text; the noun or pronoun modified is underlined.
Prisoners who refuse to obey will be shot.
(In this example, the subordinate adjective clause is introduced by the relative pronoun who. Additionally, the clause
answers the question which ones? regarding the noun prisoners.)
You should buy a wristwatch that keeps better time.
(Introduced by a relative pronoun, the clause is surely a subordinate adjective clause. Additionally, the adjective
clause answers what kind of? regarding the noun it modifies, which is wristwatch.)
Jenna had two childhood friends, both of whom died of cancer.
(The adjective clause answers the question how many? regarding the noun friends. Note: adjective clauses
answering how many? are frequently set off with commas because the material contained within the clause is very
often parenthetical.)
We moved to my old neighborhood, where I grew up.
(The adjective clause answers which one? regarding the noun neighborhood. Note that where is a relative adverb
introducing the adjective clause. See below for more regarding relative adverbs.)
ELLIPTICAL RELATIVE PRONOUNS
The relative pronoun introducing a subordinate adjective clause may be omitted from the clause when the
relative pronoun does not function as the subject of the clause. In these constructions of omission, the
pronoun is understood to be in the clause though it is not physically present. However, when the relative
pronoun functions as the subject of the subordinate adjective clause, it may not be omitted from the
clause. Its presence is necessary to serve as subject of the clause.
Whether to introduce a subordinate adjective clause using a relative pronoun has other considerations,
too. Examples of elliptical relative pronouns follow, with pronouns in brackets to indicate their omission.
The things [that] we know best are the things [that] we were not taught.
(The example contains two subordinate adjective clauses. The subjects of both clauses are the pronouns we. Since
both clauses have the pronoun we as subject, the relative pronouns that may be omitted from the clauses, i.e., the
relative pronouns are not required to function as subject of the clauses.)
Now is the time [that] Frank must go.
(The noun Frank is the subject of the clause; therefore, the relative pronoun that may be omitted from the clause.)
The locker that was beside my desk has been moved.
(The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from the clause. Its presence is necessary to function as the subject of the
subordinate adjective clause.)
This is the place [where] I was born.
(The pronoun I is the subject of the clause; therefore, the relative adverb where may be omitted.)
Will the runner who came in last please step forward.
(Because it functions as the subject of the clause, the pronoun, who, cannot be omitted.)
POSITION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSE (Follows the Noun or Pronoun)
A subordinate adjective clause always directly follows the noun or pronoun it modifies. (Note
the position of single-word adjectives vs that of adjective clauses.)
The puzzle that we couldn't solve . . . (Which one?)
Ships that carry men's dreams across the oceans . . . (What kind of?)
Our grandchildren, seven in all . . . (How many?)
RELATIVE ADVERBS
A relative adverb introduces a subordinate adjective clause. Occasionally a subordinate adjective

clause is introduced by a relative adverb: where, when, or why. The word relative within the
context of grammar describes a word that refers or relates to another word or phrase within a
sentence. This word or phrase of reference is called the antecedent. A relative adverb introduces
a subordinate adjective clause which modifies an antecedent noun or pronoun located in the
main sentence clause. Although the entire clause introduced by a relative adverb is adjectival,
and functions to modify a noun or pronoun in the main sentence clause, the relative adverb itself
modifies a verb within its own clause.
Choosing which relative adverb to introduce a subordinate adjective clause is determined by the
noun or pronoun antecedent.
To modify a noun of place (space): where

To modify a noun of time (duration): when
To modify a noun of reason (cause and/or
why
effect):
The office is the place where you waste most of your life.
(The relative adverb where modifies the verb waste, making it adverbial; but the entire clause where you waste most
of your life modifies the noun place.)
These are the times when Joan lost her initiative.
(The relative adverb when modifies the verb lost, making it adverbial; but the entire clause when Joan lost her
initiative modifies the noun times.)
That is the reason why Mark refused to come.
(The relative adverb why modifies the verb refused, making it adverbial; but the entire clause why Mark refused to
come modifies the noun reason.)
I wondered why she refused the invitation.
(In this example, the adjective clause, introduced by the relative adverb why, does not have an antecedent noun or
pronoun. These kind of constructions are not common.)
ELLIPICAL RELATIVE ADVERBS
Sometimes a relative adverb is omitted from the relative clause. In these constructions of
omission, the relative adverb is understood to be in the clause though it is not physically present.
Omitting the relative adverb often creates a stronger, more direct, statement; for this reason,
many writers prefer omission.
The office is the place where you waste most of your life.
These are the times when Joan lost her initiative.
Do you know the reason why Susan left so suddenly?
HOW TO DETERMINE THE SUBJECT & OBJECT OF A CLAUSE
The Subject
To determine the subject of a clause, ask what? or who? and insert the verb. Don't get confused
if the answer is an echo. In the following examples, adjective clauses appear in accentuated text.
We often forgive the people who bore us.
(What or who bore? The answer is who. The pronoun who is the subject of the adjective clause.)
The boxes they packed last Monday have mysteriously vanished!
(What or who packed? They packed. The pronoun they is the subject of the adjective clause.)
The Object
To determine the object of a clause, read the subject and verb and then ask what? or whom? Be
prepared for a possible echo.
We seldom forgive those whom we bore.
(We bore what or whom? The answer is whom. The pronoun whom is the object of the verb bore in the adjective
clause.)
I cannot think of a defense that will vindicate her.
(That will vindicate what or whom? Her is the answer. The pronoun her is the object of the verb phrase will
vindicate.)
Devan fell off the roof of the barn father and I had built last summer.
(Be aware that what and whom are not foolproof tests for a direct object. In this example, the verb in the adjective
clause does not contain an object. The phrase last summer is an adverb phrase. Adverbs will never function as an
object.)
Usage Note
The grammatical parts of an adjective clause are often arranged in the same order as they are in
sentences: Subject / Verb / Object or Complement.
We often forgive the people who bore us.
However, the object or complement may sometimes appear before the subject and verb: Object
or Complement / Subject / Verb.
We rarely forgive those whom we bore.
ADJECTIVE PHRASE
A phrase consists of a minimum of two words. The prepositional phrase, the participle phrase, and the
infinitive phrase frequently function as adjectives. A phrase, like the subordinate clause, is a subordinate
group of words that functions together as a single part of speech. Phrases, however, do not contain both a
subject and a verb, whereas clauses do. Like the subordinate clause, phrases cannot stand alone.
Prepositional Phrase as Adjective
A prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun is an adjective phrase.
The rooms of the house
Some of the rocks
The books on the table
Participle Phrase as Adjective
A participle is a verbal that functions as an adjective. A participle modifies a noun or a pronoun. A

participle phrase consists of a participle followed by any complements and/or modifiers.
Buffeted by the storm, the ship drifted off course.
The barking dog, chained to the tree, appears vicious.
We could see the squirrel sitting three branches away.
Infinitive Phrase as Adjective
An infinitive is a verbal that can function as an adjective (among other parts of speech). When an infinitive
functions as an adjective, it modifies a noun or a pronoun. The infinitive phrase is composed of the
infinitive followed by any complements and/or modifiers.
The candidate to elect is Will Peterson.
Travis should be the one to go shopping.
I have a decision to make before evening.

Non-defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive
relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining
relative clauses are put in commas.
Note that that CANNOT be used in non-defining relative clauses.
Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask
somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this
situation it is obvious which girl you mean.
Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?
Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.
Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.
Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.
When the relative pronoun refers back to a person and is the subject of the non-defining
relative clause, who is used, e.g.:
The woman, who later died in hospital, has not yet been named.
When the relative pronoun refers back to a thing and is the subject of the non-defining
relative clause, which is used, e.g.:
This new project, which begins in September, will cost several million pounds.
When the relative pronoun refers back to a person and is the object of the non-defining
relative clause, who or whom are used, e.g.:
Her previous manager, who she had never liked, retired six months ago.
Edward’s brother, whom she later married, never spoke to his parents again.
Register note. As in defining relative clauses, whom is rather formal and would only be used
in written English or formal spoken English.
When the relative pronoun refers back to a thing and is the object of the non-defining relative
clause, which is used, e.g.:
This bar of chocolate, which he devoured immediately, was the first thing he had eaten in two
days.
Note that, unlike in defining relative clauses, there is no zero relative pronoun, i.e. the
pronoun cannot be left out when it is functioning as the object of the relative clause, cf:
He was a distant cousin who/whom/that she had never met. (defining)
He was a distant cousin she had never met. (defining)
A distant cousin, who/whom she had never met, was meeting her for lunch. (non-defining)
REDUCTION OF RELATIVE CLAUSES
Expressions of quantity in adjective clauses:
-->There are many people in this town. None of them was Born in Alaska.
-->There are many people in this town, none of whom was Born in Alaska.
-->There are a lot of things in this store. Most of them were made in China.
-->There are a lot of things in this store, most of which were made in China.
This adjective clause pattern occurs with any expressions of quantity:
Some of, many of, most of, none of, two of, half of, both of, neither of, each of +
whom/which/whose
A noun + of + which is sometimes an alternative to an adjective clause with whose.
-->She has a computer. The processor of it is a Pentium.

-->She has a computer, the processor of which is a Pentium. (1)
-->She has a computer. Its processor is a Pentium.

-->She has a computer whose processor is a Pentium. (2)
(1) and (2) have the same meaning.
Changing an adjective clause to an adjective phrase:
Only adjective clauses that have a subject pronoun (who, which, that) are reduced to modify an
adjective clause. In this case, there is no difference in meaning between the adjective clause and
adjective phrase.
There are two ways to change an adjective clause to an adjective phrase. Both the subject
pronoun and the be form of the verb are omitted:
-->The car which is left on the street is broken. (Adjective clause)

-->The car left on the street is broken. (Adjective phrase)
If there is no be form of a verb in the adjective clause, it is sometimes possible to omit the subject
pronoun and change the verb to its -ing form:
-->The man who came yesterday knows how to repair the faucet.
-->The man coming yesterday knows how to repair the faucet.
If the adjective clause requires commas, the adjective phrase also requires commas.
-->The man, who was waiting for you, comes from Arizona.
-->The man, waiting for you, comes from Arizona.
A participle (~ing or ~ed) can often be used instead of a relative pronoun and full verb.
 The teacher punishes anyone breaking the rules. (=...anyone who breaks rules.)
 I live in a building having forty storeys. (=....building which has forty...)
 The house painted in red is where John lives. (= The house which is painted in red....)
 People invited are expected to be formally dressed for the occasion. (= People who
are invited .....)
23.DETERMINERS &QUANTIFIERS
&ARTICLES
1. Use of A and AN
 We only use "a" or "an" with singular count nouns.
 We use "a" or "an" to talk about a person or thing for the first time.
1. We only use "a" or "an" with singular count nouns. "A" and "an" are called the indefinite
article.
I got a postcard from Hasan.
Mr. Erhan was eating an apple.
Remember that we use "a" in front of a word that begins with a consonant sound even if the
first letter is a vowel for example "a piece, a university, a European language". We use "an" in
front of a word that begins with a vowel sound even if the first letter is a consonant for example
"an exercise, an idea, an honest man".
2. We use "a" or "an" when we are talking about a person or thing for the first time.
Nichoal picked up a book.
After weeks of looking we eventually bought a house.
A colleague and I got some money to do research on rats.
Note that the second time you refer to the same person or thing, we use "the".
Nichoal picked up a book ... ... The book was lying on the table.
After weeks of looking we eventually bought a house ... ... The house was in a small village.
3. After the verb "be" or another link verb, we can use "a" or "an" with an adjective and a
noun to give more information about someone or something.
His brother was a sensitive child.
He seemed a worried man.
It was a really beautiful house.

We can also use "a" or "an" with a noun followed by a qualifier, such as a prepositional
phrase or a relative clause, when we want to give more information about someone or
something.
The information was contained in an article on biology.
I chose a picture that reminded me of my own country.
4. We use "a" or "an" after the verb "be" or another link verb when we are saying what
someone is or what job they have.
He became a school teacher.
She is a model and an artist.
5. We use "a" or "an" to mean "one" with some numbers. We can use "a" or "an" with nouns
that refer to whole numbers, fractions, money, weights, or measures.
a hundred a quarter a pound a kilo

a thousand a half a dollar a litre
6. We do not use "a" or "an" with uncount nouns or plural count nouns. We do not need to
use a determiner at all with plural count nouns, but we can use the determiners "any", "a few",
"many", "several", or "some".
I love dogs.
Do you have any dogs?
Many adults don't listen to children.
I have some children like that in my class.
Note that if we do not use a determiner with a plural count noun, we are often making a
general statement about people or things of that type. For example, if you say "I love dogs" you
mean all dogs. However, if you say "There are eggs in the kitchen" you mean there are some
eggs. If you do use a determiner, you mean a number of people or things but not all of them,
without saying exactly how many.
I have some friends coming for dinner.
He has bought some plants for the house.
I have some important things to tell them.
A or AN?
"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.
 a cat
 a dog
 a purple onion
 a buffalo
 a big apple
with one exception: Use an before unsounded h.
 an honorable peace
 an honest error
"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:
 an apricot
 an egg
 an Indian
 an orbit
 an uprising
with two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, then a is used. Check
the examples:
 a union
 a united front
 a unicorn
 a used napkin
 a U.S. ship
DEFINITE ARTICLE: THE
 We use "the" when the person we are talking to knows which person or thing we mean.
 We use "the" when we are referring back to someone or something.
 We use "the" when we are specifying which person or thing we are talking about.
 We use "the" when we are referring to something that is unique.
 We use "the" when we want to use one thing as an example to say something about all
things of the same type.
1. The is called the definite article and is the commonest determiner. We use "the" when the
person we are talking to knows which person or thing we mean. We can use "the" in front of any
noun whether it is a singular count noun an uncount noun or a plural count noun.
She dropped the can.
I remembered the fun I had with them.
The girls were not at home.
2. We use "the" with a noun when we are referring back to someone or something that has
already been mentioned.
I called for a waiter ... ... The waiter with a moustache came.
I have bought a house in Wales ... ... The house is in an agricultural area.
3. We use "the" with a noun and a qualifier such as a prepositional phrase or a relative
clause when we are specifying which person or thing we are talking about.
I've no idea about the geography of Scotland.
The book that I recommended now costs over three pounds.
4. We use "the" with a noun when we are referring to something of which there is only one in
the world.
They all sat in the sun.
We have landed men on the moon.
The sky was a brilliant blue.
We also use "the" when we are referring to something of which there is only one in a
particular place.
Mrs Robertson heard that the church had been bombed.
He decided to put some words on the blackboard.

5. We can use "the" with a singular count noun when vou want to make a general statement
about all things of that type. For example, if we say "The whale is the largest mammal in the
world", we mean all whales, not one particular whale.
The computer allows us to deal with a lot of data very quickly.
My father's favourite flower is the rose.
6. We can use "the" with a singular count noun when we are referring to a system or service.
For example, we can use "the phone" to refer to a telephone system and "the bus" to refer to a
bus service.
I don't like using the phone.
How long does it take on the train?
7. We can use "the" with the name of a musical instrument when we are talking about
someone's ability to play the instrument.
"We play the guitar, I see," said Simon.
Geoff plays the piano very well.
Other uses of "the"

Main points
 We do not normally use "the" with proper nouns referring to people. We do use "the"
with many proper nouns referring to geographical places.
 We use "the" with some adjectives to talk about groups of people.
1. We do not normally use "the" with proper nouns that are people's names. However, if we
are talking about a family, we can say "the Browns".
We use "the" with some titles such as "the Queen of England" and with the names of some
organizations, buildings, newspapers, and works of art.
... the United Nations ... ... the Taj Mahal ...
... the Times ... ... the Mona Lisa ...
2. We do use "the" with some proper nouns referring to geographical places.
... the Bay of Biscay ... ... the Suez Canal ...
... the Arabian Gulf ... ... the Pacific Ocean ...
We use "the" with countries whose names include words such as "kingdom", "republic",
"states", or "union".
... the United Kingdom ... ... the Soviet Union ...
Yon use "the" with countries that have plural nouns as their names.
... the Netherlands ... ... the Philippines ...
Note that we do not use "the" with countries that have singular nouns as their names such as
"China", "Italy", or "Turkey".
We use "the" with names of mountain ranges and groups of islands.
... the Alps ... ... the Himalayas ...
... the Bahamas ... ... the Canaries ...
Note that we do not use "the" with the names of individual mountains such as "Everest" or
"Etna" or the names of individual islands such as "Sicily", "Minorca", or "Bali".
We use "the" with regions of the world, or regions of a country that include "north", "south",
"east", or "west".
... the Middle Fast ... ... the Far East ...
... the north of England ... ... the west of Ireland ...
Note that there are some exceptions.
... North America ... ... South East Asia ... ... East Anglia ...
We do not use "the" with "northern", "southern", "eastern", or "western" and a singular name.
... northern England ... ... western Africa ...
We use "the" with the names of areas of water such as seas, oceans, rivers, canals, gulfs,
and straits.
... the Mediterranean Sea ... ... the Atlantic Ocean ...
... the river Ganges ... ... the Panama Canal ...
... the Gulf of Mexico ... ... the straits of Gibraltar ...
Note that we do not use "the" with lakes.
... Lake Geneva ... ... Lake Superior ...
Note that we do not use "the" with continents, cities, streets, or addresses.
... Asia ... ...Tokyo ... ... Oxford Street ... ... 15 Park Street ...
3. We use "the" with adjectives such as "rich", "poor", "weng", "old", and "unemployed" to talk
about a general group of people. We do not need a noun.
Only the rich could afford his firm's products.
They were discussing the problem of the unemployed.
When we use "the" with an adjective as the subject of a verb, we use a plural verb.
In the cities the poor are as badly off as they were in the villages.
4. We use "the" with some nationality adjectives to talk about the people who live in a
country.
They will be increasingly dependent on the support of the French.
The Spanish claimed that the money had not been paid.
With other nationalities we use a plural noun.
... Germans ... ... the Americans ...
When we use "the" with a nationality adjective as the subject of a verb we use a plural verb.
The British are worried.
5. We use "the" with superlatives.
He was the cleverest man I ever knew.
He was the wengest.
His shoulders hurt the worst.
It was the most exciting summer of their lives.

QUANTIFIERS: ALL-MOST-NO
 We use "all" with plural count nouns and uncount nouns. We use "all" to talk about every
person or thing in the world, or in the group you are talking about.
 We use "most" with plural count nouns and uncount nouns. We use "most" to talk about
nearly all of a number of people or things, or nearly all of a quantity of something.
 We use "no" with singular and plural count nouns and uncount nouns. We use "no" to say
that something does not exist or is not present.
1. We use "all" with plural count nouns and uncount nouns to talk about every person or thing
in the world or in the group that you are talking about.
All children should complete the primary course.
All important decisions were taken by the government.
He soon lost all hope of becoming a rock star.
All luggage will be searched.
2. We use "most" with plural count nouns and uncount nouns to talk about nearly all of a
number of people or things or nearly all of a quantity of something.
The method was suitable for most purposes.
Most good drivers stop at zebra crossings.
Most milk is still delivered to people's houses.
He ignored most advice, and did what he thought best.
3. We use "no" with singular count nouns, plural count nouns, and uncount nouns to say that
something does not exist or is not present.
There was no chair for me to sit on.
They had no immediate plans to change house.
No money was available for the operation.
Note that if there is another word in the clause that makes it negative, you use "any", not
"no".
It hasn't made any difference.
He will never do any work for me again.

4. "All" and "most" are also pronouns, so we can say "all of" and "most of". "No" is not a
pronoun so we must say "none of".
He spent all of the money on a new car.
Most of my friends live in London.
None of those farmers had ever driven a tractor.
Note that we use "all of", "most of", and "none of" with an object pronoun.
All of us were sleeping.
I had seen most of them before.
None of them came to the party.
Note that if the clause is already negative, we use "any of", not "none of".
I hadn't eaten any of the biscuits.
When "none of" is followed by a plural noun or pronoun, the verb is usually plural, but can be
singular.
None of us are the same.
None of them has lasted very long.
5. We can use "all the" with a plural count noun or an uncount noun. There is no difference in
meaning between "all the" and "all of the".
All the girls think it's great.
All the best jokes came at the end of the programme.
Thank you for all the help you gave me.
WARNING: We cannot say "most the" or "none the". We must say "most of the" or "none of
the".
6. We can use "all" after a noun or pronoun to emphasize that the noun or pronoun refers to
everyone or everything that has been mentioned or is involved. Note that we can use "all" to
emphasize the subject or the object.
The band all live together in the same house.
I enjoyed it all.
QUANTIFIERS: SOME-ANY & EVERY-EACH
 We use "some" to talk about a quantity or number without being precise.
 We use "any" to talk about a quantity or number that may or may not exist.
 We use "another", or "another" and a number, to talk about additional people or things.
 We use "each" and "every" to talk about all the members of a group of people or things.
1. We use "some" with uncount nouns and plural nouns to talk about a quantity of something
or a number of people or things without being precise.
I have left some food for you in the fridge.
Some trains are running late.
We normally use "some" in affirmative sentences.
There's some chocolate cake over there.
I had some good ideas.
We use "some" in questions when we expect the answer to be "yes", for example in offers or
requests.
Would you like some coffee?
Could you give me some examples?
We can use "some" with a singular noun when we do not know which person or thing is
involved, or you think it does not matter.
Some man phoned, but didn't leave his number.
Is there some problem?
2. We use "any" in front of plural and uncount nouns to talk about a quantity of something
that may or may not exist. We normally use "any" in questions and negative sentences.
Are there any jobs men can do but women can't?
It hasn't made any difference.
We use "any" with a singular noun to emphasize that it does not matter which person or thing
is involved.
Any container will do.
We can use "no" with an affirmative verb instead of "not any".
There weren't any tomatoes left.

There were no tomatoes left.
You can also use "not" and "any", or "no", with a comparative.
Her house wasn't any better than ours.
Her house was no better than ours.
3. We use "another" with singular nouns to talk about an additional person or thing.
Could I have another cup of coffee?
He opened another shop last month.
We can also use "another" with a number and a plural noun to talk about more people or
things.
Another four years passed before we met again.
I've got another three books to read.
We use "other" with plural nouns and "the other" with singular or plural nouns.
I've got other things to think about.
The other man has gone.
The other European countries have beaten us.
4. We use "each" or "every" with a singular noun to talk about all the members of a group of
people or things. We use "each" when we are thinking about the members as individuals, and
"every" when we are making a general statement about all of them.
Each county is subdivided into several districts. , Each applicant has five choices.
Every child would have milk every day. , She spoke to every person at that party.
We can modify "every" but not "each". , He spoke to them nearly every day.
We went out almost every evening.
5. We can use "some of", "any of", or "each of", and a noun group to talk about a number of
people or things in a group of people or things.
Some of the information has already been analysed.
It was more expensive than any of the other magazines.
He gave each of us advice about our present goals.
We can use "each of" and a plural noun group but "every" must be followed by "one of".
Each of the drawings is different.
Every one of them is given a financial target.

Note that we can also use "each" with "one of".
This view of poverty influences each one of us.
QUANTIFIERS: MUCH-MANY & LITTLE-

FEW
 We use "much" and "little" with uncount nouns to talk about a quantity of something.
 We use "many" and "few" with plural nouns to talk about a number of people or things.
 We use "much" in negative sentences and questions, and "a lot of" or "plenty of" rather
than "much" in affirmative sentences.
 We use "more" and "less" with uncount nouns, and "more" and "fewer" with plural count
nouns.
1. We use "much" to talk about a large quantity of something, and "little" to talk about a small
quantity of something. We only use "much" and "little" with uncount nouns.
I haven't got much time.
We've made little progress.
2. We use "many" to talk about a large number of people or things, and "few" to talk about a
small number of people or things. We can only use "many" and "few" with plural count nouns.
He wrote many novels.
There were few visitors to our house.
3. We normally use "much" in negative sentences and questions.
He did not speak much English.
Why haven't I given much attention to this problem?
In affirmative sentences we do not use "much", we use "a lot of", "lots of", or "plenty of"
instead. We can use them with both uncount nouns and plural nouns.
He demanded a lot of attention. , I make a lot of mistakes.
They spent lots of time on the project. , He remembered a large room with lots of windows.
I've got plenty of money. , There are always plenty of jobs to be done.
Note that we can use "so much" and "too much" in affirmative sentences.
She spends so much time here. , There is too much chance of error.
4. We use "so much" to emphasize that a large quantity of something is involved.
I have so much work to do.
They have so much money and we have so little.

We use "too much" and "too many" to say that the quantity of something, or the number of
people or things, is larger than is reasonable or necessary.
He has too much work.
Too many people still smoke.
We use "very many" to emphasize that a large number of people or things are involved.
Very many old people live alone.
Note that "very much" is used with nouns and verbs.
There isn't very much time.
I liked it very much.
5. We use "few" and "little" to emphasize that only a small quantity of something or a small
number of people or things are involved. They can be used with "very" for greater emphasis.
The town has few monuments.
I have little time for anything but work.
Very few cars had reversing lights.
I had very little money left.
Note that "a few" and "a little" just indicate that a quantity or number is small.
He spread a little honey on a slice of bread.
I usually do a few jobs for him in the house.
6. We use "more" with uncount nouns and plural count nouns to refer to a quantity of
something or a number of people or things that is greater than another quantity or number.
His visit might do more harm than good.
He does more hours than I do.
We use "less" with uncount nouns to refer to an amount of something that is smaller than
another amount.
The poor have less access to education.
This machinery uses less energy.
We use "fewer", in English, with plural nouns to refer to a number of people or things that is
smaller than another number.
There are fewer trees here.
They have sold fewer computers this year.

DETERMINERS
 Determiners are used at the beginning of noun groups.

 We use specific determiners when people know exactly which things or people you are
talking about.
 We use general determiners to talk about people or things without saying exactly who or
what they are.
1. When we use a determiner, we put it at the beginning of a noun group, in front of numbers
or adjectives.
I met the two Swedish girls in London.
Our main bedroom is through that door.
Have you got another red card?
Several young boys were waiting outside.
2. When the people or things that you are talking about have already been mentioned, or the
people you are talking to know exactly which ones you mean, you use a specific determiner.
The man began to run towards the boy.
Young people don't like these operas.
Her face was very red.
The specific determiners are:
the definite article: the

demonstratives: this that these those
possessives: my your his her its our their
Note that "your" is used both for the singular and plural possessive.
3. When you are mentioning people or things for the first time, or talking about them generally
without saying exactly which ones you mean, you use a general determiner.
There was a man in the lift.
We went to an art exhibition.
You can stop at any time you like.
There were several reasons for this.

The general determiners are:
a both few more other

all each fewer most several
an either less much some
another enough little neither
any every many no
4. Each general determiner is used with particular types of noun. You use some general
determiners with:
 singular count nouns
a
another each every no
any either neither
an
I got a postcard from Susan.
Any big tin container will do.
He opened another shop last month.
 plural count nouns
all enough many no some

any few more other
both fever most several
There were few doctors available.
He spoke many different languages.
Several projects had to be postponed.
 uncount nouns
all enough little most no

any less more much some
There was little applause.
We need more information.
He did not speak much English.

WARNING: The following general determiners can never be used with uncount nouns.
a both every neither

an each few several
another either many
5. Most of the determiners are also pronouns, except "the", "a", "an", "every", "no" and the
possessives.
I saw several in the woods last night.
Have you got any that I could borrow?
There is enough for all of us.
You use "one" as a pronoun instead of "a" or "an", "none" instead of "no", and "each" instead
of "every"
Have you got one?
There are none left.
Each has a separate box and number.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
 Indefinite pronouns refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are.
 When an indefinite pronoun is the subject, it always takes a singular verb.
 We often use a plural pronoun to refer back to an indefinite pronoun.
1. The indefinite pronouns are:
Anybody, everybody, nobody, somebody

Anyone, everyone, no one, someone
Anything, everything, nothing, something
Note that "no one" is written as two words, or sometimes with a hyphen: "no-one".
2. We use indefinite pronouns when you want to refer to people or things without saying
exactly who or what they are. The pronouns ending in "-body" and "-one" refer to people, and
those ending in "-thing" refer to things.
I was there for over an hour before anybody came.
It had to be someone with a car.
Jane said nothing for a moment.
3. When an indefinite pronoun is the subject, it always takes a singular verb, even when it
refers to more than one person or thing.
Everyone knows that.
Everything was fine.
Is anybody there?
When we refer back to indefinite pronouns, we use plural pronouns or possessives, and a
plural verb.
Ask anyone. They 'II tell you.
Has everyone eaten as much as they want?
You can't tell somebody why they've failed.
WARNING: Some speakers prefer to use singular pronouns. They prefer to say "You can't
tell somebody why he or she has failed".
4. We can add apostrophe s ('s) to indefinite pronouns that refer to people.
She was given a room in someone's studio.

That was nobody's business but mine.
WARNING: We do not usually add apostrophe s ('s) to indefinite pronouns that refer to
things. You do not say "something's value", you say "the value of something".
5. We use indefinite pronouns beginning with "some-" in:
 affirmative clauses
Somebody shouted.
I want to introduce you to someone.
 questions expecting the answer "yes"
Would you like something to drink?
Can you get someone to do it?
6. We use indefinite pronouns beginning with "any-":
 as the subject or object in statements
Anyone knows that you need a licence.
You still haven't told me anything.
I haven't given anyone their presents yet.
You do not use them as the subject of a negative statement. You do not say "Anybody can't
come in".
 in both affirmative and negative questions
 Does anybody agree with me?
 Won't anyone help me?
 7. If we use an indefinite pronoun beginning with "no-", we must not use another
negative word in the same clause. We do not say "There wasn't nothing".
 There was nothing you could do.
 Nobody left, nobody went away.
 8. We use the indefinite adverbs "anywhere", "everywhere", "nowhere", and

"somewhere" to talk about places in a general way. "Nowhere" makes a clause negative.
 I thought I'd seen you somewhere.
 No-one can find Howard or Barbara anywhere.
 There was nowhere to hide.

 9. We can use "else" after indefinite pronouns and adverbs to refer to people, things, or
places other than those that have been mentioned.
 Everyone else is downstairs.
 I don't like it here. Let's go somewhere else.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
 Reflexive pronouns can be direct or indirect objects.

 Most transitive verbs can take a reflexive pronoun as object.
 Reflexive pronouns can be the object of a preposition.
 Reflexive pronouns can emphasize a noun or pronoun.
1. The reflexive pronouns are:
singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself

plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Note that, unlike "you" and "your", there are two forms for the second person: "yourself" in the
singular and "yourselves" in the plural.
2. We use reflexive pronouns as the direct or indirect object of the verb when we want to say
that the object is the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the same clause.
For example, "John taught himself" means that John did the teaching and was also the person
who was taught, and "Ann poured herself a drink" means that Ann did the pouring and was also
the person that the drink was poured for.
She stretched herself out on the sofa.
The men formed themselves into a line.
He should give himself more time.
Note that although the subject "you" is omitted in imperatives, we can still use "yourself" or
"yourselves".
Here's the money, go and buy yourself an ice cream.
3. Most transitive verbs can take a reflexive pronoun.
I blame myself for not paying attention.

He introduced himself to me.
WARNING: Verbs which describe actions that people normally do to themselves do not take
reflexive pronouns in English, although they do in some other languages.
I usually shave before breakfast.
She washed very quickly and rushed downstairs.
4. We use a reflexive pronoun as the object of a preposition when the object of the
preposition refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the same clause.
I was thoroughly ashamed of myself.
They are making fools of themselves.
Tell me about yourself.
Note that we use personal pronouns, not reflexive pronouns, when referring to places and
after "with" meaning "accompanied by".
You should have your notes in front of you.
He would have to bring Judy with him.
5. We use reflexive pronouns after nouns or pronouns to emphasize the person or thing that
we are referring to.
The town itself was so small that it didn't have a bank.
I myself have never read the book.
6. We use a reflexive pronoun at the end of a clause to emphasize that someone did
something without any help from anyone else.
She had printed the card herself.
I'll take it down to the police station myself.
Did you make these yourself?
7. We use reflexive pronouns with "by" to say:
 that someone does something without any help from other people
... when babies start eating their meals by themselves.
She was certain she could manage by herself.
 that someone is alone
He went off to sit by himself.
I was there for about six months by myself.

We can also use "on my own", "on your own", and so on, to say that someone is alone or
does something without any help.
We were in the park on our own.
They managed to reach the village on their own.
You can use "all" for emphasis.
Did you put those shelves up all by yourself?
We can't solve this problem all on our own.
WARNING: "One another" and "each other" are not reflexive pronouns.
24.PREPOSITIONS & PHRASAL VERBS
Prepositions of place and direction

 We normally use prepositional phrases to say where a person or thing is, or the direction
they are moving in.
 We can also use adverbs and adverb phrases for place and direction.
 Many words are both prepositions and adverbs.
1. We use prepositions to talk about the place where someone or something is. Prepositions
are always followed by a noun group, which is called the object of the preposition.
above below in opposite through

among beneath inside outside under
at beside near over underneath
behind between on round
He stood near the door.
Two minutes later we were safely inside the taxi.
Note that some prepositions consist of more than one word.
in between, in front of, next to, on top of
There was a man standing in front of me.
The books were piled on top of each other.
2. You can also use prepositions to talk about the direction that someone or something is
moving in, or the place that someone or something is moving towards.
across into past to
along onto round towards
back to out of through up
down
They dived into the water.
She turned and rushed out of the room.
3. Many prepositions can be used both for place and direction.
The bank is just across the High Street. {place)
I walked across the room. (direction)
We live in the house over the road. (place)
I stole his keys and escaped over the wall. (direction)
4. We can also use adverbs and adverb phrases for place and direction.
abroad here underground everywhere

away indoors upstairs nowhere
downstairs outdoors ~ somewhere
downwards there anywhere
Sheila was here a moment ago.
Can't you go upstairs and turn the bedroom light off?
Note that a few noun groups can also be used as adverbials of place or direction.
Steve lives next door at number 23.
I thought we went the other way last time.
5. Many words can be used as prepositions and as adverbs, with no difference in meaning.
Remember that prepositions have noun groups as objects, but adverbs do not.
Did he fall down the stairs?
Please do sit down.
I looked underneath the bed, but the box had gone!
Always put a sheet of paper underneath.

Prepositions of place : at-in-on
 We use ‘at’ to talk about a place as a point.

 We use ‘in’ to talk about a place as an area.
 We use ‘on’ to talk about a place as a surface.
1. We use ‘at’ when we are thinking of a place as a point in space.
She waited at the bus stop for over twenty minutes.
‘Where were you last night?’ - ‘At Mick's house.’
2. We also use ‘at’ with words such as ‘back’, ‘bottom’, ‘end’, ‘front’, and ‘top’ to talk about the
different parts of a place.
Mrs Castle was waiting at the bottom of the stairs.
They escaped by a window at the back of the house.
I saw a taxi at the end of the street.
We use ‘at’ with public places and institutions. Note that we also say ‘at home’ and ‘at work’.
I have to be at the station by ten o'clock.
We landed at a small airport.
A friend of mine is at Training College.
She wanted to stay at home.
We say ‘at the corner’ or ‘on the corner’ when we are talking about streets.
The car was parked at the corner of the street.
There's a telephone box on the corner.
We say ‘in the corner’ when we are talking about a room.

She put the chair in the corner of the room.
3. We use ‘in’ when we are talking about a place as an area. We use ‘in’ with:
 a country or geographical region
When I was in Spain, it was terribly cold.
A thousand homes in the east of Scotland suffered power cuts.
 a city, town, or village
I've been teaching at a college in London.
 a building when you are talking about people or things inside it
They were sitting having dinner in the restaurant.
We also use ‘in’ with containers of any kind when talking about things inside them.
She kept the cards in a little box.
4. Compare the use of ‘at’ and ‘in’ in these examples.
I had a hard day at the office. (‘at’ emphasizes the office as a public place or institution)
I left my coat behind in the office. (‘in’ emphasizes the office as a building)
There's a good film at the cinema. (‘at’ emphasizes the cinema as a public place)
It was very cold in the cinema. (‘in’ emphasizes the cinema as a building.)
5. When talking about addresses, we use ‘at’ when you give the house number, and ‘in’ when
we just give the name of the street.
They used to live at 5, Weston Road.
She got a job in Oxford Street.
Note that American English uses ‘on’: ‘He lived on Penn Street.’
We use ‘at’ when we are talking about someone's house.
I'll see you at Fred's house.
6. We use ‘on’ when we are talking about a place as a surface. We can also use ‘on top of’.
I sat down on the sofa.
She put her keys on top of the television.
We also use ‘on’ when we are thinking of a place as a point on a line, such as a road, a
railway line, a river, or a coastline.
Scrabster is on the north coast.

Oxford is on the A34 between Birmingham and London.
Prepositions with forms of transport
 We can use ‘by’ with most forms of transport.

 We use ‘in’, ‘into’, and ‘out of’ with cars.
 We normally use ‘on’, ‘onto’, and ‘off’ with other forms of transport.
1. When we talk about the type of vehicle or transport we use to travel somewhere, we use
‘by’.
by bus by car by plane by train

by bicycle by coach
She had come by car with her husband and her four children.
I left Walsall in the afternoon and went by bus and train to Nottingham.
WARNING: If you want to say you walk somewhere, you say you go ‘on foot’. You do not say
‘by foot’. Ex. Marie decided to continue on foot.
2. We use ‘in’, ‘into’, and ‘out of’ when we are talking about cars, vans, lorries, taxis, and
ambulances.
I followed them in my car.
The carpets had to be collected in a van.
Mr Ward happened to be getting into his lorry.
She was carried out of the ambulance and up the steps.
3. We use ‘on’, ‘onto’, and ‘off’ when we are talking about other forms of transport, such as
buses, coaches, trains, ships, and planes.
Why don't you come on the train with me to New York?
Peter Hurd was already on the plane from California.

The last thing he wanted was to spend ten days on a boat with Hooper.
He jumped back onto the old bus, now nearly empty.
Mr Bixby stepped off the train and walked quickly to the exit.
*We can use ‘in’, ‘into’, and ‘out of’ with these other forms of transport, usually when we are
focusing on the physical position or movement of the person, rather than stating what form of
transport they are using.
The passengers in the plane were beginning to panic.
He got back into the train quickly, before Bait could stop him.
We jumped out of the bus and ran into the nearest shop.
All Prepositions
The words at, in, of, on and to are examples of prepositions. A word such as a noun, pronoun or
gerund following a preposition is said to be the object of the preposition. As pointed out
previously, a personal pronoun following a preposition must be in the objective case.
A phrase beginning with a preposition can be referred to as a prepositional phrase. The

prepositional phrases in the following examples are underlined.
--> He owns the house on the corner.

--> We are waiting for her.
--> She has read many books about flying.
In the first example, the noun corner is the object of the preposition on. In the second example,
the personal pronoun her is the object of the preposition for. It can be seen that the personal
pronoun her is in the objective case. In the third example, the gerund flying is the object of the
preposition about.
A preposition serves to connect its object with the rest of a sentence. In doing so, a preposition
indicates the relationship of the idea expressed in the prepositional phrase to the ideas
expressed In the rest of the sentence.
For instance in the sentence He owns the house on the corner, the preposition on indicates
that the words the corner express the location of the house referred to in the rest of the
sentence. Similarly, in the sentence We are waiting for her, the preposition for indicates that the
word her expresses the reason for the action of waiting referred to in the rest of the sentence.
Although there are fewer than one hundred English prepositions, although prepositions do not
take endings, and although the structure of most prepositional phrases is simple, the use of
English prepositions is very complex. The reasons for this are that most prepositions have more
than one meaning, many prepositions can also be used as adverbs, prepositions are used in
hundreds of idioms, many adjectives, nouns, and verbs must usually be followed by certain
prepositions, and there are hundreds of phrasal verbs formed from combinations of verbs with
adverbs and prepositions.
It should also be noted that the use of prepositions varies somewhat among the different dialects
of English. For instance, as illustrated in the following example, there are some differences
between British and North American English in the use of prepositions.
British Usage: --> There is a fence about the garden.
American Usage: --> There is a fence around the garden.
The discussion below emphasizes the North American usage of English prepositions.
1. The meanings of prepositions
The table below gives the most usual meanings of English prepositions. Each meaning is
illustrated by an example.
About
1. On the subject of: This is a story about elephants.
2. Approximately: He is about ten years old.
Above
1. Higher than; over: The plane flew above the clouds.
2. Earlier on a page: There is a heading above each diagram.
Across
1. From one side to the other: We walked across the field.
2. On the other side of: There is a store across the street.
After
1. Later in time: after ten o'clock; after lunch
2. Later in a series: Q comes after P in the alphabet.
3. In pursuit of: The dog ran after the cat.
Against
1. In opposition to: Theft is against the law.
2. Touching; supported by: I leaned my bicycle against the wall.
Along
1. Following the length of: We walked along the road.
Among
1. Within a group: The money was shared among three people.
Note: In formal English, among is usually used only when referring to more than two persons or
things. In contrast, between is used when referring to two persons or things.
Around
1. Circling something: We walked around the block.
2. Surrounding: There is a fence around the garden.
3. In different parts of: I looked around the house for the keys.
4. In the other direction: We turned around and went back home.
5. Approximately: He is around six feet tall.
At
1. A specific location: at 23 Chestnut Street; at the park
2. A point in time: at 5 o'clock; at Christmas
3. A condition: at peace; at war; at rest
4. An activity: at work; at school; at play
5. Towards: Look at someone; wave at someone
Note: When referring to a specific location or to a point in time, at is usually used. When referring
to a certain street or a certain day, on is usually used. When referring to a location as an area, or
when referring to a unit of time longer than a day, in is usually used.
e.g. at Christmas; on Christmas day; in the Christmas holidays
Before
1. Earlier in time: before two o'clock; before Christmas
2. Earlier in a series: S comes before T in the alphabet.
Behind
1. At the back of: The little girl hid behind her mother.
2. Late: I am behind in my work.
3. Cause; origin: Who was behind that idea?
Below
1. Lower than; under: below freezing; below sea level
2. Later on a page: Footnotes are provided below the text.
Beneath
1. Lower than; below: beneath the earth
Beside
1. Next to; at the side of: I sit beside her in class.
Besides
1. Also; as well as: We study other languages besides English.
Note the differing meanings of beside and besides. Beside is usually used with reference to a
physical location.
Between
1. An intermediate location: Toronto lies between Montreal and Vancouver.
2. An intermediate time: between Christmas and New Year's Day
3. Intermediate in a series: B comes between A and C in the alphabet.
4. An intermediate amount: between five and ten people
5. Within a group of two: The money was shared between two people.
Beyond
1. Farther than: The mountains lie beyond the horizon.
2. Further than; exceeding: That was beyond my expectations.
But
1. Except: I have read all but the last chapter.
Note: But is used more often as a conjunction than as a preposition.
By
1. Near: a house by the sea
2. Past: He waved as he drove by the house.
3. Not later than: Try to finish the work by next week.
4. In units of: cheaper by the dozen; sold by weight
5. Through the means of: travel by plane; written by him
Note: By is often used in combination with verbs in the Passive Voice.
Concerning
1. Connected with; about: He studies everything concerning trees.
Despite
1. In spite of: We walked downtown despite the rain.
Down
1. To a lower position: The ball rolled down the hill.
2. Further along: He lives down the street.
During
1. Throughout a period: She works during the day.
2. Sometime within a period: An accident occurred during the night.
Except
1. Not including: I have visited everyone except him.
For
1. Duration of time: We walked for two hours.
2. Distance: I walked for five kilometers.
3. Purpose: I bought this jacket for you.
4. In the direction of: She left for New York.
5. In favor of: We are for the proposal.
6. Considering: The boy is clever for his age.
From
1. Place of origin: We left from Boston; he comes from Mexico
2. Start of a period of time: from now on; from yesterday until today
3. Start of a range: From 20 to 30 people were present.
4. Cause: He suffers from nervousness.
5. Source: I first heard the story from you.
In
1. Place thought of as an area: in London; in Europe
2. Within a location: in the room; in the building
3. Large units of time: That happened in March, in 1992.
4. Within a certain time: I will return in an hour.
5. By means of: write in pencil; speak in English
6. Condition: in doubt; in a hurry; in secret
7. A member of: He is in the orchestra; in the navy
8. Wearing: the boy in the blue shirt
9. With reference to: lacking in ideas; rich in oil
Inside
1. Within: They are inside the house.
Into
1. To the inside of: We stepped into the room.
2. Change of condition: The boy changed into a man.
Like
1. Resembling: That looks like him.
2. Appearing possible: It looks like rain.
3. Be in a suitable mood for: I feel like going swimming.
Minus
1. Less: Three minus two equals one.
Near
1. Close to: near the school; near the ocean
Of
1. Location: east of here; the middle of the road
2. Possession: a friend of mine; the sound of music
3. Part of a group: one of us; a member of the team
4. Measurement: a cup of milk; two meters of snow
Off
1. Not on; away from: Please keep off the grass.
2. At some distance from: There are islands off the coast.
On
1. Touching the surface of: on the table; on the wall
2. A certain day: That happened on Sunday, on the 6th of June.
3. A certain street: on South Street
4. About: a book on engineering
5. A state or condition: on strike; on fire; on holiday
6. By means of: live on a pension; shown on television
Onto
1. To a position on: The child climbed onto the table.
Opposite
1. Facing: The library is opposite the fire station.
Out of
1. To the outside of: She went out of the room.
2. From among: We won two games out of three.
3. Motive: We spoke to them out of politeness.
4. Material: The bridge is made out of steel.
5. Beyond: out of control; out of danger
Outside
1. On the outer side of: outside the house
2. Beyond the limits of: outside my experience
Over
1. Above; higher than: There are cupboards over the sink.
2. Covering: We spread an extra blanket over the bed.
3. Across: I jumped over a puddle.
4. More than: It cost over ten dollars; it took over an hour
5. During: I saw him several times over the past week.
6. By means of: We made plans over the telephone.
Past
1. Up to and beyond: I walked past the house.
2. After (in time): It was past 2 o'clock; half past two
3. Beyond: past belief
Per
1. For each: 60 kilometers per hour; price per liter
Plus
1. With the addition of: Six plus four equals ten.
Since
1. From a specific time in the past: I had been waiting since two o'clock.
2. From a past time until now: I have been waiting here since noon.
Note: Because of its meaning, the preposition since is usually used in combination with a perfect
tense. It should be noted that the preposition for can also be used with a perfect tense. However,
when used with reference to time, for is usually followed by a phrase referring to a period of
time; whereas since is usually followed by a phrase referring to a specific time.
--> I have known him for six months.

--> I have known him since January.
In the first example, for is followed by six months, which refers to a period of time. In the second
example, since is followed by January, which refers to a specific time.
Through
1. Across; from end to end of: the main road through town
2. For the whole of a period: I slept through the night.
3. By means of: Skill improves through practice.
Throughout
1. In every part of: throughout the world
2. For the whole of a period: throughout the winter
Till
Note: Till can be used instead of until. However, at the beginning of a sentence, until is usually
used.
To
1. In the direction of: Turn to the right.
2. Destination: I am going to Rome.
3. Until: from Monday to Friday; five minutes to ten
4. Compared with: They prefer hockey to soccer.
5. With indirect object: Please give it to me.
6. As part of infinitive: I like to ski; he wants to help.
7. In order to: We went to the store to buy soap.
Toward (or Towards)

1. In the direction of: We walked toward the center of town.
2. Near; just before (time): It rained towards evening.
Under
1. Beneath: under the desk; under the trees
2. Less than: Under 100 people were present.
3. In circumstances of: under repair; under way; under discussion
Underneath
1. Below, under: underneath the carpet
Until
1. Up to a certain time: She will stay until Friday; until 5 p.m.
Upon
Note: On and upon have similar meanings. Upon may be used in certain expressions, as in
once upon a time, and following certain verbs, as in to rely upon someone.
Up
1. To a higher place: We went up the stairs.
2. In a higher place: She lives up the hill.
Up to
1. As far as: up to now; I have read up to page 100.
2. Depending on: The decision is up to you.
3. As good as; ready for: His work is up to standard.
Versus
1. Against (sports, legal): The next game is England versus Australia.
Via
1. By way of: He went to Los Angeles via San Francisco.
With
1. Accompanying: He came with her; I have my keys with me.
2. Having; containing: Here is a book with a map of the island.
3. By means of; using: I repaired the shoes with glue.
4. Manner: with pleasure; with ease; with difficulty
5. Because of: We were paralyzed with fear.
Within
1. Inside of: within twenty minutes; within one kilometer
Without
1. Not having: Do not leave without your coat; without money
Phrasal Verbs
Many verbs in English are followed by an adverb or a preposition (also called a particle), and
these two-part verbs, also called phrasal verbs, are different from verbs with helpers. The particle
that follows the verb changes the meaning of the phrasal verb in idiomatic ways:
Unfortunately, there is usually no indicator whether an idiomatic phrase is separable,

inseparable, or intransitive. In most cases the phrases must simply be memorized. Below is a
partial list of each kind of phrase.
Separable
add up - add
back up - cause to move backwards; support; blow up; cause to explode; destroy by explosives
break down - analyze; list the parts of separately
break into - go into a house or room forcibly; suddenly; begin; bring about - cause to happen
bring off - accomplish
bring on - cause
bring out - publish; emphasize
bring over - bring
bring to - revive
bring up - raise; care for from childhood
brush out - brush the inside of
burn down - destroy by burning
burn up - consume by fire
buy out - by the other person's share of a business
buy up - buy the whole supply of
call off - cancel; order away
call up - telephone; summon for military service
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue
carry out - fulfill; complete; accomplish; perform
carry over - carry; continue at another time or place
cheer up - cause to become cheerful
chew up - chew thoroughly
chop up - chop into small pieces
clean off - clean the surface of
clean out - clean the inside of
clean up - clarify; tidy
clear out - clear the surface of
clear up - clear the inside of
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
count in - include
count out - exclude
count up - calculate; count; add to a total
cross out - eliminate
cut off - interrupt; sever; amputate
cut out - eliminate; delete
cut down - reduce in quantity
draw up - write; compose (a document)
dress up - put clothes on; adorn
dust out - dust the inside of
eat up - eat completely
figure out - interpret; understand
figure up - compute
fill in - complete (a printed form)
fill out - complete (a printed form)
fill up - fill completely (a container)
find out - discover
fix up - repair; arrange in a suitable manner
get across - cause to be understood
give back - return
give out - distribute; announce
give up - surrender something
hand down - deliver; pronounce formally; leave as an inheritance
hand over - yield control of
hang up - suspend
have on - be dressed in
have over - entertain someone informally at one's home
hold off - delay; restrain
hold up - delay; rob; threaten with a weapon
keep up - continue; keep the same pace
leave out - omit
let down - disappoint
let out - release from confinement; make larger (in sewing)
light up - light; illuminate thoroughly
live down - live in such a way as to cause something to be forgotten
make over - remake
move over - move to the side
pass out - distribute
pass up - not take advantage of (as an opportunity)
pass on - transmit
pay back - repay
pay off - discharge a debt completely; give someone his final pay
pick up - come to meet an escort; lift with hands or fingers; learn casually;
initiate an association publicly
play down - minimize
play up - emphasize
point out - indicate
pull down - pull in a downward direction; raze
push across - cause to be understood or accepted
put off - postpone
put on - dress in; deceive or fool
put up - preserve (food); receive as an overnight guest
quiet down - be quiet
ring up - the telephone
rinse off - rinse the surface of
rinse out - rinse the inside of
rule out - eliminate
run down - trace; disparage; hit with a vehicle
run off - cause to depart; reproduce mechanically
save up - accumulate
see through - complete; in spite of difficulties
see off - accompany someone to the beginning of a trip
send back - send to a place where formerly located
send over - send to where someone is
set up - arrange
show off - exhibit ostentatiously
shut off - cause to cease functioning
slow up - cause to move more slowly
spell out - enumerate; state in detail
stand up - fail to keep an appointment with
sweep out - sweep the inside of
take back - return; retract a statement
take down - remove from a high position; write from dictation
take in - understood; fool; deceive; make smaller (in sewing)
take over - take; assume command of
tear down - destroy
tear up - tear into small pieces
tell off - scold; reprimand
think over - consider
think through - consider from beginning to end
think up - create; invent
throw away - discard
throw over - reject
tie up - tie securely or tight
tire out - cause to be exhausted
touch up - repair
try on - put on a garment to verify the fit
try out - test
turn down - refuse; lower the volume
turn out - produce; force into exile, extinguish (a light)
wash off - wash the surface of
wash out - wash the inside of
wear out - use until no longer usable; tire greatly
wind up - finish, tighten the spring of a watch or machine
wipe off - wipe the surface of
wipe out - wipe the inside of; decimate
work out - solve
write down - record
write out - write down every detail; spell out
write up - compose; prepare (a document)
Inseparable
back out of - desert; fail to keep a promise

bear down on - lean on; browbeat
bear on - have to do with
bear up under - endure
break in on - interrupt
break into - interrupt
call for - come to get; require
care for - like; guard; supervise; maintain
carry on with - continue
catch up with - cover the distance between oneself and
check up on - examine; verify
come across - find accidentally
come along with - accompany; make progress
come by - find accidentally
come down with - become ill with
come out with - utter; produce
come up with - utter; produce
count on - rely on
cut in on - interrupt
disagree with - cause illness or discomfort to
do away with - abolish
do without - deprive oneself of
drop in at/on - visit casually without planning
drop out of - leave; quit
face up to - acknowledge
fall behind in - lag; not progress at required pace
fall back on - use for emergency purpose
fall out with - quarrel with
fill in for - substitute for
get ahead of - surpass; beat
get around - evade; avoid
get away with - do without being caught or punished
get by with - manage with a minimum of effort
get down to - become serious about; consider
get in - enter (a vehicle)
get off - descend from; leave
get on - enter (a vehicle); mount
get on with - proceed with
get through with - terminate, finish
go back on - desert; fail to keep (a promise)
go for - like a great deal
go in for - be interested in; participate in
go on with - continue
go over - review
go with - harmonize with; look pleasing together
go without - abstain from
hang around - remain idly in the vicinity of
hear from - receive a communication from
hear of - learn about (sometimes accidentally)
hit on - discover accidentally
hold on to - grasp tightly
hold out against - resist
keep at - persevere at
keep to - persist in; continue
keep up with - maintain the pace of
lie down on - evade; fail to do
live on - support or sustain oneself by means of
live up to - maintain the standard demanded of
look after - take care of
look back on - remember nostalgically
look down on - feel superior to
look forward to - anticipate
look up to - respect; admire
make up for - compensate for
pass on - transmit
pick on - tease; bully
play up to - flatter for personal advantage
put up with - tolerate
read up on - search out information on
run against - compete against in an election
run away with - leave; escape from
run for - campaign for
see about - consider; arrange
see to - arrange; supervise
settle on - decide on; choose
stand for - represent; permit
stand up for - support; demand
stand up to - resist
stick to - persist
stick up for - support; defend
take after - resemble
talk back to - answer impolitely
talk over - discuss
tell on - report misbehavior to authority
touch on - mention briefly
turn into - become
wait on - serve
wait up for - not go to bed while waiting for
watch out for - be careful for
Intransitive
back down - retreat from a position in an argument

back out - desert; fail to keep a promise
back up - move backwards
bear up - endure
blow in - drop in to visit unexpectedly
blow over - pass without doing harm
blow up - explode; lose one's temper
call up - telephone
calm down - become calm
carry on - continue as before; misbehave
catch on - understand
catch up - cover the distance between oneself and a moving goal
check up - investigate
check out - leave; pay one's bill
cheer up - become cheerful
clear out - leave
clear up - become clear
close down - close permanently
close up - close temporarily
came about - happen
come along - accompany; make progress
come back - return
come by - visit someone in his home
come out - appear; make a social debut
come over - come to someone's house, to where someone is
come through - succeed
come to - regain consciousness
cut in - interrupt
die away - fade; diminish
die down - fade; diminish
die off/out - disappear; become extinct
dress up - don fancy or unusual clothes
drive back - return by car
drop in - visit someone casually without planning
drop out - abandon some organized activity; leave; quit
drop over - visit someone casually
fall behind - not progress at required pace
fall off - decrease; lose weight
fall through - fail; not be accomplished
fill in - substitute
find out - learn
fly back - return by air
fly over - fly to where someone is
get ahead - make progress
get along - have a friendly relationship
get around - circulate; move about
get away - escape
get by - manage; either just barely or with a minimum of effort
get in - enter
get off - descend from leave
get on - enter (a vehicle); mount (a horse, etc.)
get on/along - progress; be compatible
get up - rise
get through - finish
give out - become exhausted
give up - surrender; fail to finish
go back - return
go off - explode
go on - happen; continue
go out - stop burning; leave one's residence
go over - go; succeed
grow up - mature
hang around - remain idly; dawdle
hang up - replace a telephone receive on its hook
hold on - grasp tightly; persevere; wait while telephoning
hold out - continue to resist; persevere; persist
keep on - continue
keep up - maintain the required pace or standard; continue
let up - diminish in intensity
lie down - recline
look on - be a spectator
make out - progress; succeed
make up - become reconciled
move over - move to the side
pan out - turn out well; be successful
pass out - become unconscious
pass on - die
pick up - grow; increase
pull in - arrive
pull out - deport
pull through - survive (barely)
ride over - ride to where someone is
run away - escape; leave; leave quickly without permission
run down - slowly lose power so as to stop functioning
run off - depart running; drain
sell out - sell the ownership or responsibility
settle up - pay one's bills or debts
show off - boast by words or actions
show up - arrive; appear unexpectedly
shut up - stop talking
slow up - reduce speed
stand by - wait; be prepared to assist
stand up - stand; rise from sitting; last; endure
stay over - remain at someone's house overnight or longer
step aside - move to one side
take off - leave the ground
take over - assume command
talk back - answer impolitely
throw up - vomit
turn around - turn so that one is facing another direction
turn in - go to bed
turn out - succeed; come; appear, as at a public meeting
turn up - arrive; be found unexpectedly
wait up - remain awake in anticipation
wake up - awaken
walk back - return on foot to where one was
walk over - walk to where someone is
wash out - fade or disappear from washing
watch out - be careful
wear off - fade; disappear through use or time
wear out - become unusable through use; become used up
work out - be successful
Prepositions used in idioms
Below are examples of idioms consisting of prepositional phrases. The following selection of
idioms emphasizes those used in North American English. The meaning of each idiom is
indicated after the colon.
At
not at all: not in any way
at all times: always
at any rate: whatever happens
keep someone at arm's length: avoid becoming closely involved with someone
at close quarters: very near
at one's disposal: to be used as one wishes
at a distance: not near
at fault: causing something wrong
at first: at the beginning
see at a glance: see immediately
at hand: near; readily available
at last: finally, after some delay
at a loss: uncertain what to do or say
at the mercy of: without defense against
at the moment: now
at once: immediately
at present: now
at rest: not moving
at risk: threatened by danger or loss
at short notice: with little warning
at stake: to be won or lost
at a stretch: continuously
at that rate: under those circumstances
at this point: at this place; at this moment
at the wheel: in control
Behind
behind the scenes: (of persons) influencing events secretly; (in a theater) behind the stage
behind schedule: not on time
Beside
be beside oneself: lose one's self-control
beside the point: irrelevant
Between
read between the lines: deduce a meaning that is not actually expressed
Beyond
beyond help: unable to be helped
beyond a joke: too annoying to be amusing
beyond reproach: perfect; blameless
By
by accident: not deliberately
by all means: by any possible method
bit by bit: gradually
by chance: by accident; without planning
by courtesy of: with the help or permission of
win by default: win because of lack of competition
by degrees: gradually
perform by ear: perform (music) by listening to the sound, without referring to written music
by hand: without the use of machinery
by heart: from memory
little by little: gradually
by means of: by using
by mistake: accidentally
by no means: not at all
one by one: one at a time
by oneself: alone
side by side: beside one another
by the way: incidentally (used to introduce an unrelated topic of conversation)
by word of mouth: orally
For
once and for all: for the last time (e.g. used when giving someone a final warning)
for certain: definitely; without doubt
for a change: for the sake of variety
for example: as an illustration
for fun: for the sake of enjoyment
for good: permanently
for good measure: in addition to the necessary amount
for instance: for example; as an illustration
for keeps: (colloquial) permanently
for a living: as a profession
for now: temporarily
run for office: compete for an elected position
for one thing: because of one reason (out of several)
for the sake of: for the benefit of; for the purpose of
for sale: intended to be sold
for sure: definitely (more colloquial than for certain)
food for thought: something which makes one think
play for time: delay doing something in the hope that the situation will improve
for the time being: until some other arrangement is made
ask for trouble: act in a dangerous or foolish way
for a while: for a period of time
word for word: exactly as said or written
From
from afar: from a distance
from all sides: from all directions
from head to foot: (of a person) completely; all over
from scratch: from the beginning
from time to time: occasionally
In
in addition to: as well as
in advance: before
be in agreement with: have the same opinion as
in any case: whatever happens
in brief: in a few words
in bulk: (of goods) in large amounts; not in packages
be in charge of: have responsibility for
in common: shared by all members of a group
in control: having the power to direct something
in the course of: during
in danger: likely to be harmed
in a daze: unable to think clearly; confused
in debt: owing money
in demand: (of goods or persons) desired by many people
in depth: (investigate something) thoroughly
in detail: (explain something) thoroughly
in disgrace: regarded with disapproval because of having done something wrong
in the distance: far away
in doubt: uncertain
in duplicate: so that there are two identical copies (of a document)
in earnest: seriously; in a determined way
in effect: (of rules) operating
in the end: finally
in fact: in reality; really
in fashion: fashionable; accepted as being the most desirable and up to date
in favor of: supporting (an idea)
in flames: burning, with visible flames
in a flash: very quickly; suddenly
in full: without omitting anything
in general: usually; as a whole
hand in hand: (of persons) holding hands; (of related situations) occurring together
in a hurry: trying to accomplish something quickly
in jest: as a joke
in kind: (payment) in goods rather than in money
in itself: without reference to anything else
in league with: (of persons) joined together with (usually for a dishonest purpose)
be in the limelight: be the focus of attention; receive great publicity
in the long run: in the end; eventually
in the long term: looking ahead to the distant future
leave someone in the lurch: abandon someone who is in a difficult situation
be in the minority: be in the smaller of two groups
in mint condition: (of manufactured goods) perfect; brand-new
in a minute: soon
in a moment: soon; quickly
set something in motion: start something going
nip something in the bud: put an end to something before it gets properly started
in no time: very soon; very quickly
in order of: arranged according to
in order to: for the purpose of
in part: to some degree
in particular: especially
in power: (of a political party) holding office
in practice: able to do something well because of recent practice; in reality (opposite of in theory)
in print: (of a book) printed and available from the publisher
in private: not in front of other people
in public: openly; not in private
in reality: really
in reserve: saved for later use
in retrospect: looking back over past events
in return for: as repayment for
be in the right: be correct
in season: (of fruit or vegetables) readily available at that time of year
in a second: soon; quickly
in short supply: scarce; not easily obtainable
in sight: able to be seen
in stock: (of goods at a store) present and available
in that case: if that is true
in theory: ideally; according to theoretical considerations
be in time: not be late
in touch with in: communication with; informed about
in triplicate: so that there are three identical copies (of a document)
be in trouble: be in a difficult situation; be blamed or punished for doing something wrong
in tune: at the correct pitch
act in unison: act together
in vain: without success
in the vicinity of: near
once in a while: occasionally
in words of one syllable: (explain something) clearly and simply
in working order: able to function properly
in the wrong: responsible for an error; guilty
Inside
inside out: with the inner side out; thoroughly
Into
paint oneself into a corner: take a course of action which greatly narrows one's future choices of action
go into hiding: hide oneself
get into a rut: get into a fixed and uninteresting way of life
get into trouble: get into a difficult situation; do something deserving blame or punishment
Of
of course: certainly; as one would expect; as everyone knows
hard of hearing: somewhat deaf
next of kin: nearest relative or relatives
of one's own accord: voluntarily; on one's own initiative
of one's own free will: voluntarily; by choice
one's point of view: one's opinion about something
right of way: public right to use a path or road; (of road traffic) right to proceed before others
rule of thumb: a simple way to calculate what procedure to follow, based on extensive experience,
rather than on theoretical considerations
Off
go off the air: (of radio or television) stop broadcasting
off duty: not engaged in one's regular work
off one's hands: no longer one's responsibility
off and on: from time to time
off the record: say something privately, that is not to be officially recorded
off the track: following a wrong line of thought or action
On
on account of: because of
be on the air: (of radio or television) be in the process of broadcasting
on the alert: ready to act
be on all fours: (of a person) be on hands and knees
on the average: usually; normally
on behalf of: for; in the interests of
on board: on a ship or airplane
on business: as part of one's work
on condition that: only if; provided that
on demand: when asked for
on display: being exhibited
on duty: engaged in one's regular work
on fire: burning
to go on foot: to walk
be on one's guard: be alert and ready to meet an attack
on hand: available
on loan: lent and not yet returned
shoot on location: (of a movie) film in natural surroundings, not in a studio
on the lookout: watchful
put something on the map: cause something to become well-known
get on one's nerves: annoy; irritate
on no account: absolutely not
on the one hand: (used to introduce one side of an argument)
on one's own: alone; without help
act on one's own initiative: act independently, without orders from anyone else
on order: requested but not yet delivered
on the other hand: (used to introduce a contrasting side of an argument)
act on principle: do something to support a policy
on purpose: deliberately
go on record: say something which is to be officially recorded
on sale: being sold at a lower price than usual
on schedule: at the correct time; as planned or predicted
on second thoughts: after thinking further about something
on a shoestring: with a very small amount of money
be on the spot: be where important events are taking place; be placed in an awkward situation
on the spur of the moment: on a sudden impulse
go off on a tangent: change suddenly to a new line of thought or action
on time: at the correct time
walk on tiptoe: walk on the toes and balls of the feet
accept something on trust: accept something without proof
on the verge of: very close to; about to
on the whole: taking everything into consideration
Out of
out of the blue: unexpectedly
out of breath: (after running) panting from a shortage of oxygen
out of character: unlike a person's known character
out of control: not able to be regulated or guided
out of danger: safe
out of date: no longer used; old-fashioned; (of news) no longer true
out of debt: having paid one's debts
be out of one's depth: be unable to handle a situation because of lack of experience
out of doors: in the open air; not in a building
out of fashion: not fashionable; not presently in common use
out of hand: not under control
out of harm's way: safe
out of line with: in disagreement with
be out of one's mind: be insane
out of order: not functioning properly; (at a formal meeting) not behaving according to the rules
out of the ordinary: unusual
out of place: unsuitable
out of practice: unable to do something as well as one has in past, because of lack of recent practice
out of print: (of a book) no longer available from the publisher
out of proportion: too big or too small; not having the appropriate relationship to something
out of the question: impossible; not to be considered
out of season: (of fruit or vegetables) not readily available at that time of year
out of shape: (of persons) not in top condition because of lack of exercise
out of sight: hidden, not able to be seen
out of stock: (of goods at a store) temporarily unavailable
out of style: not fashionable
out of touch: with not in communication with; not informed about
out of town: having temporarily left town
out of trouble: not in trouble
out of tune: not at the correct pitch
out of work: no longer having employment
To
to all intents and purposes: in all important ways
to a certain extent: partly
to date: so far; until now
up to date: current; modern
see eye to eye with: agree entirely with
take something to heart: be much affected by something
made to measure: exactly suitable; (of clothes) made for a certain person
keep something to oneself: not tell anyone
to the point: relevant
Under
under age: below the age of being legally permitted to do something
be under arrest: be held prisoner and charged with wrongdoing
under the auspices of: with the patronage of; supported by
under one's breath: in a whisper
under the circumstances: because this is true
under consideration: being thought about
under control: able to be regulated or guided
under cover of: protected by; undetected because of
under fire: being shot at; being criticized
under the impression that: having the idea that
be under the influence of: be affected by
be under oath: have sworn to tell the truth
under observation: being watched carefully
under restraint: prevented from doing something
Up
have something up one's sleeve: have a secret idea or plan in reserve
With
with impunity: without risk of injury or punishment
with the naked eye: without using a magnifying lens
with no strings attached: (of help given) with no conditions; to be used freely
take with a pinch of salt: not believe completely
with regard to: concerning; about
with respect to: concerning; about
tarred with the same brush: having the same faults
with a vengeance: very much; more than usual
Within
within limits: to a certain extent; not too much
within living memory: within the memory of people now alive
Without
go without saying: be obvious
Prepositions used in idioms-2
The following are examples of nouns which are usually followed by certain prepositions. In the
case of phrases which are idioms, the meanings of the phrases are indicated in brackets.
Against
take precautions against

For
have affection for make allowances for
have compassion for an excuse for
a reason for have a reputation for
have respect for have sympathy for
have a talent for lie in wait for (ambush)
pave the way for (prepare for)

From
absence from

In
have confidence in have faith in
have an interest in take part in
make progress in

Into
have insight into

Of
have an abhorrence of an acknowledgement of
take advantage of take care of
take command of evidence of
an example of an excess of
make a fool of make fun of (ridicule)
have an impression of a lack of
neglect of a number of
a pair of be part of
a possibility of make a practice of (do often)
a proof of a quantity of
recognition of a recollection of
a result of run the risk of (risk)
catch sight of (see suddenly) a sign of
a survey of a symbol of
a symptom of a token of
make use of a way of
wash one's hands of (stop caring
about and dealing with)

On
an attack on dependence on
make an impression on play a joke on
shed light on (explain) have pity on

To
have access to pay attention to
an objection to a reply to
a response to lay siege to (besiege)
shut one's eyes to (deliberately
ignore a problem)

Toward or Towards
animosity toward(s) an attitude toward(s)

With
have a connection with find fault with (criticize)
fall in love with change places with
Adjectives and verbs in the passive voice followed by prepositions
In some cases different prepositions can be used without causing a change in meaning. For
instance, the following examples both have the same meaning.
--> I was angry at them.
I was angry with them.
However, in many cases, the use of different prepositions causes a change in meaning. For
instance, the past participle protected is typically followed by the preposition from. However, like
many other past participles, protected may also be followed by the preposition by, where by
serves to introduce the performer of the action expressed by the past participle.
--> The city is protected from the soldiers.
The city is protected by the soldiers.
The first example indicates that the soldiers are a threat to the city; whereas the second example
indicates that the soldiers are protecting the city.
The following are examples of predicate adjectives and past participles of verbs in the Passive
Voice which are usually followed by certain prepositions. In addition, it should be kept in mind
that most verbs in the Passive Voice can be followed by a phrase beginning with the preposition
by.
About
anxious about concerned about
curious about depressed about
doubtful about enthusiastic about
excited about happy about
pleased about wrong about
worried about

At
adept at alarmed at
amazed at overjoyed at
shocked at surprised at

Between
torn between

By
accompanied by caused by
guided by manufactured by
obsessed by written by

For
blamed for eligible for
famous for fit for
known for late for
noted for praised for
punished for qualified for
ready for responsible for
ripe for sorry for
suitable for

From
absent from apart from
derived from descended from
detached from different from
distinct from exempt from
far from isolated from
omitted from protected from
removed from safe from
separated from

In
absorbed in disappointed in
engaged in immersed in
interested in involved in

Of
accused of afraid of
ashamed of aware of
capable of certain of
composed of conscious of
convinced of deprived of
devoid of fond of
ignorant of independent of
jealous of proud of
regardless of reminded of
sure of suspicious of
suspected of terrified of
tired of worthy of

On
based on dependent on
intent on

To
acceptable to accessible to
accustomed to adapted to
addicted to adjacent to
attached to attributable to
close to committed to
comparable to dedicated to
detrimental to devoted to
due to equal to
equivalent to essential to
exposed to faithful to
favorable to foreign to
impervious to indifferent to
indispensable to inferior to
kind to loyal to
next to obedient to
obliged to oblivious to
opposed to parallel to
partial to peculiar to
preferable to prior to
proportional to reconciled to
reduced to related to
relative to relevant to
resigned to resistant to
restricted to senior to
sensitive to similar to
subject to subordinate to
suited to superior to
susceptible to tied to

Toward or Towards
protective toward(s)

With
acquainted with affiliated with
associated with besieged with
compared with compatible with
confronted with consistent with
covered with cursed with
exasperated with familiar with
finished with identified with
infatuated with patient with
pleased with satisfied with
synonymous with threatened with
Verbs followed by prepositions
The following are examples of verbs which are often followed by certain prepositions.
About
care about complain about
forget about lie about (tell a lie)
reminisce about talk about
think about wonder about
worry about

Against
discriminate against protest against
react against rebel against
turn against

At
aim at bark at
connive at frown at
gaze at glare at
growl at hint at
look at point at
shoot at smile at
snap at sneer at
stare at wave at
wink at

For
apply for apologize for
beg for blame for
budget for hope for
long for look for
mourn for pay for
plead for pose for
pray for prepare for
press for register for
search for shop for
substitute for vouch for
wait for wish for

From
abstain from benefit from
deduct from derive from
desist from deter from
detract from deviate from
differ from divert from
escape from extricate from
flee from infer from
profit from protect from
quote from radiate from
recoil from recover from
refrain from shrink from
stem from suffer from

In
believe in engage in
indulge in intervene in
invest in participate in
persist in succeed in

Into
change into convert into
delve into dip into
develop into divide into
fall into merge into
plunge into pry into
sink into transform into

Of
approve of beware of
conceive of consist of
deprive of die of
disapprove of smell of

On
blame on concentrate on
depend on impinge on
impose on insist on
intrude on pounce on
reflect on rely on
report on spy on
subsist on thrive on

Over
preside over trip over

To
adapt to adhere to
adjust to amount to
belong to conform to
contribute to correspond to
listen to object to
pertain to prefer to
refer to relate to
respond to resort to
revert to submit to
subscribe to succumb to
surrender to yield to

With
agree with associate with
collaborate with combine with
communicate with comply with
concur with consort with
contend with cooperate with
cope with correspond with
flirt with mingle with
share with sympathize with

25.OTHER SUBJECTS
TAG QUESTIONS
Tag question is a statement which has been transformed into a question by putting a question tag
at the end.
Rule: Use a question tag based on the subject-verb of the sentence. In the basic tag question
formation, the rules below apply.
SUBJECT+ VERB (POSITIVE) .... .., (NEGATIVE) VERB+SUBJECT ?
eg: She came, didn't she? OR She did come, didn't she?
They are happy to be here, aren't they?
SUBJECT+ VERB (NEGATIVE) .... , (POSITIVE) VERB+SUBJECT ?

eg: She doesn't like chores, does she?
They haven't been informed, have they?
However, this section will explain to you the exceptions of tag question formation. Not all
sentence types follow the general rules above. The exceptions are as listed below.
1) negative adverbs
Sentences with negative adverbs such as hardly,never,barely, rarely,scarcely,seldom
do not have a negative question tag at the end.
They seldom come, don't they? They seldom come, do they?

He is never available, isn't he? He is never available, is he?
2) quantifiers with negative meaning
Sentences with quantifiers denoting negative meaning such as no,none of, not
one,neither of, not any, few, little, hardly any, scarcely any, not many do not require a
negative question tag at the end.
Note: The question tag for "few/not many/not one+NOUN" is .....they?

The question tag for "little+NOUN" is .....it?
The question tag for "no/scarcely any/hardly any/barely any/none of+
Countable NOUN" is .....they?
The question tag for "no/scarcely any/hardly any/barely any/none of+
Uncountable NOUN" is .....it?
The question tag for "few/not many/not one/none/scarcely any/hardly
any/barely any+of+us" is .....we?
The question tag for "few/not many/not one/none/scarcely any/hardly
any/barely any+of+you" is .....you?
Few men have the proper values to live through this age, don't they? Few men have the
proper values to live through this age, do they? Little money was invested in this
scheme, wasn't it? Little money was invested in this scheme, was it?
3) Pronouns with negative meanings

The subject of the sentence with negative meaning (none, nothing,neither, nobody,not
many, few, little, hardly any, scarcely any) does not require a negative question tag at the
end
Note: The question tag for "none/nothing/not many/few/nobody/neither" is .....they?

The question tag for "nothing" is .....it?
The question tag for "little+NOUN" is .....it?
None would survive the next world war, wouldn't they? None would survive the next world
war, would they? Nothing is free these days, isn't it? Nothing is free these days, is it?
4) Let's and Let
When you use the word "let's", the question tag at the end must be "shall+we?"
Let's visit the Archeological Museum, don't we? Let's visit the Archeological Museum,
shall we?
When you use the word "let", the question tag at the end must be "will/won't+you?"
Let the prisoners go, could you? Let the prisoners go, will you? Let the prisoners go,
won't you?
5) Imperative sentences
When the sentence is imperative, the question tag at the end must be "will/won't+you?"
Come over for tea today, can you? Come over for tea today, will you? Come over for
tea today, won't you?
Do try these lovely scones, wouldn't you? Do try these lovely scones, will you? Do try
these lovely scones, won't you?
6) Short observations
When you are making short observations about something non-living, the question tag
at the end must be "isn't/aren't+it?"
Nice day, ain't it? Nice day, isn't it? (It is a nice day,isn't it?)
When you are making short observations about the something living, the question tag at
the end must be "isn't/aren't+she/he/they?" >
Lovely girl, doesn't she? Lovely girl, isn't she? (She is a lovely girl, isn't she?)
Beautiful creatures, isn't it? Beautiful creatures, aren't they? (They are beautiful creatures,
aren't they?)
7) Stating intentions When you wish to do something, the question tag at the end must be
"may+I?"
I wish to leave now, don't I? I wish to leave now, may I?
The Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a special kind of present tense, using an infinitive that has no –s in the third
person singular. It is often used when talking about something that somebody must do.
--> I insist (that) your friend leave this house at once.
The subjunctive is a formal construction.It is more commonly used in American English than in
British English, and more often in the written form than in the spoken form. It was used much
more frequently in old English, but many of these forms have now disappeared in modern
English.
That-clause
It is often used with a that-clause, especially in American English, to formally express the idea
that something is important or essential.
--> I demand that he leave at once.
Verbs used with the Subjunctive

Other verbs that are commonly used with the subjunctive are: advise, ask, beg, decide,
decree, desire, dictate, insist, intend, move, order, petition, propose, recommend, request,
require, resolve, suggest, and urge.
--> Tom suggested that his friends stay over for the night.
--> Sam proposes that Tom telephone his accountant.
--> She recommended that he go and see a doctor.
--> The manager requested that everyone put their requests in writing.
The verb ‘be’
‘Be’ has special subjunctive forms: I be, you be, she be, they be,
--> It is vital that you be truthful about what happened.

--> He suggested that she be more vocal in the next meeting.
Adjectives used with the Subjunctive
Some adjectives can be followed by a subjunctive verb, like anxious, determined, eager .
--> He was determined that they not separate.

--> The political campaign is eager that their candidate step out of the shadows.
--> I am anxious that he discuss this with me soon.
Certain adjectives can also be used with the subjunctive and `It`, like advisable, critical, desirable,
essential, fitting, imperative, important, necessary, vital.
--> It is imperative that you get home before dark.
--> It is important that everyone follow the rules.
--> It is necessary that everyone be calm in times of danger.
--> It is essential that you arrive before 5pm.
--> It is critical that the prime minister address those sensitive issues.
Nouns used with the Subjunctive
There are also nouns that can be followed by a subjunctive verb, like advice, condition, demand,
directive, intention, order, proposal, recommendation, request, suggestion, wish.
--> My advice is that the company invest in new equipment.

--> She is free to leave, on condition that she commit no further offence.
--> His deep wish is that his daughter go to university.
Less Formal Usage
There are several alternatives to the very formal standard subjunctive:
Should
This construction is more common than the subjunctive in British English:
--> Tom suggested that his friends should stay overnight.

--> She recommended that he should go and see his doctor.
The Indicative
This construction is also used sometimes in British English, but is rare in American English:
--> She has demanded that the machinery undergoes vigorous tests to ensure high quality.
--> It is imperative that more decisions are made by the shareholders.
For + Infinitive
--> It is essential for everyone to be informed of the new regulations.
No Tense Change
In colloquial English, it is possible to not make a tense change:

--> She demanded that he left.
--> She felt that it was necessary that she wrote a thank you letter to them.
Fixed Expressions using the Subjunctive
... as it were (in a way, so to speak)

Come what may… (Whatever happens…)
(To appear less hostile when
Far be it from me to disagree/criticise
disagreeing)
God bless you.
God save the Queen!
Heaven help us! (An exclamation of despair)
Were-Subjunctive
In hypothetical sentences, were is usually used instead of was:
--> If I were you, I’d learn how to drive.
--> I wish it were Friday.
It is important to note that was can also be used (although still considered incorrect by some
grammarians), and is, in fact, more common in informal English.
--> Sometimes I wish I was/were taller.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs. My
brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.
The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always singular
and, therefore, require singular verbs.
 Everyone has done his or her homework.

 Somebody has left her purse.
Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on what
they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to
accompany such pronouns.
 Some of the beads are missing.

 Some of the water is gone.
On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural;
it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless something else in the
sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think of none as meaning not any and will
choose a plural verb, as in "None of the engines are working," but when something else makes
us regard none as meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")
 None of you claims responsibility for this incident?

 None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
 None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the word their
precludes the use of the singular verb.
Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome Everyone and everybody (listed
above, also) certainly feel like more than one person and, therefore, students are sometimes
tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though. Each is often followed
by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus confusing the verb
choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.
Everyone has finished his or her homework.
You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and nothing
will change that.
Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.
Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always singular —
Each is responsible.
Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The
phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but
it does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do).
 The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.

 The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though they
seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.
 Neither of the two traffic lights is working.

 Which shirt do you want for Christmas?
Either is fine with me.
In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns are
followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of interrogative
constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are either of you taking this
seriously?" Burchfield calls this "a clash between notional and actual agreement."*
The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the subject closer
to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes before or after the
verb doesn't matter; the proximity determines the number.
 Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.

 Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.
 Are either my brothers or my father responsible?
 Is either my father or my brothers responsible?
Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house"
sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb whenever
that is possible.
The words there and here are never subjects.
 There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.

 There is no reason for this.
 Here are two apples.
With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the verb but still
determines the number of the verb.
Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything those
words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings.
He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .
Sometimes modifiers will get betwen a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not
confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.
The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various
crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail.
Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're
really singular and vice-versa. Collective Nouns for additional help. Words such as glasses,
pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're
preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).
 My glasses were on the bed.

 My pants were torn.
 A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.
Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular
verbs.
 The news from the front is bad.

 Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural
and require a plural verb.
 My assets were wiped out in the depression.

 The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
 Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.
The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb: the Miami Heat have
been looking … , The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent … .
Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes
singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is true, of course, when
all, any, more, most and some act as subjects.) Sums and products of mathematical processes
are expressed as singular and require singular verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly
enough) takes a singular verb: "More than one student has tried this."
 Some of the voters are still angry.

 A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
 Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
 Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
 Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
 Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
 Two and two is four.
 Four times four divided by two is eight.
If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other
singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.
 The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's
Day.
 It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
 It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1.THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

The simple present is used to describe a present situation:

--> I don’t wear white shoes (it’s my habit not to).

--> Classes end next week.

2. Spelling rules for adding s in the third person singular

Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular

Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular

Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular

c. Verbs ending in ch, s, sh, x or z

Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular

3. Pronunciation of the -es ending

Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular

Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular

However, when s is added to a verb ending in e preceded by a letter

Affirmative Statement Question

Affirmative Statement Negative Statement

In spoken English, the following contractions are often used:

Without contractions With contractions

Without contractions With contractions

2.THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

--> Right now I am cooking supper.

The Present Continuous tense is often used in conversation.

--> "What are you doing?"

Occasionally, the Present Continuous tense is used to refer to a future event.

--> We are leaving tomorrow.

The Present Continuous tense is often used to give descriptions:

--> People are sitting on the café terrace.

The Present Continuous tense is often used to express temporary situations:

2. Formation of the present continuous:

3. Spelling rules for the formation of the present participle:

a. Verbs ending in a silent e

Infinitive Present Participle

Infinitive Present Participle

Infinitive Present Participle

c. One-syllable verbs ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel

Short Vowels Long Vowels

Infinitive Present Participle

Infinitive Present Participle

Infinitive Present Participle

Infinitive Present Participle

Infinitive Present Participle

Infinitive Present Participle

Infinitive Present Participle

Affirmative Statement Question

Affirmative Statement Negative Statement

Without Contractions With Contractions

5. Comparison of the uses of the simple present and present continuous

--> Nova Scotia is a Canadian province. (to be)

--> Right now, I am visiting the province of Nova Scotia.

3.THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

It is also used to talk about habits in the past:

It is used in the second conditional

2. Formation of the simple past:

Questions and negative statements

Affirmative Statement Question

Affirmative Statement Negative Statement

In spoken English, the following contractions are often used:

Without Contractions With Contractions

Without Contractions With Contractions

Affirmative Statement Affirmative Statement with Tag Question

Bare Infinitive Past Participle

Affirmative Statement Question